Literary sources are almost completely silent about this sanctuary, but the archaeological finds show that it was of great
importance
during the Archaic period.
Ancient-greek-cults-a-guide
The Bronze Age Minoan civilization, predecessors of the Greeks in Krete, worshiped a young god as part of their pantheon.
Though little is known about this god, modern scholars have sug- gested that he was the partner of an older goddess, and that the relationship arose from the same pattern of myth and ritual that gave rise to the Near Eastern worship of Inanna and Dumuzi, Ishtar and Tammuz, Isis and Osiris, and Kybele and Attis.
21
Zeus Diktaios was the most important deity of eastern Krete, and a deity of this name was worshiped in Mycenaean Knossos. He appears in a number of inscribed treaty oaths between Kretan cities in the Hellenistic period, but the oath formulas themselves appear to be of Archaic date. 22 All refer to the god whose cult was localized at Mt. Dikte, where Rhea gave birth to him in a cave and he was protected by a band of youthful warriors, the Kouretes, and nourished with the milk of the goat Amaltheia. There has been much debate in both ancient and modern times about the location of Dikte: modern scholars once linked Dikte with Psychro cave near Lyktos, because Hesiod (Theog. 477-79) mentions this area in his description of Zeus' birth. But this
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identification was refuted when excavation of an ancient sanctuary at Palaikastro brought to light an inscribed hymn that begins "Io, greatest Youth (Kouros), welcome, son of Kronos, all-powerful Brightness, here now present, leading the gods (daimones), come for the New Year to Dikte, and rejoice in this song. " The hymn was inscribed at a late date, but its content and style show that it goes back to the Classical period or earlier. 23 It tells how, with the coming of Rhea's divine child, Justice and Peace attend the earth, and it urges the Kouros to "leap into" the herds, fields, and cities. Diktaian Zeus appears to be primarily a god of vegetative and procreative energies who is "born anew" every year.
The excavations also brought to light rich votive offerings showing that the sanctuary was most prosperous from the seventh to fifth centuries. Mt. Dikte, then, is probably the peak overlooking Palaikastro, known today as Mt. Petsophas. Significantly, the Classical site of Palaikastro overlay a Middle Minoan settlement, and on Mt. Petsophas was a Minoan peak sanc- tuary that yielded terracotta figures of a young deity. The most spectacular find, discovered within a hundred meters of the inscribed hymn, was a magnificent Minoan statuette of gold and ivory, depicting a youth in the same pose as the Petsophas figurines. The striking spatial juxtaposition of the Minoan and Greek cults of a youthful god suggests that memories of the Bronze Age persisted into Classical times. At the same time, there is a gap in archaeological continuity at the site from the Bronze Age to the early Archaic period, so the cult was presumably interrupted and re-established. In those intervening centuries, it must have undergone significant changes. 24
Another famous cult site of Zeus was the cave below the summit of Mt. Ida in central Krete, which served as a sanctuary for over a thousand years. Excavated in the nineteenth century, it contained many layers of burnt sacrificial offerings, and an unusually rich hoard of votive objects, including bronze and gold items. Some of the objects from the Idaian cave, including a famous group of bronze shields with orientalizing decorations, date to the time of Homer, the eighth or seventh centuries. 25 The cult here, as at Dikte, was concerned with the youthful Zeus and his band of protective warriors, the Kouretes, who clashed their shields to conceal the infant's cries from his hostile father. Idaian Zeus was a mysterious god into whose rites young men were initiated on the model of the Kouretes, according to a fragment of Euripides' Cretans. 26 The chorus of this play tell how the god's worshipers led a life of purity, wearing only white clothing and abstaining from all meat except the raw flesh of the bull sacrificed to Zeus. The celebrations are described as ecstatic and involved torch-lit processions over the mountain. There is a story that the philosopher Pythagoras was initiated into this cult: after strenuous preparations, he descended into the cave for twenty-seven days and viewed the "tomb of Zeus. "27 This concept of a tomb for Zeus would have seemed reasonable to Egyptians or Syrians, who were familiar with dying gods, but it was alien to other Greeks, who never questioned that
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the gods were immortal. The poet Callimachus, commenting on the tomb in
his Hymn to Zeus (1. 8-9), concluded: "Kretans always lie. " Oracular Zeus
Zeus was the ultimate source of oracular wisdom, but generally did not give oracles at his own shrines, delegating this task instead to his son Apollo. There were a few exceptions to this rule, including the oracles of Zeus read from sacrificial omens at the Panhellenic sanctuary of Olympia, and the oracle of Ammon in the Libyan desert, where the Egyptian god Amun-Ra was syncretized with Zeus as early as the sixth century. 28 But the most important oracular center of Zeus, established in the eighth century, was Dodona in northwestern Greece. Zeus' cult title here was Naios (the Flow- ing), probably from the abundant springs in the area, and he shared the sanctuary with a consort, Dione, whose name is merely a feminine form of his own. Homer (Il. 16. 233-35) mentions the Selloi, interpreters of Dodo- naian Zeus, who have unwashed feet and sleep on the ground. These early prophets apparently obeyed an ascetic rule designed to preserve and increase their contact with the earth, often viewed as a source of oracular knowledge. But in the Odyssey (14. 327-28), we hear that Odysseus went to Dodona to get Zeus' advice "from the god's high-leafed oak tree. " In some descriptions of the oracle, an oak tree sacred to Zeus speaks with a human voice. Other accounts tell of messages from doves perched in the tree's branches, or from dove-priestesses who presumably replaced the male Selloi. Evidence from the excavations, however, shows that by the Classical period, one consulted Zeus and Dione by writing a question on a ribbon-shaped lead tablet and handing it to the priestess. Most questions dealt with personal matters, such as whether to undertake a voyage or whether to marry. Often, the oracle advised people on which gods they should sacrifice to in order to ensure health, the birth of children, or prosperity. 29
