'Grief and
mourning
in infancy and early childhood', (1960d) The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, XV: 9-52.
Bowlby - Attachment
An attempt is made to see how the animal views the world from its own perspective and to visualise the internal 'maps' and rules which govern its activities.
Ethology is contrasted with behaviourism, which usually concentrates on particular bits of behaviour and does not consider the organism as a whole and is unconcerned with evolutionary considerations.
Bowlby saw the methods and theories of ethology as highly relevant to the study of human infants, and this led to a fruitful collaboration between him and the leading ethologist Robert Hinde (see Hinde 1982a and b; 1987).
Glossary 221
EXPRESSED EMOTION (EE) A rating scale initially developed for the relatives of patients suffering from schizophrenia (Left and Vaughn 1983), but applicable to other disorders including affective illness and Alzheimer's disease, measuring such dimensions as 'hostility', 'warmth' and 'overinvolvement'. Patients whose relatives score high on negative 'expressed emotions' are more likely to relapse from their illness. A link is suggested between anxious attachment and high expressed emotion (see Chapter 9).
INTERNAL WORKING MODELS On the basis of cognitive psychology (see Craik 1943; Beck et al. 1979), Bowlby sees higher animals as needing a map or model of the world in the brain, if they are successfully to predict, control and manipulate their environment. In Bowlby's version humans have two such models, an 'environmental' model, telling us about the world, and an 'organismal' model, telling us about ourselves in relation to the world. We carry a map of self, and others, and the relationship between the two. Although primarily 'cognitive' in conception, the idea of internal working models is applicable to affective life. The map is built up from experiences and is influenced by the need to defend against painful feelings. Thus an anxiously attached child may have a model of others in which they are potentially dangerous, and therefore must be approached with caution, while their self-representation may be of someone who is demanding and needy and unworthy to be offered security. The relationship with a person's primary care-givers is generalised in internal working models, which leads to a distorted and incoherent picture of the world, and one that is not subject to updating and revision in the light of later experience. This, in Bowlby's eyes, is the basis for transference, and the task of therapy is help the patient develop more realistic and less rigid internal working models.
MATERNAL DEPRIVATION A catch-phrase summarising Bowlby's early work on the effects of separating infants and young children from their mothers. He believed that maternally deprived children were likely to develop asocial or antisocial tendencies, and that juvenile delinquency was mainly a consequence of such separations. The corollary of this was his advocacy of continuous mother-child contact for at least the first five years of life, which
222 John Bowlby and Attachment Theory
earned him the opprobrium of feminists. Subsequent research has confirmed that lack of maternal care does lead to poor social adjustment and relationship difficulties, but suggests that disruption, conflict and poor maternal handling are more common causes of difficulties in late life than the loss of mother in itself.
METACOGNITIVE MONITORING Concept introduced by Main (1990) and Fonagy (1991) to denote the ability to 'think about thinking'. Securely attached children and adults are able to reflect freely on their thought processes (e. g. , 'I was really upset when my mum and dad split up and felt pretty hostile to all the children at school who seemed to have happy homes'), in contrast to insecure individuals, who tend either to dismiss their thought processes (e. g. , 'Oh, the split-up didn't affect me at all, I just concentrated on my football'), or to be bogged down in them ('I can't really talk about it . . . it makes me too upset'). Defects in metacognitive ability are common in pathological states, such as borderline personality disorder, and one of the aims of psychotherapy is to facilitate metacognition.
MONOTROPY An ethological (q. v. ) term introduced by Bowlby to denote the exclusive attachment of a child to its principal care- giver, usually the mother. He was impressed by Lorenz's (1952) studies of geese and their young which suggested that the goslings became imprinted onto a moving object at a sensitive period in the first day or two of life. Bowlby thought that a similar process occurred in humans. In fact, imprinting seems not to be a feature of primate development, where attachments develop gradually and over a wide range from the early months to adolescence. Also, attachment in humans is not so much monotropic as hierarchical, with a list of preferred care-givers, with parents at the top, but closely followed by grandparents, siblings, aunts and so on.
OBJECT-RELATIONS THEORY (ORT) Attachment Theory is a close relation of, and provides experimental evidence in support of, Object-Relations Theory (Greenberg and Mitchell 1983). This psychoanalytic school is particularly associated with a group of British theorists who include Klein (1986), Fairbairn (1952), Balint (1968) and Winnicott (1965), as well as Bion (1978). In contrast to Freud's early view of the organism as primarily driven by instinct and the need to discharge accumulated psychic energy ('libido'), Object-Relations Theorists see people as primarily seeking a
Glossary 223
relationship to their 'objects'. There is thus a progression in psychoanalytic thinking, starting with Freud's drive discharge theory, through Object Relations, in which a whole individual is seeking a relationship with an 'object' (i. e. , not quite a person), to the reciprocity of care-giver and care-seeker implicit in Attachment Theory and recent developmental psychology.
PARENTAL BONDING INSTRUMENT (PBI) A questionnaire test, devised by Parker (1983) to try to elicit in a systematic way an individual's perception of their parental relationships in childhood. It gives two main dimensions: 'care' and 'protection'. 'Care' ranges from warmth and empathy at one extreme to coldness and indifference at the other. 'Protection' similarly ranges from over-protection and infantilisation to promotion of autonomy. People with borderline personality disorder and depressive disorders regularly report the constellation of low care and high intrusiveness ('affectionless control'). There is some evidence that such reports of parental behaviour are an accurate reflection of their actual behaviour (Parker et al. 1992).
PERCEPTUAL DEFENCE This, and the related concept of unconscious perception (Dixon and Henley 1991), refer to the apparently paradoxical phenomenon by which an individual can be shown to respond in behaviour to a stimulus without it reaching conscious awareness. Thus, for example, a subject presented with a neutral face and asked to judge whether it is 'happy' or 'sad', will be influenced by the simultaneous presentation of a subliminal word with positive or negative connotations. This provides experimental confirmation of the existence of unconscious thinking. Bowlby (1981c) uses this idea in his discussion of ungrieved loss to suggest that painful feelings are kept out of awareness but may nevertheless influence a person's state of mind and behaviour. By bringing these feelings into awareness - that is, by reducing the extent of perceptual defence - they are then available for processing (cf. 'working through'), leading to a more coherent and better adapted relationship to the world and the self.
