No More Learning

3, 61). Marquart (Unters. II, 180), with others,
inclines to regard the two places as identical, although objections may be raised that
Kāpisa-lāni was located in Arachosia (the El. version, 3, 37, 25 expressly adding in
Ararhosia'). Still much depends on determining the extent of the confines of Arachosia
in the time of Darius.
2 Cf. the passages of Arrian and Strabo cited above, p. 296, und n. 2.
3 Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, III, 97 with note. See also Max Kiessling,
Zur Geschichte der ersten Regierungsj ihre des Darius Hystaspis, Quellen u. Forsch. z. alt.
Gesch. u. Geogr. p. 28, hrsg. W. Sieglin, Heft 2, Leipzig, 1900-1901.


## p. 299 (#333) ############################################

XIV]
CYRUS : CAMBYSES
299
>
the death of Cambyses and the assassination of the false Smerdis, ‘all the
peoples of Asia, with the exception of the Arabians [who were already
allied as friends), were subject to him, inasmuch as they had been subdued
by Cyrus and afterwards by Cambyses in his turn. ' Again he says (111, 67),
with reference to the death of the usurper Smerdis, that ‘all the peoples
of Asia felt regret, except the Persians themselves. Although it would be
a forced interpretation of these passages to construe them as including
India proper among the subject nations of the Persian Empire', it seems
clear, nevertheless, that Darius, when he assumed the sovereignty in 522
B. C. , had, as an Achaemenian, an authentic claim to the realms imme-
diately bordering upon India, if not to that land itself.
For the reign of Darius (522-486 B. c. ) we have documentary evidence
of the highest value in the inscriptions executed by that monarch's com-
mand and containing his own statements. From these inscriptions,
especially when they are compared one with another, we can trace the
general outline of the Persian dominion in Northern and North-western
India in the time of Darius, and we can even infer that he annexed the
valley of the Indus early in his reign, a conclusion which is confirmed by
the testimony of various passages in Herodotus. The three records in
stone which require special consideration in this connexion are the following:
1. The famous Bahistān Rock Inscription (1, 16-17; 2, 7-8 ; 3,54-76),
which is presumably to be assigned to a period between the years 520 and
518 B. C. , with the exception of the fifth column which was added later.
2. The second of the two Old Persian block tablets sunk in the wall
of the Platform at Persepolis (Dar, Pers. e. 15-18). It was probably carved
between 518 and 515 B. C.
3. The upper of the two inscriptions chiselled around the Tomb of
Darius in the cliff at Naksb-i-Rustam (NR. a 23-26), which must have
been incised some time after 515 B. 03.
1 Equally doubtful would be the attempt to connect the name of Camhyses
(0. P. Kaſm)būjia) with the frontier people of Kamboja, though consult the references
given by A. Hoffmann-Kutschke, Die altpersischen Keilinschriften, p. 21, Stuttgart,
1909 ; and idem, Indogermanisches, in Recueil de Travaux égypt. et assyr. 31, 66.
2 A mutilated clay tablet, Dar. Sus, e, exhibits the remains of a list of provinces,
which seems, however, to have been the same as that which is found in NR, a.
3 The dates assigned to these three inscriptions by different scholars vary some.
what] especially in regard to the record on the Bahistān Rock, although they are in.
cluded approximately within the limits given. In respect to dating the Bahistān edict,
much depends upon the interpretation of the 0. P. phrase hamahyāyaſh) tharda (h);
for if, following Weissbach, we take it to mean ‘in one and the same year,' all the
events chronicled must have taken place within about a year after Darius succeeded
to the throne, whereas otherwise they may be regarded as extending over two or three
or even more years. See F. H. Weissbach Zur neubabylon. u. achämenid. Chronologie,
in Z. D. M. G, LXII. 640-641 ; idem, Keilinschr. d. Achämeniden, pp. Ixix-lxxiii, Leipzig,
1911 ; idem, Zum bab. Kalender, in Hil precht Anniversury Volume, pp. 285-290 (with
[P. T. O.


