Soviet
occupation
of eastern Poland.
Soviet Union - 1944 - Meet the Soviet Russians
would be quick
and comparatively easy. He did not realize how well prepared
the Soviet Union was from an industrial, agricultural, and mili-
tary viewpoint. Nor did Hitler anticipate the loyalty to the
U. S. S. R. of the various national and minority groups in the
Soviet Union. He had planned to win them to his side and use
them in dismembering the U. S. S. R. Instead of a quick victory,
however, the Nazi army was met with strong resistance, though
at first it succeeded in pushing back the Red Army.
During the first six months of the German drive, the Baltic
States were occupied by Hitler's forces; Leningrad was besieged
and cut off from the rest of the Soviet world; Moscow was almost
encircled, and most of the government officials moved to
Kuibyshev farther east. In the south, Odessa on the Black Sea
was captured, Kiev and most of the Ukraine were conquered.
The Nazis were elated with their success, but the first winter of
1941-1942 showed them that victory was not theirs. Although
the Russians were well equipped for the long cold winter, they
endured much, but nothing compared to the Germans, thinly
clad, poorly shod, and suffering constant casualties from frost-bite
and freezing. The Red Army not only held the German line, but
broke the siege of Moscow, also recapturing Rostov-on-Don,
near the Sea of Azov.
In the spring of 1942, the Germans launched a second offen-
sive, this time striking for the rich oil fields of the Caucasus.
They succeeded in retaking Rostov-on-Don, and captured Sevas-
topol on the Crimean Peninsula. During the late summer and
fall of 1942, they began an attack on the city of Stalingrad on
the Volga River, one of the important keys to Moscow in the
north and to Baku, the oil center in the south. The siege of
this city will go down in history as one of the great epics of the
war. The Soviets, realizing the importance of this attack, hurled
all their strength into the struggle for this strategic point.
Civilians fought from house to house, and street to street, with
unparalleled heroism. The western world watched breathlessly
and marvelled at the resistance of the Russians. Finally, the
Soviets forced the Nazis to surrender at Stalingrad in January,
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS *g
1943. This marks the turning point in the war, and from this
time on, the Red Army began its move to the west, reconquering
much strategic territory.
The North Caucasus, the rich Donets basin, and much of the
Ukraine were recaptured by the summer of 1943. Throughout
the next year, the Red Army continued to advance westward so
that by September of 1944, it had reoccupied most of the
Ukraine and had pushed far into the Baltic states, and into
Poland beyond the Vistula River. By offensives in the north
and south the Soviet forces knocked Finland, Rumania, and
Bulgaria out of the war against the United Nations.
In May, 1941, before the invasion started, Stalin, who up to
that time had only held the office of Secretary-General of the
Communist Party, became Premier. Later, during the first part
of the war, he assumed the positions of Commissar of Defense
and Commander-in-Chief of the Red Army with the title of
Marshal.
The whole world has been surprised at the strength and success
of the Red Army. One of the secrets of its strength is the em-
phasis which is placed in Soviet Russia upon physical fitness.
Another reason for the army's success is the efficiency of the gov-
ernment in keeping up the increasing production of necessary
equipment, and supplying the armed forces with food, clothing,
and arms. The contrast with the inefficiency of the government
in the last world war, under the Tsarist regime, is very notice-
able. At that time, industry was on a very small scale, the trans-
portation system was inefficient and poor, and there was cor-
ruption in government circles. Today, the smoothness and
speed of the transportation facilities, despite many handicaps,
have helped to keep the army equipped with needed food, and
have kept the civilian population from the starvation which
it suffered in the First World War.
Western nations have also been surprised at the efficiency of
the evacuation of invaded territories. Among the agricultural
groups, brigades were formed, some to take charge of the evacua-
tion of children; others, of foodstuffs and animals. In industry,
production was kept up and increased over pre-war times, even
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? 26 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
while whole factories, machines and workers, were moved east to
places of safety. During the whole evacuation, there was no
blocking of roads by civilians fleeing in panic, as in other coun-
tries. As proof of the advance in medical science, there were no
epidemics of typhus or other diseases when the refugees poured
into new regions, as was the case in World War I.
With the reconquest of occupied territory, scientific plans are
being carried out in reconstructing the areas devastated by the
Nazi forces. Authentic reports show that the invaders not only
captured strategic military positions, but sacked and ravaged
centers of culture, and buildings containing relics of Russian
history, as well as new centers of medicine and science. Treat-
ment of civilians who did not succeed in escaping was brutal
and inhuman. These problems, as well as the care of the return-
ing army veterans, are being faced by the Soviet Government.
References on History:
Vernadsky, History of Russia, Chapters 10 through 2o.
Pratt, From Tsarist Empire to Socialism, Chapters 4 through 8.
Duranty, U. S. S. R. , pp. 11-65 and 241-280.
Strong, The Soviets Expected It.
Some Suggested Activities on History:
1. "No land, no people and no period could at first sight seem to the on-
lookers less propitious as a setting for the world's greatest experiment. "
Study this quotation from Johnson's The Soviet Power, and then think
through the history of the Tsarist regime as far as you have studied.
Be ready to give evidence of the truth of this statement to the class in
a discussion.