SECURE BASE A term introduced by Ainsworth (1982) to describe the feeling of safety provided by an attachment figure. Children will seek out their secure base at times of threat - danger, illness, exhaustion or following a separation. When the danger
224 John Bowlby and Attachment Theory
has passed, attachment behaviour will cease, but only if it is there to be mobilised if needed will the child feel secure. The secure base phenomenon applies equally to adults. We all feel 'at home' with those whom we know and trust, and within such a home environment are able to relax, and pursue our projects, whether they be play, pleasure-seeking or work.
STRANGE SITUATION An experimental method devised by Ainsworth (Ainsworth et al. 1978) to study the ways in which one-year-old children can cope with brief separations from their care-givers. The child is left first with the experimenter and then alone while the mother goes out of the room for 3 minutes. The child's response to the separation, and more importantly to the re-union, is observed and rated from videotapes. On the basis of this rating children can be classified as secure (usually characterised by brief protest followed by return to relaxed play and interaction) or insecure, the latter being subdivided into avoidant (q. v. ) and ambivalent (q. v. ) patterns of insecurity. See Chapter 6, page 104, for a more detailed description.
SYSTEMIC Adjective derived from Systems Theory, a conceptual model used by family therapists (originating with information theory), in which the family as a whole is seen as a quasi-organism, or 'system', with its own rules and ways of behaving. Certain general principles apply to systems whatever their nature, whether they are cells of the body, whole organisms, families or social groups. These include the property of having a boundary, of the need for information flow between different parts of the system, of a hierarchy of decision-making elements, and of 'homeostasis', the tendency towards inertia. Attachment Theory is systemic in that it sees care-seeker and care-giver as a mutually interacting system regulated by positive and negative feedback. Pathological states can result from the operation of such feedback - for example, when a child clings ever more tightly to an abusing parent, because the source of the attack is also the object to which the child is programmed to turn in case of danger.
Chronology
1907 Born, Edward John Mostyn Bowlby, fourth child and second son of Sir Anthony and Lady May Bowlby. Lived at Manchester Square, London.
1914-25 Preparatory school and then Royal Naval College, Dartmouth.
1925-28 Trinity College, Cambridge.
1928-29 Teacher in progressive school for maladjusted children.
1929 Started clinical medical studies at University College Hospital, London, and psychoanalytic training at the Institute of Psycho-Analysis, London. Training analyst, Mrs Joan Riviere.
1933 Medical qualification. Psychiatric training at Maudsley Hospital, London, under Aubrey Lewis.
1937 Qualified as an analyst. Starts training in child analysis, supervisor, Melanie Klein.
1938 Married Ursula Longstaff, by whom two sons and two daughters.
1940 Publication: Personality and Mental Illness (with F. Durbin).
1937-40 Psychiatrist, London Child Guidance Clinic.
1940-45 Specialist Psychiatrist, Royal Army Medical Corps, mainly concerned with Officer Selection Boards.
1946 Publication, 'Forty-four juvenile thieves: their characters and home life'.
1946-72 Consultant Child Psychiatrist and Deputy Director, Tavistock Clinic, London, and Director, Department for Children and Parents.
226 John Bowlby and Attachment Theory
1950-72 Consultant in Mental Health, World Health Organisation.
1951 Publication of Maternal Care and Mental Health. 1957-58 Fellow, Centre for Advanced Study in the Behavioural
Sciences, Stanford, California.
1956-61 Deputy President, British Psycho-Analytical Society.
1958-63 Consultant, US National Institute of Mental Health.
1969 Publication of Attachment, first volume of the Attachment and Loss trilogy.
---- Visiting Professor in Psychiatry, Stanford University, California.
1963-72 Member, External Scientific Staff, Medical Research Council.
1972 Commander of the British Empire.
1973 Publication of Separation, second volume of the Attachment
and Loss trilogy.
1973 Travelling Professor, Australian and New Zealand College
of Psychiatrists.
1977 Honorary Doctor of Science, University of Cambridge.
1979 Publication of The Making and Breaking of Affectional Bonds.
1980 Publication of Loss, third volume of the Attachment and Loss trilogy.
1981 Freud Memorial Professor of Psychoanalysis, University College, London.
---- Foreign Honorary Member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
1987 Celebration of Bowlby's 80th birthday with a conference at the Tavistock Clinic, bringing together researchers and clinicians, entitled 'The Effect of Relationships on Relationships'.
1988 Publication of A Secure Base.
Chronology 227
1989 Fellow of the British Academy.
1990 Publication of Charles Darwin, A New Biography.
---- Dies while in Skye, at his holiday home where much of his writing had been done.
Bibliography
PUBLICATIONS OF JOHN BOWLBY
Personal Aggressiveness and War, (1938) (with E. P. M. Durbin) London: Kegan Paul.
'The abnormally aggressive child', (1938) The New Era (Sept. -Oct. ). 'Hysteria in children', (1939a) in A Survey of Child Psychiatry, pp. 80-94,
Humphrey Milford (ed. ), London: Oxford University Press.
'Substitute homes', (1939) Mother and Child (official organ of the National
Council for Maternity and Child Welfare) X (1) (April): 3-7.
'Jealous and spiteful children', (1939) Home and School (Home and School
Council of Great Britain), IV(5): 83-5.
Bowlby, J. , Miller, E. and Winnicott, D. W. (1939) 'Evacuation of small children'
(letter), British Medical Journal (16 Dec. ): 1202-3.
'The influence of early environment in the development of neurosis and neurotic
character', (1940) International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 21: 154-78. 'Psychological aspects', (1940) ch. 16, pp. 186-96, in Evacuation Survey: A Report to the Fabian Society, Richard Padley and Margaret Cole (eds),
London: George Routledge & Sons Ltd.
'The problem of the young child', (1940c) Children in War-time, 21 (3): 19-30,
London: New Education Fellowships.