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300
[ch.
PERSIAN DOMINIONS IN N. INDIA
The Bahistān Inscription itself (1, 13-17) does not include India in
the list of the twenty-three provinces which 'came to Darius,' as the Old
Persian text says, or obeyed him, as the Babylonian version expresses
it'. The inference to be drawn, therefore, is that the Indus region did not
form a part of the empire of Darius at the time when the great rock
record was made, though it was incorporated shortly afterwards, as is
shown by the two other inscriptions in question. Both of these latter (Dar.
Pers. e. 17-18, and NR. a, 25) expressly mention Hi(n)du, that is, the
Punjab territory, as a part of the realm. The Northern Indian domain must
therefore have been annexed some time between the promulgation of the
Bahistān edict and the completion of the two records just cited. The pre-
sent tendency of scholarly opinion is to assign the Indus conquest to about
the year 518 B. C.
In addition to the evidence of the inscriptions, the fact that a portion
of Northern India was incorporated into the Achaemenian Empire under
Darius is further attested by the witness of Herodotus, who, in giving a list
of the twenty satrapies or governments that Darius established, expressly
states that the Indian realm was the 'twentieth division' (Hdt. 11), 94, cf. 111,
89). Some inference regarding its wealth and extent may furthermore
be gathered from the tribute which it paid into the Persian treasury.
Herodotus is our authority on this point, when he explicitly narrates (111, 94):
‘The population of the Indians is by far the greatest of all the people that
we know; and they paid a tribute proportionately larger than all the rest -
[the sum of] three hundred and sixty talents of gold dust. ' This immense
tribute was equivalent to over a million pounds sterling, and the levy formed
about one-third of the total amount imposed upon the Asiatic provinces.
All this implies the richness of Persia's acquisition in annexing the northern
territory of Hindustān*; and it may also be brought into connexion with
the curious story of the gold-digging ants in this region, which Herodotus
tells directly afterwards (in, 102-105).
There is likewise another passage in Herodotus (IV, 44) which affords
further proof, both of the Persian annexation or control of the valley of the
Indus from its upper course to the sea, including therefore the Punjab and
Contd. from p. 299.
Table). Leipzig, 1909 ; refer also to King and Thompson,, Inscr. Behistūn, pp. xli-xliii;
Prāśek, Gesch, d. Med. u. Pers. 11, 37-38 ; Sarre and Herzfeld, Iranische Felsreliefs,
pp. 17-33, 106-107 ; cf. also Justi, Grundr. d. iran. Philol. II. 430.
1 Cf Weissbach, Die Keilinschriften der Achämeriden, p. 11, n. 6 a.
2 See Sarre and Herzfeld, Iranische Felsreliefs, pp. 106-107 (with referen-
ces); Max Kiessling, Zur Geschichte. . . des Darius, pp. 56, 57, 60; Prāśek, Gesch. d.
Meder u. Perser, II, 37, n. 5.
3 See V'. A. Smith, Early History of India, 3rd ed. pp. 37-38, n. 1; and cf. also
F. H. Weissbach, Zu Herodote persischer Steuerliste, in Philologus, 71 (N, F. 25), 479.
490 ; idem, Keilinschr. d. Achāmeniden, pp. lxxiv-lxxv.
4 V. A. Smith, op. cit. p. 38, is of the opinion of those who hold that, owing to the
changes in the courses of the rivers since ancient times, 'vast tracts in Sind and the
Panjāb, now desolate, were then rich and prosperous'.
;