2. In parallel columns list the causes contributing to the Revolution of
1917, and the ways by which the Soviet Government is attempting to
remove these causes of discontent. (Refer to the Constitution of 1936,
and Williams, The Soviets. )
3. One of the officials of the Greek Orthodox Church said, after the
Revolution of 1917, "The extraordinary Byzantine glitter of our Ortho-
dox services has been our greatest curse. Our Church has striven aftei
external gorgeousness at the expense of inner virtue, after showy
splendour at the cost of spiritual perfection. It acquired pomp, power,
riches, but lost its soul. "
Write a paper on the Russian Church before the Revolution explain-
ing the criticism made in the above quotation.
4. Make a map showing the expansion of the Soviet Union from July,
1939, to July, 1940. Refer to Stembridge, An Atlas of the US. S. R.
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 27
5. Let one group of pupils read Hindus, Humanity Uprooted, and another
group read Hindus, Mother Russia. On the basis of their reading, dis-
cuss the conditions in Soviet Russia just after the Revolution and in
the early 1940's.
6. Make a Time Chart showing important events in Russia, Western
Europe, China, and Japan from 1900 to July, 1942.
(Refer to Time Chart at end of this section and use Becker's Modern
History. )
7. The Soviet Union differed socially, economically and politically in
1936 from the Soviet Union in 1924, when the second Constitution was
adopted. Write a paper showing how the 1936 Constitution reflects
these changes. (Use the Constitution for reference. )
8. Make a map showing transportation facilities in Russia in 1914 and
in 1940 (Refer to the maps of Denoyer-Geppert, and to Stembridge,
An Atlas of the U. S. S. R. )
9. "War shows up the inefficiency of a Government. "
Prepare to discuss and compare the efficiency of the Russian Government
in 1914 during World War I with that of the Soviet Government in this
war regarding: transportation, industrial production, care of the army,
feeding the population, standard of living of the people.
10. "It is wrong to say that Lenin made the Russian Revolution. You don't
make a revolution; it occurs. . . . Lenin said that circumstances cannot
be created, but his life proved that a leader can direct. " (Walter
Duranty, USSR). Read the life of Lenin and report to the class on -how
far this statement is true in your opinion.
? 1. On a map show where the farthest line of German advance was in
1942, and where the approximate line of battle between the Red Army
and Nazi Army is today.
12. "Joseph Stalin, first Soviet Commissar of Nationalities, symbolized the
new importance of minorities. "
Read the life of Stalin, and write a paper showing how his life sym-
bolizes the old and the new history of Russia.
(Refer to Ludwig, Life of Stalin, and Williams, The Soviets, pp. 93-102. )
13. Have various members of the class look up the following people and
report to class in ten-minute talks: Trotsky; Nadezhda K. Krupskaya
(Lenin's widow); Marshal Timoshenko; Molotov; Plotnikova; Marshal
Zhukov; Ilya Ehrenburg; Marshal Voroshilov; Litvinov; Andrei A.
Gromyko; Peter Kapitsa.
(For information, use Vernadsky, History of Russia; and write for
free bulletins from the Embassy of the U. S. S. R. , Washington, D. C. )
14. Write a paper comparing Stalin and Peter the Great in their aims
and achievements for Russia.
15. Suggest to the class that they fill kits for Russian Relief. These kits
are sent to the civilians returning to the reoccupied areas. Details about
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? 28
MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
the kits and the list of articles to be included in the kits may be pro-
cured from Russian War Relief. (See Appendix for address. )
16. Walter Duranty in the New York Times magazine section for July jo,
1944, asks: "Is the Russian Revolution over, or at least is it settling
down, as other revolutionary movements have done, to something more
mellow and conservative? "
Think over this question, in the light of your study of the Soviet
Union, and prepare to discuss it in class.
Time Chart of Principal Events in Connection With Study of the
Soviet Union
August, 1914
1915-1916
March i2, 1917
March 15,
>>9>>7
November
7. >>9>7
March, 191
8
1918-1919
'9>9
1918-1920
1921-1922
1921-1928
December,
1922
January, 1
9*4
January 21
. >>9*4
1928
1928"'93*
November,
'933
September,
<<934
'933-1937
November,
1936
December,
<<93<<
i936->938
1938-194*
Entrance of Tsarist Russia into World War I.
Frequent defeat of Russian army and increasing
discontent of people.
Revolution (known as "February Revolution," since
Russia used old calendar); abdication of Tsar Nicho-
las II; control by Moderates.
Formation of Provisional Government.
Bolshevik Revolution (according to the calendar used
then, it was October. )
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany.
Exclusion of Soviets from Versailles Conference.
Founding of Communist International (called "Third
International" or "Commintern. ")
Civil War in Russia and Allied intervention.
Widespread famine in European Russia.
New Economic Policy.
Formation of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics by
Russian, Ukrainian, Byelo-Russian and Trans-Cau-
casian Republics.
Adoption of first Constitution of U. S. S. R. as whole.
Death of Lenin. Beginning of leadership of Stalin,
as Secretary of Communist Party.
Signing by Soviet Union of Kellogg-Briand Pact.
First Five-Year Plan.
? ? Recognition of U. S. S. R. by U. S. A.
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
*9
Time Chart of Principal Events in Connection With Study of the
Soviet Union (Cont'd)
September, 1938
August, 1939
September, 1939
October, 1939
November, 1939-
March, 1940
June-August, 1940
April, 1941
June 22, 1941
July 12, 1941
December, 1941
January 1, 1942
1941-1942
May and June, 1942
January, 1943
May, 1943
October, 1943
November, 1943
By September 15,
>944
Munich Agreement between England, France, Italy,
and Germany, ignoring Soviet Union.