'Forty-four juvenile thieves: their characters and home life', (1944) International
Journal of Psychoanalysis, 25: 1-57 and 207-228; republished as a
monograph by Baillie`re, Tindall & Cox, London, 1946.
'Childhood origins of recidivism', (1945-46) The Howard Journal, VII (1): 30-
3, The Howard League for Penal Reform.
'The future role of the child guidance clinic in education and other services',
(1946a) Report of the Proceedings of a Conference on Mental Health,
(14-15 Nov. ), pp. 80-89, National Association for Mental Health. 'Psychology and democracy', (1946b) The Political Quarterly, XVII (1):
61-76.
'The therapeutic approach in sociology', (1947a) The Sociological
Review, 39: 39-49.
'The study of human relations in the child guidance clinic', (1947b)
Journal of Social Issues, III (2) (Spring): 35-41.
'The study and reduction of group tensions in the family, (1949a) Human
Relations, 2 (2) (April): 123-8.
'The relation between the therapeutic approach and the legal approach
Bibliography 229
to juvenile delinquency', (1949b) The Magistrate, VIII (Nov. ):
260-4.
Why Delinquency? The Case for Operational Research, (1949c) Report
of a conference on the scientific study of juvenile delinquency held at the Royal Institution, London 1 Oct. , and published by the National Association for Mental Health.
'Research into the origins of delinquent behaviour', (1950) British Medical Journal 1 March 11: 570).
Maternal Care and Mental Health, (1951) World Health Organisation, Monograph Series No. 2.
'Responses of young children to separation from their mothers', (with J. Robertson) (1952a) Courier, Centre International de l'Enfance, II (2): 66-78, and II (3): 131-42, Paris.
A two-year-old goes to hospital: a scientific film, (with J. Robertson) (1952b) Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 46: 425-7. 'A two-year-old goes to hospital', Bowlby, J. , Robertson, J. and
Rosenbluth, D. (1952) The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, VII:
82-94.
'A two-year-old goes to hospital: a scientific film', (with J. Robertson)
(1952b) Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 46: 425-7. 'The roots of parenthood', (1953) Convocation Lecture of the National
Children's Home (July).
Child Care and the Growth of Maternal Love, (1953b) (abridged version
of Maternal Care and Mental Health, 1951), London: Penguin Books;
new and enlarged edition, 1965.
'Critical phases in the development of social responses in man and other
animals', (1953c) New Biology, London: Penguin Books, pp. 25-
32.
'Some pathological processes set in train by early mother-child
separation', (1953d) Journal of Mental Science, 99: 265-72. 'Research strategy in the study of mother-child separation', (with M. G. Ainsworth) (1954) Courier, Centre International de l'Enfance, IV:
105-13.
'Family approach to child guidance: therapeutic techniques', (1955)
Transactions of the 11th Interclinic Conference for the Staffs of Child Guidance Clinics, National Association for Mental Health (26 March).
'The growth of independence in the young child', (1956) Royal Society of Health Journal, 76: 587-91.
'Psychoanalytic instinct theory', (1956) in Discussions on Child Development, vol. 1 , J. M. Tanner and B. Inhelder (eds), pp. 182- 87, London: Tavistock Publications.
'The effects of mother-child separation: a follow-up study', (with M. Ainsworth, M. Boston and D. Rosenbluth) (1956) British Journal of Medical Psychology, XXIX, parts 3 and 4 : 211-47.
'An ethological approach to research in child development', (1957) British Journal of Medical Psychology, XXX, part 4 : 230-40.
Can I Leave my Baby? , (1958a) The National Association for Mental Health.
230 John Bowlby and Attachment Theory
'A note on mother-child separation as a mental health hazard', (1958b) British Journal of Medical Psychology, XXXI, parts 3 and 4 :247-8. Foreword to Widows and their Families by Peter Marris, (1958c) London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
'The nature of the child's tie to his mother', (1958d) International Journal
of Psycho-Analysis, 39, part V : 350-73.
'Psychoanalysis and child care', (1958e) in Psychoanalysis and
Contemporary Thought, J. Sutherland (ed. ), London: Hogarth Press. 'Ethology and the development of object relations', (1960a) International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 41, parts IV - V : 313-17. 'Separation anxiety', (1960b) International Journal of Psycho-Analysis,
41, parts II - III : 89-113.
Comment on Piaget's paper: 'The general problems of the psychobiological
development on the child', (1960c) in Discussions on Child Development, vol. 4 , J. M. Tanner and B. Inhelder (eds), London: Tavistock Publications.
'Grief and mourning in infancy and early childhood', (1960d) The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, XV: 9-52.
'Separation anxiety: a critical review of the literature', (1961a) Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 1 (16): 251-69.
Note on Dr Max Schur's comments on grief and mourning in infancy and early childhood, (1961b) The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, XVI: 206-8.
'Childhood mourning and its implications for psychiatry', The Adolf Meyer Lecture, (1961c) American Journal of Psychiatry, 118 (6): 481-97.
'Processes of mourning', (1961d) International Journal of Psycho- Analysis, 42, parts IV - V : 317-40.
'Defences that follow loss: causation and function', (1962a) unpublished. 'Loss, detachment and defence', (1962b) unpublished.
'Pathological mourning and childhood mourning', (1963) Journal of the
American Psychoanalytic Association, XI (3) (July): 500-41.
Note on Dr Lois Murphy's paper 'Some aspects of the first relationship', (1964a) International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 45, part 1 :
44-6.
Security and Anxiety: Old Ideas in a New Light, (1964b) Proceedings of
the 15th Annual Conference of the Association of Children's Officers. Darwin's health (letter) (1965) British Medical Journal (10 April), p.
999.
Foreword to Brief Separations (1966) by C. M. Heinicke and I. J.
Westheimer, New York: International Universities Press; London:
Longmans Green.
'Effects on behaviour of disruption of an affectional bond', (1968a) in
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Behaviour, J. M. Thoday
and A-S Parkes, pp. 94-108, Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd.
'Security and anxiety', (1968b) chapter in The Formative Years, London:
BBC Publications.