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XIV]
DARIUS
301
Sind, as well as of the possibility at that time of navigating by sea from
the Indus to Persia. Some time about 517 B. C. , Darius despatched a naval
expedition under Scylax, a native of Caryanda in Caria, to explore the
Indus. The squadron embarked at a place in the Gandhāra country, some-
where near the upper course of the Indus, the name of the city being Kas-
patyros (Hdt. iv, 44, cf, 1, 102) or, more accurately, Kaspapyros (Hecata-
eus, Fragm. 179). The exact location of this place is still a matter of
discussion, but the town may have been situated near the lower end of the
Cophēn (now Kābul) River before it joins the Indus'. The fleet, it is record-
ed, succeeded in making its way to the Indian Ocean and ultimately reached
Egypt, two and one-half years from the time when the voyage began.
From the statement of Herodotus (1v, 44) it would appear that this achieve-
ment was accomplished prior to the Indian conquest, for he says that ‘after
(usta) they had sailed around, Darius conquered the Indians and made
use of this sea' [i e. the Indian Ocean) ; but it seems much more likely
that Darius must previously have won by force of arms a firm hold over
the territory traversed from the headwaters of the Indus to the ocean, in
order to have been able to carry out such an expedition. This conclusion
appears still more convincing when we consider the difficulties which Alex-
ander encountered in his similar undertaking of voyaging down the Indus
to the sea, two centuries later, even after having first subdued most of the
tribes of the Upper Punjab before starting on the voyage'.
The dominion of Persian authority under Darius, therefore, as is
clear from the Greek sources in connexion with the Inscriptions, comprised
the realm from the embouchment of the Indus to its uppermost tributaries
on the north and west. Regarding the Indians towards the south, we have
the express statement of Herodotus (III, 101) to the effect that 'these were
1 Sir M. A. Stein suggests Jahāngira, an oncient site on the left bank of the
(Kābul River some six miles above the point where it flows into the Indus at Attock
(see Stein, Memoir on the Ans. Geogr. of Kaśmir, pp. 11-13, Calcutta, 1899, reprinted
from J. A. S. Bengal, vol. LXVIII, pt. 1, extra No. 2, 1899). Marquart, Untersuch z.
Gesch. v. Eran, II, 178-180, 242, and r. 8, 246, n. 3, favours as the location an ancient
town known in Sanskrit as Pushkalāvatī. Compare also Prāsek, Gesh. d. Med. u.
Perser, II, 38 ; and V. A. Smith, Early Hist. India, 31d ed. , pp. 37-38, n. 1. Sarre and
Herzfeld. Iran. I'elsreliefs, pp. 26, 253, seem inclined to revive the old idea of associa-
ting the name with Kashmir, cf. H. H. Wilson, Ariana Antiqua, pp. 136-137, London,
1841.
2 The early Greek geographer, Hecataeus 'who flourished in the reign of Darius,
seems to have possessed considerable information regarding the Indus valley, which
may have come to him from Scylax himself. Cf. Fragments 174-179, in Fragmenta
Historicorum Graecorum, ed. C. Müller, I, 12, Paris, 1841, especially Fragm. 175, where
Hecataeus says that a tribe called the Opiai 'dwell by the Indus River, and there
is a royal fort. Thus far the Opiai extend, and beyond there is a as desert as far as the
Indians. ' If 'royal fort' means a fort of the Great King, as is likely, we have evidence
here for the presence of a Persian frontier garrison on the Indus.
3 See Chapter xv, cf. V. A. Smith, Early Hist. India, 3rd ed. pp. 88-104.