Soviet-German Treaty of Non-Aggression.
Outbreak of World War II with invasion of Poland
by Germany.
Soviet occupation of eastern Poland.
Soviet-Finnish War. Acquisition by Soviet Union of
Hango and Karelian Isthmus.
Soviet acquisition of Baltic States, Bessarabia and
Northern Bukovina.
Neutrality Pact between Soviet Union and Japan.
Nazi Invasion of U. S. S. R.
Anglo-Soviet Military Alliance.
Soviet-Polish Declaration of Friendship and Mutual
Assistance.
Soviet Union signatory to United Nations Agreement.
Failure of campaigns against Moscow, Leningrad, and
Stalingrad; assumption by Stalin of positions of Com-
missar of Defense and Commander-in-Chief of the
Red Army.
Molotov's visit to London and Washington: Anglo-
Soviet 20-Year Mutual Assistance Treaty; American-
Soviet Lend-Lease Agreement.
Surrender of German forces at Stalingrad; beginning
of great Red Army offensive.
Official dissolution of Comintern.
Conference at Moscow (Hull, Eden and Molotov).
Conference at Teheran in Iran (Churchill, Roosevelt,
and Stalin).
Reoccupation by Red Army of practically all Soviet
Europe except about half of the Baltic States. Drive
into Poland to gates of Warsaw and across Rumania
to Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Hungary. Rumania,
Finland, and Bulgaria make peace with Soviet Russia
and its allies.
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? 3o MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
IV. Soviet Life Today
A. Government
1. Organization of the Central Government
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is a federated state of
sixteen Union Republics and smaller national groups whose
rights and powers are listed in the Constitution of 1936, an
important document in the history of world governments. The
Central Government, with power derived from the Soviets
(Councils or Committees) of Working People's Deputies, has an
elaborate structure.
The Supreme Soviet is the highest legislative authority in the
U. S. S. R. This parliamentary body consists of the Soviet of the
Union, elected representatives of the people as a whole, and of
the Soviet of Nationalities, elected representatives of the na-
tional groups. Laws are passed by majority vote of both houses;
enumerated powers are exercised jointly; and all other branches
of the federal government are responsible to this Supreme Soviet.
The Presidium (Executive Committee), elected by the Supreme
Soviet, carries on the functions of that body between sessions.
This small group of forty-two members wields great power,
since it is a continuous body.
Executive and administrative powers are largely vested in the
Council of People's Commissars. This group, which corresponds
to the cabinet of Great Britain, is appointed by the Supreme
Soviet and consists of some forty-three commissariats or depart-
ments. It is accountable to the Supreme Soviet and, between
sessions of that body, to the Presidium.
Although, on occasion, judicial matters are dealt with directly
by the Supreme Soviet or Presidium, the administration of
justice is vested primarily in the Supreme Court and a Chief
Prosecutor or State Attorney. In common with other branches,
this organ of government is elected by and is responsible to the
Supreme Soviet.
In 1941, Stalin, who before this had held no official position
as head of the state, was named Premier and Commissar for
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:24 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/wu. 89096252051 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 31
Defense. A special State Defense Council, an inner war cabinet,
was also set up.
A distinctive characteristic of the government is the fact that
it has more directly delegated economic powers than do the gov-
ernments of most nations. Since "all power belongs to the work-
ing people of town and country," "the socialist ownership of the
means and instruments of production" is guaranteed. (Consti-
tution, Art. 3 and 4).
2. Organization of Government in the Republics
In the organization of the Soviet Union the nationality groups
are classified into the following categories: Union Republics,
with a high degree of self-government; Autonomous Republics,
in a less advanced stage of self-government; Autonomous Re-
gions, with limited self-government; and National Districts
(Areas), the least developed or smaller groups. The govern-
mental structure of these units is similar to that of the Central
Government, except that their Soviets are unicameral.
Final authority in both regional and local governments lies
in the Soviets of Working People's Deputies, elected "on the
basis of universal, direct and equal suffrage by secret ballot. "
(Constitution, Art. 134). The whole structure may be likened to
a pyramid whose base is formed by the local Soviets; above these
stand those of the townships, regions, provinces, territories, re-
publics, and finally the Supreme Soviet of the U. S. S. R. The
local councils, whether large or small, have numerous economic
and social responsibilities, as well as political duties. Since
sessions are short and members are busy in their regular
occupations, each Soviet elects an Executive Committee to carry
on its functions between meetings.
Each Union Republic and each Autonomous Republic has its
own constitution, governing units, and language; each Region
and District also has self-government and may in time become
at least an Autonomous Republic. Although certain powers are
surrendered to the Central Government, each nationality main-
tains its own customs and institutions. In February, 1944, Union
Republics were granted the right to send diplomats to foreign
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:24 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/wu. 89096252051 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? 32
MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 33
nations and to maintain their own army formations. Such
functions are, however, subject to general regulation by the
Supreme Soviet. Certain rights, such as that of secession, are
guaranteed to the Union Republics, but the "all-Union law pre-
vails" in the "event of a discrepancy" between it and the law of
a Republic or Region. (Constitution, Art. 20).