'Affectional bonds: their nature and origin', (1969a) in Progress in Mental
Health, H. Freeman (ed. ), London: J. & A. Churchill.
Bibliography 231
Attachment and Loss, (1969b) vol. 1, Attachment, London: Hogarth Press; New York: Basic Books; Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1971; 2nd edn, 1982.
'Types of hopelessness in psychopathological process', (1969c) (with F. T. Melges) Archives of General Psychiatry, 20: 690-9.
'Psychopathology of anxiety: the role of affectional bonds', (1969d) in Studies of Anxiety, M. H. Lader (ed. ), British Journal of Psychiatry, Special Publication no. 3.
'Reasonable fear and natural fear', (1970) International Journal of Psychiatry, 9: 79-88.
'Separation and loss within the family', (1970) (with C. M. Parkes), in The Child in his Family, E. J. Anthony (ed. ), New York: J. Wiley; Paris: Masson et Cie; and in The International Yearbook for Child Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, vol. 1, pp. 197-216.
Attachment and Loss, vol. 2, (1973a) Separation: Anxiety and Anger, London: Hogarth Press; New York: Basic Books; Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1975.
'Self-reliance and some conditions that promote it', (1973b) in Support, Innovation and Autonomy, R. Gosling, (ed. ), pp. 23-48, London: Tavistock Publications.
'The family for good or ill', (1973c) Report on a seminar given in the Department of Psychological Medicine, University of Otago Medical School, New Zealand Department of Psychological Medicine.
'Problems of marrying research with clinical and social needs', (1974) in The Growth of Competence, K. J. Connolly and J. S. Bruner (eds), pp. 303-7, London and New York: Academic Press.
'Attachment theory, separation anxiety and mourning', (1975) in American Handbook of Psychiatry (2nd edn), vol. VI, New Psychiatric Frontiers, David A. Hamburg and Keith H. Brodie (eds), ch. 14, pp. 292-309.
Bindung, translation of Attachment, (1975) Munich: Kindler Verlag. 'Responses to separation from parents: a clinical test for young children', (with M. Klagsbrun) (1976a) British Journal of Projective Psychology
and Personality Study, 21 (2): 7-27.
'Human personality development in an ethological light', (1976b) in
Animal Models in Human Psychobiology, G. Serban and A. Kling
(eds), pp. 27-36, New York: Plenum Publishing Corp.
'The making and breaking of affectional bonds, (1977) I Aetiology and psychopathology in the light of attachment theory, II Some principles of psychotherapy', British Journal of Psychiatry, 130: 201-10 and
421-31.
'Attachment theory and its therapeutic implications', (1978) in Adolescent
Psychiatry: Developmental and Clinical Studies, vol. 6, S. C. Feinstein
and P. L. Giovacchini (eds), pp. 5-33, New York: Jason Aronson. 'On knowing what you are not supposed to know and feeling what you are not supposed to feel', (1979a) Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,
24 (5): 403-8.
'Psychoanalysis as art and science', (1979b) International Review of
Psycho-Analysis, 6, part 3 : 3-14.
232 John Bowlby and Attachment Theory
The Making and Breaking of Affectional Bonds, (1979c) London: Tavistock Publications.
Continuing commentary on article by D. W. Rajecki, M. E. Lamb and P. Obmascher, 'Toward a general theory of infantile attachment: a comparative review of aspects of the social bond', (1979d) The Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 2: 637-8.
'By ethology out of psychoanalysis: an experiment in interbreeding', (1979e) (The Niko Tinbergen Lecture, Animal Behaviour, 28, part 3 : 649-56.
Attachment and Loss, vol. 3, Loss: Sadness and Depression, (1980) London: Hogarth Press; New York: Basic Books; Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1981.
'Perspective: a contribution by John Bowlby', (1981a) Bulletin of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, 5 (1) (Jan. ).
Contribution to symposium, 'Emanuel Peterfreund on information and systems theory', (1981b) The Psychoanalytic Review, 68: 187-90.
'Psychoanalysis as a natural science', (1981c) International Review of Psycho-Analysis, 8, part 3 : 243-56.
'Attachment and loss: retrospect and prospect', (1982a) American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52 (4): 664-78.
Epilogue, (1982b) The Place of Attachment in Human Behaviour, Colin Murray Parkes and Joan Stevenson-Hinde (eds), pp. 310-13, New York: Basic Books; London: Tavistock Publications.
'Caring for the young: influences on development', (1984a) in Parenthood: A Psychodynamic Perspective, Rebecca S. Cohen, Bertram J. Cohler and Sidney H. Weissman (eds), ch. 18, pp. 269-84, The Guilford Psychiatry Series, New York: Guilford Press.
Discussion of paper, 'Aspects of transference in group analysis' (1984b) by Mario Marrone, Group Analysis, 17: 191-4.
'Violence in the family as a disorder of the attachment and caregiving systems', (1984c) American Journal of Psychoanalysis, 44: 9-27.
'Psychoanalysis as a natural science', (1984d) Psychoanalytic Psychology, 1 (1): 7-21.
'The role of childhood experience in cognitive disturbance' (1985) in Cognition and Psychotherapy, Michael J. Mahoney and Arthur Freeman (eds), ch. 6, pp. 181-200, New York and London: Plenum Publishing Corp.
'Processi difensivi alla luce della teoria dell'attaccamento', (1986a) Psicoterapia e Scienze Umane, 20: 3-19.
Figlio, K. and Young, R. (1986b) 'An Interview with John Bowlby', Free Associations, 6: 36-64.
'Defensive processes in the light of attachment theory', (1987a) in Attachment and the Therapeutic Process, D. P. Schwartz, J. L. Sacksteder and Y. Akabane (eds), New York: International Universities Press.
'Attachment', 'Phobias', (1987b) in The Oxford Companion to the Mind, R. Gregory (ed. ), Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. A Secure Base: Clinical Applications of Attachment Theory, (1988a)
London: Routledge.
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'Changing theories of childhood since Freud', (1988b) in Freud in Exile, E. Timms and N. Segal (eds), pp. 230-40, New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
'Developmental psychiatry comes of age', (1988c) American Journal of Psychiatry, 145: pp. 1-10.