## p. 302 (#336) ############################################

302
[сн.
PERSIAN DOMINIONS IN N. INDIA
9
never subject to King Darius. ' Herodotus also evidently considers the
sandy wastes in portions of the present Sind and Rājputāna, to the east
of the Indus, as the frontier in that direction ; for he says (III, 98) that
'the part of the Indian territory towards the rising sun is sand,' and he
adds immediately afterwards that 'the eastern part of India is a desert on
account of the sand. ' How far eastward the Persian dominion may have
extended in the Punjab cannot be exactly determined ; but it is significant
that Herodotus never refers to the Ganges valley), and not one of our sour-
ces makes any mention of the famous Indian kingdom of Magadha, which
was coming into prominence under the Buddhist rulers Bimbisāra and
Ajātaçatru during the reign of Darius and simultaneously with the Persian
conquests. On the whole, so far as the extent of the Persian control is
concerned, no better summary need be given than the cautious expression
of Vincent Smith, when he says : ‘Although the exact limits of the Indian
satrapy (under Darius) cannot be determined, we know that it was distinct
from Aria (Herāt), Arachosia (Kandahār), and Gandaria (North-western
Panjāb). It must have comprised, therefore, the course of the Indus from
Kālabagh to the sea, including the whole of Sind, and perhaps included a
considerable portion of the Panjāb east of the Indus? . '
At this point it may not be out of place to refer briefly to the
information that is afforded by the Inscriptions and by Herodotus regarding
the sway exercised by Darius over the peoples of the Indian borderland.
Of the twenty-three tributary provinces the names of which appear on the
Bahistān Rock (Bh. 1, 14-17) and are repeated with some slight variations
in the Platform and the Tomb Inscriptions (Dar. Pers. e. 10-18; NR. a.
22-30), three provinces, namely Bākhtrī (Bactria), Haraiva (Herāt), and
Z(a)ra(n)ka (Drangiāna, or a portion of Seistān) as noted above (pp. 293),
form a part of the present Afghānistān lying more remote from the Indian
frontier. The five that are directly connected with the region of the Indus
itself are, as partly indicated earlier in the chapter (ibid. ), Ga(n)dāra (the
region of the Kābul valley as far as Peshāwar)4; Thatagu (either the Ghilzai
territory to the south-west of Ghazni or the Hazāra country further to the
west and north-west), Hara(h)uvati (the district about Kandahār
1 He says, for instance (iv, 40) that ‘from India onward the country to the east
is desert, and no one can tell what it is like. '
2 On this point see V. A. Smith, Early Hist. India, 3rd ed. , p. 37.
3 Op. cit. , p. 38.
4 For Greek references to Gandāra consult Pauly-Wissowa-Kroll, Real-Encyclo-
pädie, vii, 696-701, Stuttgart, 1912.


## p. 303 (#337) ############################################

xiv]
PEOPLES OF THE INDIAN FRONTIER
303
.
in the broadcast sense), Saka, and Makal. The term Saka may possibly
allude to Sakastāna (Seistān) and the dwellers around the region of the
Hāmūn Lake; but the distinction made in the Tomb Inscription of Darius
(N. R. a. 25-26) between the Sakā Haumavargā, answering to the Amyrgioi
Sakai of Herodotus (VII, 64) and the Sakā Tigrakhaudā, ‘wearing pointed
caps,' an attribute corresponding to the term Orthokorybantioi of Herodotus
(111, 92), may indicate a special division of the Çakas or Scythians, living
between the extreme northern sources of the Indus and the headwaters of
the Oxus". The district Maka is believed to be identified with Makrān,
once occupied by the Mykans of Herodotus (111, 93 ; vj1, 68) and now a
part of Baluchistan
Herodotus (111, 91-93) mentions in his list of peoples that were subject
to Darius - corresponding in a general way to the satrapies of the empire--
four or five more which may be identified as having occupied districts in
or near the present Afghānistān, in some cases adjoining the Indian frontier.
The Sattagydai and Gandarioi (cf. OP. Thatagu and Ga(11) dāra), for
example, have the Dadikai and the Aparytai linked with them in the same
enumeration. Of these latter tribes, the Dadikai may be identified with the
Dards of the Upper Indus valley, somewhere between the Chitrāl district
and Kashmir ; and the Aparytai are to be connected with the inhabitants
of the mountainous regions of the Hindu Kush, north of Kābul. The
Kaspioi, who, according to Herodotus (111, 93 cf. also vii, 67, 86) constituted
together with the Sakai the fifteenth division of the empire (and who are
to be distinguished from the Kaspioi of the eleventh division (n1, 92), by
the Caspian Sea), must likewise have been an easterly people, and they are
perhaps to be located in the wild tract of Kāfiristān, to the north of the
1 The slight variations in the lists of the three inscriptions, as regarding these
provinces, are as follows : (1) Bh. 1, 16. 17, Ga(n)dāra ; Saka, Gatagus, Hara (h) uvatis,
Maka ; (2) Dar. Pers, e. 17-18. jatagus, Hara(h)uvatis, Hi(n)dus, Ga(n)dāra, Sakā,
Maka ; (3) NR. a. 24-26, Hara(h)uvatis, gatagus, Ga(n)dāra, Hi(n)dus, Sakā Hauma-
vargā, Sakā Tigraxaudā.
2 For such a view see F. W. Thomas, J. R. A. S. 1906, pp. 181-216, 460-464;
but compare the observations by Sarre and Herzfeld, Iranische Felsreliefs, pp. 252-253.
3 For a general discussion of the Çaka question (with bibliographical references),
see Sarre and Herzfeld, op. cit. pp. 23. 24, 30, 36. 40 (with cuts) and 252-253, also
maps 1 and 2 at the end of the same volume. Consult likewise Marquart, Untersuch.
z. Gesch. v. Eran, ii, 86, 136, n. 5. It may also be noted that Polyaenus, Strategemata,
vii, 12, refers to an expedition of Darius against the Çakas, apparently north of the
region of Bactria, and mentions Amorges or Omarges (i. e. Haumavarga ? ) as one of the
Çaka kings.
4 So also Eduard Meyer, Persiu, in Encyclop. Brit. , 1lth ed. , XXI, 202 ; and
Sarre and Herzfeld, op. cit. pp. 28-29; refer likewise to J. J. Modi, The Country of
Mekran, its Past History, in East and West, May, 1904, pp. 1-12, Bombay.
E Cf. Marquart, Untersuch. z. Gesch. v. Eran, II, 175; Sarre and Herzfeld, op. cit,
P. 31.