3. The Role of the Communist Party
"The most active and politically most conscious citizens in
the ranks of the working class and other sections of the working
people unite in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. "
(Constitution, Art. 126). Although the Party has no legal con-
nection with the government other than that of nominating
candidates, as do other groups, its influence is far-reaching. The
following factors prove this: a large per cent of the Supreme
Soviet members belong to the Communist Party; many officials
hold membership in both the Party and the Government; most
legislation and government policies are planned by Party bodies
before they are discussed in the Soviets; Party members, chosen
for their activity in their own regions, have great influence in
the local Soviets. Thus, although the membership of the Com-
munist Party is relatively small (2,515,481 in 1941 and about
3,500,000 in 1944), it is the controlling political force in the
Soviet Union.
Since the Communist Party is so important, it is necessary to
examine its organization. Membership^ a mark of honor and
responsibility; rules for election are strict; and duties within the
Party are exacting. Party units or committees are elected in
towns or by small groups; these in turn elect larger Party Com-
mittees, as of a province, and so on. The highest group is the
Ail-Union Party Congress, to which all lower councils are re-
sponsible.
The Congress delegates its duties between sessions to a Cen-
tral Committee, elected by it. This Committee elects an
Organization Board, which has administrative duties, and a
Political Bureau, which has executive duties.
Members of the Political Bureau, headed by Stalin, who is
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? 34 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
Secretary-General of the Party, formulate and direct Party ac-
tivities. In all Party organizations matters of policy are dis-
cussed at length, but once a given decision is reached discussion
concerning it ceases, and each member is expected to assist in
its enforcement. The maintenance of this so-called "Party line"
accounts for much of the influence of the Communists upon
the government.
4. Democratic processes
In studying the role of democratic processes in the Soviet Union
it is necessary to consider certain ideas before one can judge and
compare. First, the Soviet form of government is new and this
is the first time the Russian people have so fully participated in
self-government. Second, the Soviet theory involves the con-
cept that by a series of gradual but necessary steps man will final-
ly reach the goal of communism. Socialism is regarded as the
present phase of development toward the communist ideal.
Restrictions upon individuals are now less severe than at the
beginning of the Revolution, since the state has reached a more
advanced stage. Likewise, the Constitution of 1936 is a docu-
ment descriptive of Soviet ideals and achievements to date, not
merely an outline of the organization of government.
Third, the meanings of words must be clear; in Soviet termi-
nology the words "democracy" and "dictatorship" express some-
what different ideas from our usually accepted meanings. The
Soviet belief is that the dictatorship of the proletariat (working
classes) is democratic, as changes will occur gradually in direc-
tions guided by the will of the people. They regard this dic-
tatorship as a temporary but necessary phase. Fourth, the funda-
mental principle concerning the state and the individual ex-
plains that the individual acts within the collective (group), that
he has personal freedom as a member of the group, but that he
must work for the group interest so that the progress of the
people as a whole will be aided.
The Soviets "constitute the political foundation of the
U. S. S. R. " (Constitution, Art. 2), and the people express their
ideas on government constantly, especially in the local councils.
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 35
Leaders and writers of the Soviet Union stress the importance of
popular rule and mass control. The Constitution guarantees the
rights of voting, nominating candidates, holding office, and re-
calling unsatisfactory officials. The elective principle operates
in trade unions, on collective farms, and in the Communist
Party. Although candidates for office do not have to be Party
members and much discussion goes on before nominations occur,
the percentage of Party members chosen in federal elections is
high. The percentage of Party members chosen in local elec-
tions of Soviets and in trade unions is, however, lower. Self-
criticism is encouraged and locally much discussion centers upon
the efficiency of the office-holders. The policy of accountability
of one group to another operates in all government and Party
groups; in fact, one of the most important duties of a deputy is
to keep his electorate informed. The war has increased popular
participation in political affairs, since many officials have had to
assume other duties in the emergency.
Many civil liberties are listed in the Constitution and methods
guaranteeing these rights are definitely stated. Freedom of ex-
pression is limited so as to be "in conformity with the interests
of the working people, and in order to strengthen the socialist
system. " (Constitution, Art. 125). Thus opposition to such
fundamental policies as socialized industry, collective farming,
the dictatorship of the workers, and socialism as a step toward
communism, is prohibited. Severe, even ruthless, methods are
sometimes used to enforce compliance with these principles.
However, the ways in which these basic ideas are carried out
can be and are widely debated. Limitations on political liberty
are based upon the theory that the system is fundamentally
sound, and that social and economic conditions will gradually
improve if they are protected as they grow.
Although civil liberties, as generally understood, do not fully
operate in the U. S. S. R. , there are other democratic ideals which
are more fully developed. Racial or ethnic democracy is one of
the major contributions. Much progress has been made in secur-
ing equal rights for women in all fields of activity. Economic
rights to work, to organization into labor groups, to maintenance
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:24 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/wu. 89096252051 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? j6 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
in old age, or in case of sickness or accident, and to "rest and
leisure" (Constitution, Art. 119) are not only guaranteed by the
Constitution, but are being fulfilled. The "right to education"
has also been "ensured. " (Constitution, Art. 121). However great
the restrictions upon individuals, however extensive the ad-
mitted bureaucracy, however limited the actual control of gov-
ernment by the majority of the people, there can be no doubt of
the faith of the Soviet citizens in their cause and of the unity
of the people in the present war.
References on Government:
American Russian Institute, The Soviet Union Today, An Outline
Study, pp. 24-35.