'The role of attachment in personality development and psychopathology', (1989) in The Course of Life, vol. 1 , 2nd edn , S. Greenspan and G. Pollock (eds), ch. 6, pp. 229-70, Madison, WI: International Universities Press.
Charles Darwin: A New Biography, (1990) London: Hutchinson.
'The role of the psychotherapist's personal resources in the therapeutic
situation', (1991) Tavistock Gazette (Autumn). GENERAL WORKS
Ainsworth, M. (1969) 'Object relations, dependency and attachment: a theoretical review of the infant-mother relationship', Child Development, 40: 969-1025.
---- (1982) 'Attachment: retrospect and prospect', in C. M. Parkes and J. Stevenson-Hinde (eds), The Place of Attachment in Human Behaviour, London: Tavistock.
---- (1989) 'Attachments beyond infancy', American Psychologist, 44: 709-16.
Ainsworth, M. , Blehar, M. , Waters, E. and Wall, S. (1978) Patterns of Attachment: Assessed in the Strange Situation and at Home, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Anderson, J. (1972) 'Attachment out of doors', in N. Blurton-Jones (ed. ), Ethological Studies of Child Behaviour, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Andry, R. (1962) 'Paternal and maternal roles in delinquency', in Deprivation of Maternal Care: A Reassessment of its Effects, Geneva: World Health Organisation Publications.
Balint, M. (1964) Primary Love and Psychoanalytic Technique, London: Tavistock.
---- (1968) The Basic Fault, London: Tavistock.
---- (1986) 'The unobtrusive analyst', in G. Kohon (ed. ), The British
School of Psychoanalysis, London: Free Associations.
Bateman, A. (1991) 'Borderline Personality Disorder', in J. Holmes (ed. ), Textbook of Psychotherapy in Psychiatric Practice, Edinburgh:
Churchill Livingstone.
Bateson, G. (1973) Steps Towards an Ecology of Mind, London: Paladin. Beck, A. , Rush, A. , Shaw, B. and Emery, G. (1979) Cognitive Therapy of
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Beebe, B. and Lachmann, F. (1988) 'The contribution of mother-infant
mutual influence to the origins of self-object representation',
Psychoanalytic Psychology, 5: 305-37.
Belsky, J. and Nezworski, T. (1988) Clinical Implications of Attachment,
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
234 John Bowlby and Attachment Theory
Bettelheim, B. (1960) The Informed Heart, New York: Free Press. Bion, W. (1978) Second Thoughts, London: Heinemann.
Birtchnell, J. (1984) 'Dependence and its relation to depression', British
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Glossary 221
EXPRESSED EMOTION (EE) A rating scale initially developed for the relatives of patients suffering from schizophrenia (Left and Vaughn 1983), but applicable to other disorders including affective illness and Alzheimer's disease, measuring such dimensions as 'hostility', 'warmth' and 'overinvolvement'. Patients whose relatives score high on negative 'expressed emotions' are more likely to relapse from their illness. A link is suggested between anxious attachment and high expressed emotion (see Chapter 9).
INTERNAL WORKING MODELS On the basis of cognitive psychology (see Craik 1943; Beck et al. 1979), Bowlby sees higher animals as needing a map or model of the world in the brain, if they are successfully to predict, control and manipulate their environment. In Bowlby's version humans have two such models, an 'environmental' model, telling us about the world, and an 'organismal' model, telling us about ourselves in relation to the world. We carry a map of self, and others, and the relationship between the two. Although primarily 'cognitive' in conception, the idea of internal working models is applicable to affective life. The map is built up from experiences and is influenced by the need to defend against painful feelings. Thus an anxiously attached child may have a model of others in which they are potentially dangerous, and therefore must be approached with caution, while their self-representation may be of someone who is demanding and needy and unworthy to be offered security. The relationship with a person's primary care-givers is generalised in internal working models, which leads to a distorted and incoherent picture of the world, and one that is not subject to updating and revision in the light of later experience. This, in Bowlby's eyes, is the basis for transference, and the task of therapy is help the patient develop more realistic and less rigid internal working models.
MATERNAL DEPRIVATION A catch-phrase summarising Bowlby's early work on the effects of separating infants and young children from their mothers. He believed that maternally deprived children were likely to develop asocial or antisocial tendencies, and that juvenile delinquency was mainly a consequence of such separations. The corollary of this was his advocacy of continuous mother-child contact for at least the first five years of life, which
222 John Bowlby and Attachment Theory
earned him the opprobrium of feminists. Subsequent research has confirmed that lack of maternal care does lead to poor social adjustment and relationship difficulties, but suggests that disruption, conflict and poor maternal handling are more common causes of difficulties in late life than the loss of mother in itself.
METACOGNITIVE MONITORING Concept introduced by Main (1990) and Fonagy (1991) to denote the ability to 'think about thinking'. Securely attached children and adults are able to reflect freely on their thought processes (e. g. , 'I was really upset when my mum and dad split up and felt pretty hostile to all the children at school who seemed to have happy homes'), in contrast to insecure individuals, who tend either to dismiss their thought processes (e. g. , 'Oh, the split-up didn't affect me at all, I just concentrated on my football'), or to be bogged down in them ('I can't really talk about it . . . it makes me too upset'). Defects in metacognitive ability are common in pathological states, such as borderline personality disorder, and one of the aims of psychotherapy is to facilitate metacognition.
MONOTROPY An ethological (q. v. ) term introduced by Bowlby to denote the exclusive attachment of a child to its principal care- giver, usually the mother. He was impressed by Lorenz's (1952) studies of geese and their young which suggested that the goslings became imprinted onto a moving object at a sensitive period in the first day or two of life. Bowlby thought that a similar process occurred in humans. In fact, imprinting seems not to be a feature of primate development, where attachments develop gradually and over a wide range from the early months to adolescence. Also, attachment in humans is not so much monotropic as hierarchical, with a list of preferred care-givers, with parents at the top, but closely followed by grandparents, siblings, aunts and so on.