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304
[сн.
PERSIAN DOMINIONS IN N. INDIA
>
:
Kābul River. The Thamanaioi, whom Herodotus (III, 93, 117) mentions
as forming a part of the fourteenth division of the tributary nations,
occupied a section of Afghánistān not easy to define precisely, but
presumably in the western or west-central region, as noted above (p. 293,
n. 4). The territory of Paktyike in the thirteenth division (Hdt. III, 93 ;
cf. III, 102 ; IV, 4+) and its people, the Paktyes (Hdt. VII, 67), are to be
located within the borders of the land now called Afghānistān; but whether
the name is to be regarded as a tribal designation of the Afghāns in general,
and as surviving in the term Pakhtu or Pashtu applied to their language,
is extremely doubtful? .
Finally, for the sake of completeness, it may be noted that India
appears as one of the limits of the Persian Empire under Darius in the
apocryphal Greek vision of the Book of Ezra known as I Esdras. The
passage (111, 1-2) runs as follows : ‘Now King Darius made a great feast
unto all his subjects, and unto all that were born in his house, and unto all
the princes of Media and of Persia, and to all the satraps and captains and
governors that were under him, from India, unto Ethiopia, in the hundred
twenty and seven provinces3. Inasmuch, however, as the apologue of the
Three Pages, in which this reference is embodied, seems to be subsequent
to the age of Alexander, we must regard the passage as merely a general
tradition concerning the extent of the Achaemenian Empire without in-
sisting upon the chronological allusion to Darius 14.
For the reign of Xerxes (486-465 B. c. ) the continuance of the
Persian domination in Northern India is proved by the presence of an Indian
contingent, consisting of both infantry and cavalry, among the troops from
subject nations drawn upon by that monarch to augment the vast army of
Asiatics which he marshalled to invade Greece. Herodotus (VII, 65)
describes the equipment of the Indian infantry as follows : The Indians,
clad in garments made of cotton, carried bows of cane and arrows of cane,
the latter tipped with iron ; and thus accoutred the Indians were marshalled
under the command of Pharnazathres, son of Artabates. ' It is worth
remarking, perhaps, that the commander of these forces, as shown by
his name, was a Persian. Regarding the Indian cavalry Herodotus (VII, 86)
says that they were “armed with the same equipment as in the case of the
1 So Marquart, op. cit. II, 140-142 ; but consult Sarre and Herzfeld, op. cit.
p. 253. Thomas, J. R. A. S. 1906, p. 191, n. 1, suggests reading ka'tilo0! (cf. Capisa,
p. 297 above) for Kāorilo!
2 Consult Marquart op. cit. II, 171-180 ; Sarre and Herzfeld, op. cit. pp. 26-27 ;
Ed. Meyer, Persia, in Encyclop. Brit. , 11th ed. , XXI, 203 ; Dames, Afghānistan, in
Encyclop. of Islam, I, 149-150.
3 Cf. also the paraphrase in Josephus, Jewish Antiquities XI, 3, 2 (33), and the
passages from Either cited below, p. 304, n. 2.
4 See the note on this passage by S. A. Cook, in Apocryphu ană Pseude pigrzpha of
the Old Testament, ed. Charles, I, 29, Oxford, 1913.