Constitution of the U3. S. R.
and comparatively easy. He did not realize how well prepared
the Soviet Union was from an industrial, agricultural, and mili-
tary viewpoint. Nor did Hitler anticipate the loyalty to the
U. S. S. R. of the various national and minority groups in the
Soviet Union. He had planned to win them to his side and use
them in dismembering the U. S. S. R. Instead of a quick victory,
however, the Nazi army was met with strong resistance, though
at first it succeeded in pushing back the Red Army.
During the first six months of the German drive, the Baltic
States were occupied by Hitler's forces; Leningrad was besieged
and cut off from the rest of the Soviet world; Moscow was almost
encircled, and most of the government officials moved to
Kuibyshev farther east. In the south, Odessa on the Black Sea
was captured, Kiev and most of the Ukraine were conquered.
The Nazis were elated with their success, but the first winter of
1941-1942 showed them that victory was not theirs. Although
the Russians were well equipped for the long cold winter, they
endured much, but nothing compared to the Germans, thinly
clad, poorly shod, and suffering constant casualties from frost-bite
and freezing. The Red Army not only held the German line, but
broke the siege of Moscow, also recapturing Rostov-on-Don,
near the Sea of Azov.
In the spring of 1942, the Germans launched a second offen-
sive, this time striking for the rich oil fields of the Caucasus.
They succeeded in retaking Rostov-on-Don, and captured Sevas-
topol on the Crimean Peninsula. During the late summer and
fall of 1942, they began an attack on the city of Stalingrad on
the Volga River, one of the important keys to Moscow in the
north and to Baku, the oil center in the south. The siege of
this city will go down in history as one of the great epics of the
war. The Soviets, realizing the importance of this attack, hurled
all their strength into the struggle for this strategic point.
Civilians fought from house to house, and street to street, with
unparalleled heroism. The western world watched breathlessly
and marvelled at the resistance of the Russians. Finally, the
Soviets forced the Nazis to surrender at Stalingrad in January,
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS *g
1943. This marks the turning point in the war, and from this
time on, the Red Army began its move to the west, reconquering
much strategic territory.
The North Caucasus, the rich Donets basin, and much of the
Ukraine were recaptured by the summer of 1943. Throughout
the next year, the Red Army continued to advance westward so
that by September of 1944, it had reoccupied most of the
Ukraine and had pushed far into the Baltic states, and into
Poland beyond the Vistula River. By offensives in the north
and south the Soviet forces knocked Finland, Rumania, and
Bulgaria out of the war against the United Nations.
In May, 1941, before the invasion started, Stalin, who up to
that time had only held the office of Secretary-General of the
Communist Party, became Premier. Later, during the first part
of the war, he assumed the positions of Commissar of Defense
and Commander-in-Chief of the Red Army with the title of
Marshal.
The whole world has been surprised at the strength and success
of the Red Army. One of the secrets of its strength is the em-
phasis which is placed in Soviet Russia upon physical fitness.
Another reason for the army's success is the efficiency of the gov-
ernment in keeping up the increasing production of necessary
equipment, and supplying the armed forces with food, clothing,
and arms. The contrast with the inefficiency of the government
in the last world war, under the Tsarist regime, is very notice-
able. At that time, industry was on a very small scale, the trans-
portation system was inefficient and poor, and there was cor-
ruption in government circles. Today, the smoothness and
speed of the transportation facilities, despite many handicaps,
have helped to keep the army equipped with needed food, and
have kept the civilian population from the starvation which
it suffered in the First World War.
Western nations have also been surprised at the efficiency of
the evacuation of invaded territories. Among the agricultural
groups, brigades were formed, some to take charge of the evacua-
tion of children; others, of foodstuffs and animals. In industry,
production was kept up and increased over pre-war times, even
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? 26 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
while whole factories, machines and workers, were moved east to
places of safety. During the whole evacuation, there was no
blocking of roads by civilians fleeing in panic, as in other coun-
tries. As proof of the advance in medical science, there were no
epidemics of typhus or other diseases when the refugees poured
into new regions, as was the case in World War I.
With the reconquest of occupied territory, scientific plans are
being carried out in reconstructing the areas devastated by the
Nazi forces. Authentic reports show that the invaders not only
captured strategic military positions, but sacked and ravaged
centers of culture, and buildings containing relics of Russian
history, as well as new centers of medicine and science. Treat-
ment of civilians who did not succeed in escaping was brutal
and inhuman. These problems, as well as the care of the return-
ing army veterans, are being faced by the Soviet Government.
References on History:
Vernadsky, History of Russia, Chapters 10 through 2o.
Pratt, From Tsarist Empire to Socialism, Chapters 4 through 8.
Duranty, U. S. S. R. , pp. 11-65 and 241-280.
Strong, The Soviets Expected It.
Some Suggested Activities on History:
1. "No land, no people and no period could at first sight seem to the on-
lookers less propitious as a setting for the world's greatest experiment. "
Study this quotation from Johnson's The Soviet Power, and then think
through the history of the Tsarist regime as far as you have studied.
Be ready to give evidence of the truth of this statement to the class in
a discussion.