OBJECT-RELATIONS THEORY (ORT) Attachment Theory is a close relation of, and provides experimental evidence in support of, Object-Relations Theory (Greenberg and Mitchell 1983). This psychoanalytic school is particularly associated with a group of British theorists who include Klein (1986), Fairbairn (1952), Balint (1968) and Winnicott (1965), as well as Bion (1978). In contrast to Freud's early view of the organism as primarily driven by instinct and the need to discharge accumulated psychic energy ('libido'), Object-Relations Theorists see people as primarily seeking a
Glossary 223
relationship to their 'objects'. There is thus a progression in psychoanalytic thinking, starting with Freud's drive discharge theory, through Object Relations, in which a whole individual is seeking a relationship with an 'object' (i. e. , not quite a person), to the reciprocity of care-giver and care-seeker implicit in Attachment Theory and recent developmental psychology.
PARENTAL BONDING INSTRUMENT (PBI) A questionnaire test, devised by Parker (1983) to try to elicit in a systematic way an individual's perception of their parental relationships in childhood. It gives two main dimensions: 'care' and 'protection'. 'Care' ranges from warmth and empathy at one extreme to coldness and indifference at the other. 'Protection' similarly ranges from over-protection and infantilisation to promotion of autonomy. People with borderline personality disorder and depressive disorders regularly report the constellation of low care and high intrusiveness ('affectionless control'). There is some evidence that such reports of parental behaviour are an accurate reflection of their actual behaviour (Parker et al. 1992).
PERCEPTUAL DEFENCE This, and the related concept of unconscious perception (Dixon and Henley 1991), refer to the apparently paradoxical phenomenon by which an individual can be shown to respond in behaviour to a stimulus without it reaching conscious awareness. Thus, for example, a subject presented with a neutral face and asked to judge whether it is 'happy' or 'sad', will be influenced by the simultaneous presentation of a subliminal word with positive or negative connotations. This provides experimental confirmation of the existence of unconscious thinking. Bowlby (1981c) uses this idea in his discussion of ungrieved loss to suggest that painful feelings are kept out of awareness but may nevertheless influence a person's state of mind and behaviour. By bringing these feelings into awareness - that is, by reducing the extent of perceptual defence - they are then available for processing (cf. 'working through'), leading to a more coherent and better adapted relationship to the world and the self.
SECURE BASE A term introduced by Ainsworth (1982) to describe the feeling of safety provided by an attachment figure. Children will seek out their secure base at times of threat - danger, illness, exhaustion or following a separation. When the danger
224 John Bowlby and Attachment Theory
has passed, attachment behaviour will cease, but only if it is there to be mobilised if needed will the child feel secure. The secure base phenomenon applies equally to adults. We all feel 'at home' with those whom we know and trust, and within such a home environment are able to relax, and pursue our projects, whether they be play, pleasure-seeking or work.
STRANGE SITUATION An experimental method devised by Ainsworth (Ainsworth et al. 1978) to study the ways in which one-year-old children can cope with brief separations from their care-givers. The child is left first with the experimenter and then alone while the mother goes out of the room for 3 minutes. The child's response to the separation, and more importantly to the re-union, is observed and rated from videotapes. On the basis of this rating children can be classified as secure (usually characterised by brief protest followed by return to relaxed play and interaction) or insecure, the latter being subdivided into avoidant (q. v. ) and ambivalent (q. v. ) patterns of insecurity. See Chapter 6, page 104, for a more detailed description.
SYSTEMIC Adjective derived from Systems Theory, a conceptual model used by family therapists (originating with information theory), in which the family as a whole is seen as a quasi-organism, or 'system', with its own rules and ways of behaving. Certain general principles apply to systems whatever their nature, whether they are cells of the body, whole organisms, families or social groups. These include the property of having a boundary, of the need for information flow between different parts of the system, of a hierarchy of decision-making elements, and of 'homeostasis', the tendency towards inertia. Attachment Theory is systemic in that it sees care-seeker and care-giver as a mutually interacting system regulated by positive and negative feedback. Pathological states can result from the operation of such feedback - for example, when a child clings ever more tightly to an abusing parent, because the source of the attack is also the object to which the child is programmed to turn in case of danger.
Chronology
1907 Born, Edward John Mostyn Bowlby, fourth child and second son of Sir Anthony and Lady May Bowlby. Lived at Manchester Square, London.
1914-25 Preparatory school and then Royal Naval College, Dartmouth.
1925-28 Trinity College, Cambridge.
1928-29 Teacher in progressive school for maladjusted children.
1929 Started clinical medical studies at University College Hospital, London, and psychoanalytic training at the Institute of Psycho-Analysis, London. Training analyst, Mrs Joan Riviere.
1933 Medical qualification. Psychiatric training at Maudsley Hospital, London, under Aubrey Lewis.
1937 Qualified as an analyst. Starts training in child analysis, supervisor, Melanie Klein.
1938 Married Ursula Longstaff, by whom two sons and two daughters.
1940 Publication: Personality and Mental Illness (with F. Durbin).
1937-40 Psychiatrist, London Child Guidance Clinic.
1940-45 Specialist Psychiatrist, Royal Army Medical Corps, mainly concerned with Officer Selection Boards.
1946 Publication, 'Forty-four juvenile thieves: their characters and home life'.
1946-72 Consultant Child Psychiatrist and Deputy Director, Tavistock Clinic, London, and Director, Department for Children and Parents.
226 John Bowlby and Attachment Theory
1950-72 Consultant in Mental Health, World Health Organisation.
1951 Publication of Maternal Care and Mental Health. 1957-58 Fellow, Centre for Advanced Study in the Behavioural
Sciences, Stanford, California.
1956-61 Deputy President, British Psycho-Analytical Society.
1958-63 Consultant, US National Institute of Mental Health.
1969 Publication of Attachment, first volume of the Attachment and Loss trilogy.
---- Visiting Professor in Psychiatry, Stanford University, California.
1963-72 Member, External Scientific Staff, Medical Research Council.
1972 Commander of the British Empire.
1973 Publication of Separation, second volume of the Attachment
and Loss trilogy.