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XIV]
EXTENT OF PERSIAN INFLUENCE
305
It may
infantry, but they brought riding-horses and chariots, the latter being
drawn by horses and wild asses? . '
be observed, moreover, that a number of the tribes who
inhabited the Indo-Irānian borderland in the time of Darius (see above,
pp. 292-3, 302-3) were represented in the host of Xerxes as well ; namely
the Bactrians, Sakai, Are)ioi, Gandarioi, Dadikai, Kaspioi, Sarangai,
Paktyes, occupying the Afghān region, and the Mykoi of Baluchistān
(Hdt. VII, 64-68). On the whole, therefore, we may conclude that the
eastern domain of the Persian Empire was much the same in its extent
under Xerxes in 480 B. C. as it had been in the reign of his great father? .
The period following the defeat of the Persian arms under Xerxes
by Greece marks the beginning of the decadence of the Achæmenian
Empire. For this reason it is easy to understand why there was no forward
movement on Persia's part in India, even though the Irānian sway in that
territory endured for a century and longer. Among other proofs of this
close and continued connexion may be mentioned the fact that Ctesias, who
was resident physician at the court about the beginning of the fourth century
B. C. , could hardly have written his Indica without the information he must
have received regarding India from envoys sent as tribute-bearers to the
Great King or from Persian officials who visited India on state business,
as well as from his intercourse with travellers and traders of the two
countries. If the work of Ctsias on India had been preserved in full, and
not merely in the epitome by Photius and in fragmentary citations by other
authors, we should be better informed to-day as to Persia's control over
Indian territory during the period under consideration
The fact, however, that this domination prevailed even to the end of
the Achæmenian sway in 330 B. c. is furthermore proved by the call
which Darius III, the last of the dynasty, was able to issue to Indian troops
when making his final stand at Arbela to resist the Greek invasion of Persia
by Alexander. According to Arrian (Anab. iii, 8. 3-6), some of the Indian
forces were grouped with their neighbours the Bactrians and with the
Sogdians under the command of the satrap of Bactria, whereas those who
were called ‘mountainous Indians' followed the satrap of Arachosia. The
Sakai appeared as independent allies under their leader Manakes. These
1 As a matter of curiosity it may be noted that Herodotus (vii, 187) says that an
immense number of Indian dogs followed the army of Xerxes in his Grecian invasion.
2 Later Jewish tradition has the same formulaic description for the empire of
Xerxes (Ahasuerus) as for that of Darius (cf. p. 304, above) ; thus in the Book of
Esther, I, 1 (cf. also VIII, 9), Xerxes is styled 'Ahasuerus which reigned from India
even unto Ethiopia, over an hundred and seven and twenty provinces'.
3 In this connexion compare M' Crindle, Ancient India as described by Ktesias,
pp. 3-4, London, 1882, noting certain details, for example, in $3-7.
4 The extant remains of the India are to be found in Ctesiae. . . Fragmenta, ed.
C. Müller, pp. 79.