2. In parallel columns list the causes contributing to the Revolution of
1917, and the ways by which the Soviet Government is attempting to
remove these causes of discontent. (Refer to the Constitution of 1936,
and Williams, The Soviets. )
3. One of the officials of the Greek Orthodox Church said, after the
Revolution of 1917, "The extraordinary Byzantine glitter of our Ortho-
dox services has been our greatest curse. Our Church has striven aftei
external gorgeousness at the expense of inner virtue, after showy
splendour at the cost of spiritual perfection. It acquired pomp, power,
riches, but lost its soul. "
Write a paper on the Russian Church before the Revolution explain-
ing the criticism made in the above quotation.
4. Make a map showing the expansion of the Soviet Union from July,
1939, to July, 1940. Refer to Stembridge, An Atlas of the US. S. R.
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 27
5. Let one group of pupils read Hindus, Humanity Uprooted, and another
group read Hindus, Mother Russia. On the basis of their reading, dis-
cuss the conditions in Soviet Russia just after the Revolution and in
the early 1940's.
6. Make a Time Chart showing important events in Russia, Western
Europe, China, and Japan from 1900 to July, 1942.
(Refer to Time Chart at end of this section and use Becker's Modern
History. )
7. The Soviet Union differed socially, economically and politically in
1936 from the Soviet Union in 1924, when the second Constitution was
adopted. Write a paper showing how the 1936 Constitution reflects
these changes. (Use the Constitution for reference. )
8. Make a map showing transportation facilities in Russia in 1914 and
in 1940 (Refer to the maps of Denoyer-Geppert, and to Stembridge,
An Atlas of the U. S. S. R. )
9. "War shows up the inefficiency of a Government. "
Prepare to discuss and compare the efficiency of the Russian Government
in 1914 during World War I with that of the Soviet Government in this
war regarding: transportation, industrial production, care of the army,
feeding the population, standard of living of the people.
10. "It is wrong to say that Lenin made the Russian Revolution. You don't
make a revolution; it occurs. . . . Lenin said that circumstances cannot
be created, but his life proved that a leader can direct. " (Walter
Duranty, USSR). Read the life of Lenin and report to the class on -how
far this statement is true in your opinion.
? 1. On a map show where the farthest line of German advance was in
1942, and where the approximate line of battle between the Red Army
and Nazi Army is today.
12. "Joseph Stalin, first Soviet Commissar of Nationalities, symbolized the
new importance of minorities. "
Read the life of Stalin, and write a paper showing how his life sym-
bolizes the old and the new history of Russia.
(Refer to Ludwig, Life of Stalin, and Williams, The Soviets, pp. 93-102. )
13. Have various members of the class look up the following people and
report to class in ten-minute talks: Trotsky; Nadezhda K. Krupskaya
(Lenin's widow); Marshal Timoshenko; Molotov; Plotnikova; Marshal
Zhukov; Ilya Ehrenburg; Marshal Voroshilov; Litvinov; Andrei A.
Gromyko; Peter Kapitsa.
(For information, use Vernadsky, History of Russia; and write for
free bulletins from the Embassy of the U. S. S. R. , Washington, D. C. )
14. Write a paper comparing Stalin and Peter the Great in their aims
and achievements for Russia.
15. Suggest to the class that they fill kits for Russian Relief. These kits
are sent to the civilians returning to the reoccupied areas. Details about
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? 28
MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
the kits and the list of articles to be included in the kits may be pro-
cured from Russian War Relief. (See Appendix for address. )
16. Walter Duranty in the New York Times magazine section for July jo,
1944, asks: "Is the Russian Revolution over, or at least is it settling
down, as other revolutionary movements have done, to something more
mellow and conservative? "
Think over this question, in the light of your study of the Soviet
Union, and prepare to discuss it in class.
Time Chart of Principal Events in Connection With Study of the
Soviet Union
August, 1914
1915-1916
March i2, 1917
March 15,
>>9>>7
November
7. >>9>7
March, 191
8
1918-1919
'9>9
1918-1920
1921-1922
1921-1928
December,
1922
January, 1
9*4
January 21
. >>9*4
1928
1928"'93*
November,
'933
September,
<<934
'933-1937
November,
1936
December,
<<93<<
i936->938
1938-194*
Entrance of Tsarist Russia into World War I.
Frequent defeat of Russian army and increasing
discontent of people.
Revolution (known as "February Revolution," since
Russia used old calendar); abdication of Tsar Nicho-
las II; control by Moderates.
Formation of Provisional Government.
Bolshevik Revolution (according to the calendar used
then, it was October. )
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany.
Exclusion of Soviets from Versailles Conference.
Founding of Communist International (called "Third
International" or "Commintern. ")
Civil War in Russia and Allied intervention.
Widespread famine in European Russia.
New Economic Policy.
Formation of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics by
Russian, Ukrainian, Byelo-Russian and Trans-Cau-
casian Republics.
Adoption of first Constitution of U. S. S. R. as whole.
Death of Lenin. Beginning of leadership of Stalin,
as Secretary of Communist Party.
Signing by Soviet Union of Kellogg-Briand Pact.
First Five-Year Plan.
? ? Recognition of U. S. S. R. by U. S. A.
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
*9
Time Chart of Principal Events in Connection With Study of the
Soviet Union (Cont'd)
September, 1938
August, 1939
September, 1939
October, 1939
November, 1939-
March, 1940
June-August, 1940
April, 1941
June 22, 1941
July 12, 1941
December, 1941
January 1, 1942
1941-1942
May and June, 1942
January, 1943
May, 1943
October, 1943
November, 1943
By September 15,
>944
Munich Agreement between England, France, Italy,
and Germany, ignoring Soviet Union.