1973 Travelling Professor, Australian and New Zealand College
of Psychiatrists.
1977 Honorary Doctor of Science, University of Cambridge.
1979 Publication of The Making and Breaking of Affectional Bonds.
1980 Publication of Loss, third volume of the Attachment and Loss trilogy.
1981 Freud Memorial Professor of Psychoanalysis, University College, London.
---- Foreign Honorary Member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
1987 Celebration of Bowlby's 80th birthday with a conference at the Tavistock Clinic, bringing together researchers and clinicians, entitled 'The Effect of Relationships on Relationships'.
1988 Publication of A Secure Base.
Chronology 227
1989 Fellow of the British Academy.
1990 Publication of Charles Darwin, A New Biography.
---- Dies while in Skye, at his holiday home where much of his writing had been done.
Bibliography
PUBLICATIONS OF JOHN BOWLBY
Personal Aggressiveness and War, (1938) (with E. P. M. Durbin) London: Kegan Paul.
'The abnormally aggressive child', (1938) The New Era (Sept. -Oct. ). 'Hysteria in children', (1939a) in A Survey of Child Psychiatry, pp. 80-94,
Humphrey Milford (ed. ), London: Oxford University Press.
'Substitute homes', (1939) Mother and Child (official organ of the National
Council for Maternity and Child Welfare) X (1) (April): 3-7.
'Jealous and spiteful children', (1939) Home and School (Home and School
Council of Great Britain), IV(5): 83-5.
Bowlby, J. , Miller, E. and Winnicott, D. W. (1939) 'Evacuation of small children'
(letter), British Medical Journal (16 Dec. ): 1202-3.
'The influence of early environment in the development of neurosis and neurotic
character', (1940) International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 21: 154-78. 'Psychological aspects', (1940) ch. 16, pp. 186-96, in Evacuation Survey: A Report to the Fabian Society, Richard Padley and Margaret Cole (eds),
London: George Routledge & Sons Ltd.
'The problem of the young child', (1940c) Children in War-time, 21 (3): 19-30,
London: New Education Fellowships.
'Forty-four juvenile thieves: their characters and home life', (1944) International
Journal of Psychoanalysis, 25: 1-57 and 207-228; republished as a
monograph by Baillie`re, Tindall & Cox, London, 1946.
'Childhood origins of recidivism', (1945-46) The Howard Journal, VII (1): 30-
3, The Howard League for Penal Reform.
'The future role of the child guidance clinic in education and other services',
(1946a) Report of the Proceedings of a Conference on Mental Health,
(14-15 Nov. ), pp. 80-89, National Association for Mental Health. 'Psychology and democracy', (1946b) The Political Quarterly, XVII (1):
61-76.
'The therapeutic approach in sociology', (1947a) The Sociological
Review, 39: 39-49.
'The study of human relations in the child guidance clinic', (1947b)
Journal of Social Issues, III (2) (Spring): 35-41.
'The study and reduction of group tensions in the family, (1949a) Human
Relations, 2 (2) (April): 123-8.
'The relation between the therapeutic approach and the legal approach
Bibliography 229
to juvenile delinquency', (1949b) The Magistrate, VIII (Nov. ):
260-4.
Why Delinquency? The Case for Operational Research, (1949c) Report
of a conference on the scientific study of juvenile delinquency held at the Royal Institution, London 1 Oct. , and published by the National Association for Mental Health.
'Research into the origins of delinquent behaviour', (1950) British Medical Journal 1 March 11: 570).
Maternal Care and Mental Health, (1951) World Health Organisation, Monograph Series No. 2.
'Responses of young children to separation from their mothers', (with J. Robertson) (1952a) Courier, Centre International de l'Enfance, II (2): 66-78, and II (3): 131-42, Paris.
A two-year-old goes to hospital: a scientific film, (with J. Robertson) (1952b) Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 46: 425-7. 'A two-year-old goes to hospital', Bowlby, J. , Robertson, J. and
Rosenbluth, D. (1952) The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, VII:
82-94.
'A two-year-old goes to hospital: a scientific film', (with J. Robertson)
(1952b) Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 46: 425-7. 'The roots of parenthood', (1953) Convocation Lecture of the National
Children's Home (July).
Child Care and the Growth of Maternal Love, (1953b) (abridged version
of Maternal Care and Mental Health, 1951), London: Penguin Books;
new and enlarged edition, 1965.
'Critical phases in the development of social responses in man and other
animals', (1953c) New Biology, London: Penguin Books, pp. 25-
32.
'Some pathological processes set in train by early mother-child
separation', (1953d) Journal of Mental Science, 99: 265-72. 'Research strategy in the study of mother-child separation', (with M. G. Ainsworth) (1954) Courier, Centre International de l'Enfance, IV:
105-13.
'Family approach to child guidance: therapeutic techniques', (1955)
Transactions of the 11th Interclinic Conference for the Staffs of Child Guidance Clinics, National Association for Mental Health (26 March).
'The growth of independence in the young child', (1956) Royal Society of Health Journal, 76: 587-91.
'Psychoanalytic instinct theory', (1956) in Discussions on Child Development, vol. 1 , J. M. Tanner and B. Inhelder (eds), pp. 182- 87, London: Tavistock Publications.
'The effects of mother-child separation: a follow-up study', (with M. Ainsworth, M. Boston and D. Rosenbluth) (1956) British Journal of Medical Psychology, XXIX, parts 3 and 4 : 211-47.
'An ethological approach to research in child development', (1957) British Journal of Medical Psychology, XXX, part 4 : 230-40.
Can I Leave my Baby? , (1958a) The National Association for Mental Health.
230 John Bowlby and Attachment Theory
'A note on mother-child separation as a mental health hazard', (1958b) British Journal of Medical Psychology, XXXI, parts 3 and 4 :247-8. Foreword to Widows and their Families by Peter Marris, (1958c) London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
'The nature of the child's tie to his mother', (1958d) International Journal
of Psycho-Analysis, 39, part V : 350-73.
'Psychoanalysis and child care', (1958e) in Psychoanalysis and
Contemporary Thought, J. Sutherland (ed. ), London: Hogarth Press. 'Ethology and the development of object relations', (1960a) International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 41, parts IV - V : 313-17. 'Separation anxiety', (1960b) International Journal of Psycho-Analysis,
41, parts II - III : 89-113.
Comment on Piaget's paper: 'The general problems of the psychobiological
development on the child', (1960c) in Discussions on Child Development, vol. 4 , J. M. Tanner and B. Inhelder (eds), London: Tavistock Publications.
'Grief and mourning in infancy and early childhood', (1960d) The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, XV: 9-52.
'Separation anxiety: a critical review of the literature', (1961a) Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 1 (16): 251-69.
Note on Dr Max Schur's comments on grief and mourning in infancy and early childhood, (1961b) The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, XVI: 206-8.
'Childhood mourning and its implications for psychiatry', The Adolf Meyer Lecture, (1961c) American Journal of Psychiatry, 118 (6): 481-97.
'Processes of mourning', (1961d) International Journal of Psycho- Analysis, 42, parts IV - V : 317-40.
'Defences that follow loss: causation and function', (1962a) unpublished. 'Loss, detachment and defence', (1962b) unpublished.
'Pathological mourning and childhood mourning', (1963) Journal of the
American Psychoanalytic Association, XI (3) (July): 500-41.
Note on Dr Lois Murphy's paper 'Some aspects of the first relationship', (1964a) International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 45, part 1 :
44-6.
Security and Anxiety: Old Ideas in a New Light, (1964b) Proceedings of
the 15th Annual Conference of the Association of Children's Officers. Darwin's health (letter) (1965) British Medical Journal (10 April), p.
999.
Foreword to Brief Separations (1966) by C. M. Heinicke and I. J.
Westheimer, New York: International Universities Press; London:
Longmans Green.
'Effects on behaviour of disruption of an affectional bond', (1968a) in
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Behaviour, J. M. Thoday
and A-S Parkes, pp. 94-108, Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd.
'Security and anxiety', (1968b) chapter in The Formative Years, London:
BBC Publications.
'Affectional bonds: their nature and origin', (1969a) in Progress in Mental
Health, H. Freeman (ed. ), London: J. & A. Churchill.
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'Psychopathology of anxiety: the role of affectional bonds', (1969d) in Studies of Anxiety, M. H. Lader (ed. ), British Journal of Psychiatry, Special Publication no. 3.
'Reasonable fear and natural fear', (1970) International Journal of Psychiatry, 9: 79-88.
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'Self-reliance and some conditions that promote it', (1973b) in Support, Innovation and Autonomy, R. Gosling, (ed. ), pp. 23-48, London: Tavistock Publications.
'The family for good or ill', (1973c) Report on a seminar given in the Department of Psychological Medicine, University of Otago Medical School, New Zealand Department of Psychological Medicine.
'Problems of marrying research with clinical and social needs', (1974) in The Growth of Competence, K. J. Connolly and J. S. Bruner (eds), pp. 303-7, London and New York: Academic Press.
'Attachment theory, separation anxiety and mourning', (1975) in American Handbook of Psychiatry (2nd edn), vol. VI, New Psychiatric Frontiers, David A. Hamburg and Keith H. Brodie (eds), ch. 14, pp. 292-309.
Bindung, translation of Attachment, (1975) Munich: Kindler Verlag. 'Responses to separation from parents: a clinical test for young children', (with M. Klagsbrun) (1976a) British Journal of Projective Psychology
and Personality Study, 21 (2): 7-27.
'Human personality development in an ethological light', (1976b) in
Animal Models in Human Psychobiology, G. Serban and A. Kling
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'The making and breaking of affectional bonds, (1977) I Aetiology and psychopathology in the light of attachment theory, II Some principles of psychotherapy', British Journal of Psychiatry, 130: 201-10 and
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'Attachment theory and its therapeutic implications', (1978) in Adolescent
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and P. L. Giovacchini (eds), pp. 5-33, New York: Jason Aronson. 'On knowing what you are not supposed to know and feeling what you are not supposed to feel', (1979a) Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,
24 (5): 403-8.
'Psychoanalysis as art and science', (1979b) International Review of
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232 John Bowlby and Attachment Theory
The Making and Breaking of Affectional Bonds, (1979c) London: Tavistock Publications.
Continuing commentary on article by D. W. Rajecki, M. E. Lamb and P. Obmascher, 'Toward a general theory of infantile attachment: a comparative review of aspects of the social bond', (1979d) The Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 2: 637-8.
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'Perspective: a contribution by John Bowlby', (1981a) Bulletin of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, 5 (1) (Jan. ).
Contribution to symposium, 'Emanuel Peterfreund on information and systems theory', (1981b) The Psychoanalytic Review, 68: 187-90.
'Psychoanalysis as a natural science', (1981c) International Review of Psycho-Analysis, 8, part 3 : 243-56.
'Attachment and loss: retrospect and prospect', (1982a) American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52 (4): 664-78.
Epilogue, (1982b) The Place of Attachment in Human Behaviour, Colin Murray Parkes and Joan Stevenson-Hinde (eds), pp. 310-13, New York: Basic Books; London: Tavistock Publications.
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Discussion of paper, 'Aspects of transference in group analysis' (1984b) by Mario Marrone, Group Analysis, 17: 191-4.
'Violence in the family as a disorder of the attachment and caregiving systems', (1984c) American Journal of Psychoanalysis, 44: 9-27.
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'Processi difensivi alla luce della teoria dell'attaccamento', (1986a) Psicoterapia e Scienze Umane, 20: 3-19.
Figlio, K. and Young, R. (1986b) 'An Interview with John Bowlby', Free Associations, 6: 36-64.
'Defensive processes in the light of attachment theory', (1987a) in Attachment and the Therapeutic Process, D. P. Schwartz, J. L. Sacksteder and Y. Akabane (eds), New York: International Universities Press.
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Ainsworth, M. , Blehar, M. , Waters, E. and Wall, S. (1978) Patterns of Attachment: Assessed in the Strange Situation and at Home, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
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