Soviet-German Treaty of Non-Aggression.
Outbreak of World War II with invasion of Poland
by Germany.
Soviet occupation of eastern Poland.
Soviet-Finnish War. Acquisition by Soviet Union of
Hango and Karelian Isthmus.
Soviet acquisition of Baltic States, Bessarabia and
Northern Bukovina.
Neutrality Pact between Soviet Union and Japan.
Nazi Invasion of U. S. S. R.
Anglo-Soviet Military Alliance.
Soviet-Polish Declaration of Friendship and Mutual
Assistance.
Soviet Union signatory to United Nations Agreement.
Failure of campaigns against Moscow, Leningrad, and
Stalingrad; assumption by Stalin of positions of Com-
missar of Defense and Commander-in-Chief of the
Red Army.
Molotov's visit to London and Washington: Anglo-
Soviet 20-Year Mutual Assistance Treaty; American-
Soviet Lend-Lease Agreement.
Surrender of German forces at Stalingrad; beginning
of great Red Army offensive.
Official dissolution of Comintern.
Conference at Moscow (Hull, Eden and Molotov).
Conference at Teheran in Iran (Churchill, Roosevelt,
and Stalin).
Reoccupation by Red Army of practically all Soviet
Europe except about half of the Baltic States. Drive
into Poland to gates of Warsaw and across Rumania
to Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Hungary. Rumania,
Finland, and Bulgaria make peace with Soviet Russia
and its allies.
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? 3o MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
IV. Soviet Life Today
A. Government
1. Organization of the Central Government
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is a federated state of
sixteen Union Republics and smaller national groups whose
rights and powers are listed in the Constitution of 1936, an
important document in the history of world governments. The
Central Government, with power derived from the Soviets
(Councils or Committees) of Working People's Deputies, has an
elaborate structure.
The Supreme Soviet is the highest legislative authority in the
U. S. S. R. This parliamentary body consists of the Soviet of the
Union, elected representatives of the people as a whole, and of
the Soviet of Nationalities, elected representatives of the na-
tional groups. Laws are passed by majority vote of both houses;
enumerated powers are exercised jointly; and all other branches
of the federal government are responsible to this Supreme Soviet.
The Presidium (Executive Committee), elected by the Supreme
Soviet, carries on the functions of that body between sessions.
This small group of forty-two members wields great power,
since it is a continuous body.
Executive and administrative powers are largely vested in the
Council of People's Commissars. This group, which corresponds
to the cabinet of Great Britain, is appointed by the Supreme
Soviet and consists of some forty-three commissariats or depart-
ments. It is accountable to the Supreme Soviet and, between
sessions of that body, to the Presidium.
Although, on occasion, judicial matters are dealt with directly
by the Supreme Soviet or Presidium, the administration of
justice is vested primarily in the Supreme Court and a Chief
Prosecutor or State Attorney. In common with other branches,
this organ of government is elected by and is responsible to the
Supreme Soviet.
In 1941, Stalin, who before this had held no official position
as head of the state, was named Premier and Commissar for
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:24 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/wu. 89096252051 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 31
Defense. A special State Defense Council, an inner war cabinet,
was also set up.
A distinctive characteristic of the government is the fact that
it has more directly delegated economic powers than do the gov-
ernments of most nations. Since "all power belongs to the work-
ing people of town and country," "the socialist ownership of the
means and instruments of production" is guaranteed. (Consti-
tution, Art. 3 and 4).
2. Organization of Government in the Republics
In the organization of the Soviet Union the nationality groups
are classified into the following categories: Union Republics,
with a high degree of self-government; Autonomous Republics,
in a less advanced stage of self-government; Autonomous Re-
gions, with limited self-government; and National Districts
(Areas), the least developed or smaller groups. The govern-
mental structure of these units is similar to that of the Central
Government, except that their Soviets are unicameral.
Final authority in both regional and local governments lies
in the Soviets of Working People's Deputies, elected "on the
basis of universal, direct and equal suffrage by secret ballot. "
(Constitution, Art. 134). The whole structure may be likened to
a pyramid whose base is formed by the local Soviets; above these
stand those of the townships, regions, provinces, territories, re-
publics, and finally the Supreme Soviet of the U. S. S. R. The
local councils, whether large or small, have numerous economic
and social responsibilities, as well as political duties. Since
sessions are short and members are busy in their regular
occupations, each Soviet elects an Executive Committee to carry
on its functions between meetings.
Each Union Republic and each Autonomous Republic has its
own constitution, governing units, and language; each Region
and District also has self-government and may in time become
at least an Autonomous Republic. Although certain powers are
surrendered to the Central Government, each nationality main-
tains its own customs and institutions. In February, 1944, Union
Republics were granted the right to send diplomats to foreign
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:24 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/wu. 89096252051 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? 32
MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 33
nations and to maintain their own army formations. Such
functions are, however, subject to general regulation by the
Supreme Soviet. Certain rights, such as that of secession, are
guaranteed to the Union Republics, but the "all-Union law pre-
vails" in the "event of a discrepancy" between it and the law of
a Republic or Region. (Constitution, Art. 20).
3. The Role of the Communist Party
"The most active and politically most conscious citizens in
the ranks of the working class and other sections of the working
people unite in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. "
(Constitution, Art. 126). Although the Party has no legal con-
nection with the government other than that of nominating
candidates, as do other groups, its influence is far-reaching. The
following factors prove this: a large per cent of the Supreme
Soviet members belong to the Communist Party; many officials
hold membership in both the Party and the Government; most
legislation and government policies are planned by Party bodies
before they are discussed in the Soviets; Party members, chosen
for their activity in their own regions, have great influence in
the local Soviets. Thus, although the membership of the Com-
munist Party is relatively small (2,515,481 in 1941 and about
3,500,000 in 1944), it is the controlling political force in the
Soviet Union.
Since the Communist Party is so important, it is necessary to
examine its organization. Membership^ a mark of honor and
responsibility; rules for election are strict; and duties within the
Party are exacting. Party units or committees are elected in
towns or by small groups; these in turn elect larger Party Com-
mittees, as of a province, and so on. The highest group is the
Ail-Union Party Congress, to which all lower councils are re-
sponsible.
The Congress delegates its duties between sessions to a Cen-
tral Committee, elected by it. This Committee elects an
Organization Board, which has administrative duties, and a
Political Bureau, which has executive duties.
Members of the Political Bureau, headed by Stalin, who is
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? 34 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
Secretary-General of the Party, formulate and direct Party ac-
tivities. In all Party organizations matters of policy are dis-
cussed at length, but once a given decision is reached discussion
concerning it ceases, and each member is expected to assist in
its enforcement. The maintenance of this so-called "Party line"
accounts for much of the influence of the Communists upon
the government.
4. Democratic processes
In studying the role of democratic processes in the Soviet Union
it is necessary to consider certain ideas before one can judge and
compare. First, the Soviet form of government is new and this
is the first time the Russian people have so fully participated in
self-government. Second, the Soviet theory involves the con-
cept that by a series of gradual but necessary steps man will final-
ly reach the goal of communism. Socialism is regarded as the
present phase of development toward the communist ideal.
Restrictions upon individuals are now less severe than at the
beginning of the Revolution, since the state has reached a more
advanced stage. Likewise, the Constitution of 1936 is a docu-
ment descriptive of Soviet ideals and achievements to date, not
merely an outline of the organization of government.
Third, the meanings of words must be clear; in Soviet termi-
nology the words "democracy" and "dictatorship" express some-
what different ideas from our usually accepted meanings. The
Soviet belief is that the dictatorship of the proletariat (working
classes) is democratic, as changes will occur gradually in direc-
tions guided by the will of the people. They regard this dic-
tatorship as a temporary but necessary phase. Fourth, the funda-
mental principle concerning the state and the individual ex-
plains that the individual acts within the collective (group), that
he has personal freedom as a member of the group, but that he
must work for the group interest so that the progress of the
people as a whole will be aided.
The Soviets "constitute the political foundation of the
U. S. S. R. " (Constitution, Art. 2), and the people express their
ideas on government constantly, especially in the local councils.
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 35
Leaders and writers of the Soviet Union stress the importance of
popular rule and mass control. The Constitution guarantees the
rights of voting, nominating candidates, holding office, and re-
calling unsatisfactory officials. The elective principle operates
in trade unions, on collective farms, and in the Communist
Party. Although candidates for office do not have to be Party
members and much discussion goes on before nominations occur,
the percentage of Party members chosen in federal elections is
high. The percentage of Party members chosen in local elec-
tions of Soviets and in trade unions is, however, lower. Self-
criticism is encouraged and locally much discussion centers upon
the efficiency of the office-holders. The policy of accountability
of one group to another operates in all government and Party
groups; in fact, one of the most important duties of a deputy is
to keep his electorate informed. The war has increased popular
participation in political affairs, since many officials have had to
assume other duties in the emergency.
Many civil liberties are listed in the Constitution and methods
guaranteeing these rights are definitely stated. Freedom of ex-
pression is limited so as to be "in conformity with the interests
of the working people, and in order to strengthen the socialist
system. " (Constitution, Art. 125). Thus opposition to such
fundamental policies as socialized industry, collective farming,
the dictatorship of the workers, and socialism as a step toward
communism, is prohibited. Severe, even ruthless, methods are
sometimes used to enforce compliance with these principles.
However, the ways in which these basic ideas are carried out
can be and are widely debated. Limitations on political liberty
are based upon the theory that the system is fundamentally
sound, and that social and economic conditions will gradually
improve if they are protected as they grow.
Although civil liberties, as generally understood, do not fully
operate in the U. S. S. R. , there are other democratic ideals which
are more fully developed. Racial or ethnic democracy is one of
the major contributions. Much progress has been made in secur-
ing equal rights for women in all fields of activity. Economic
rights to work, to organization into labor groups, to maintenance
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? j6 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
in old age, or in case of sickness or accident, and to "rest and
leisure" (Constitution, Art. 119) are not only guaranteed by the
Constitution, but are being fulfilled. The "right to education"
has also been "ensured. " (Constitution, Art. 121). However great
the restrictions upon individuals, however extensive the ad-
mitted bureaucracy, however limited the actual control of gov-
ernment by the majority of the people, there can be no doubt of
the faith of the Soviet citizens in their cause and of the unity
of the people in the present war.
References on Government:
American Russian Institute, The Soviet Union Today, An Outline
Study, pp. 24-35.
Constitution of the U3. S. R.