Zeus at Olympia and Nemea
Two of the "big four" sanctuaries that hosted Panhellenic athletic festivals, Olympia and Nemea, were dedicated to Zeus. The younger of the two was Nemea, controlled by Kleonai in the sixth century (when the first temple was built) and later by Argos. The founding myth of the festival linked the cult of Zeus with that of a child-hero, Archemoros/Opheltes, for whom funeral games were established. The recently excavated hero shrine of Opheltes consisted of a long, mounded embankment containing some forty drinking vessels left as foundation deposits. On the broad end of the embankment, from which spectators could view the stadium, was a pentagonal wall enclosing at least two stone altars and a fire pit with the remains of sacrifices. The pottery from this shrine dates no earlier than the early sixth century,
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when the Nemean games were established, though a few scraps and sherds suggest cult activity at Nemea as early as the eighth century. The Archaic temple of Zeus was destroyed by fire during the late fifth century, probably as a result of warfare to judge from the remains of weapons in the burnt layer of soil. 30
As early as the tenth century, Olympia was a meeting place where local chieftains displayed their wealth by dedicating valuable bronze sculptures and tripods to Zeus. The traditional date for the founding of the games them- selves is 776, and during the eighth century, Olympia gradually developed into the most elaborate and important cult site of Zeus. In place of local Peloponnesian chiefs, it now became the arena for rivalries between devel- oping city-states. 31 The center of the sanctuary was a walled precinct called the Altis (Sacred Grove), where stood the primitive altar of Zeus, a great conical pile of molded sacrificial ashes. Every four years, the high point of the festival was the sacrifice of one hundred or more cattle, whose thighs were burned on the altar by Olympic victors. Zeus' altar was also the seat of an oracle; at its summit a mantis (prophet) drawn from the Klytiad or Iamid families would observe and interpret the burn pattern of the offerings for those consulting the god. 32
An early structure near Zeus' altar was the Pelopion, or tomb of Pelops, an ancestral hero who gave his name to the Peloponnese; his archetypal chariot race was immortalized in the eastern pediment of Zeus' temple. This tomb consisted of a mound on which stood a polygonal enclosure wall (probably the model for the similar hero shrine of Opheltes at Nemea). At every festival the hero received a black ram, whose blood flowed into a pit in the Pelopion, as well as preliminary offerings whenever sacrifice was made to Zeus. There has been vigorous debate over the age of Pelops' cult; though Early Helladic walls were found beneath the Pelopion, they may be unrelated to the Archaic cult, and the stratigraphy is not well enough preserved to draw conclusions about continuity. On the other hand, the mound on which the Pelopion sat was itself prehistoric, and the fact that this site was chosen shows a desire on the part of the sanctuary's founders to forge links to the heroic past. 33
Over the centuries, hundreds of secondary and minor deities became attached to the sanctuary. Among the most important of these were Hera, whose temple dated to the seventh century, Kronos (on the Hill of Kronos), Rhea (in the Metroo? n), and Herakles, who was credited with founding the games. Once a month the Eleans, inhabitants of the surrounding district, made offerings at the roughly seventy lesser altars on the site. In the time of Pausanias (5. 14. 4-10), these included at least eight altars of Zeus in various aspects, including Zeus Katharsios (of Purification), Kataibates (of Descending Lightning), Chthonios (of the Underworld), and Hypsistos (the Highest).
As we have seen, Zeus' cults seldom required a temple or image, and the first temple on the site was that of Hera. None was supplied for Zeus until the
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fifth century, when the Eleans defeated the Pisatans, their rivals for control of the sanctuary, and began a building program with the spoils. Completed before 457, the Doric temple was furnished with a colossal ivory and gold statue of Zeus, which became one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world. The god was depicted in a restful pose that departed from the standard Archaic representations of him striding forward with raised thunderbolt, and drew instead on Homer's description (Il. 1. 497-99) of a majestic Zeus enthroned on Mt. Olympos. Seated on an elaborately ornamented, gem- encrusted throne, he held Nike (Victory) in his raised right hand, and his left hand grasped a staff, on which perched an eagle. It was said that when the sculptor Pheidias completed the statue, he prayed to Zeus to make a sign if the work pleased him, and a flash of lightning immediately appeared. Few visitors to the temple failed to be moved with religious awe at the sight of the image, which measured about 13 m in height and could be viewed from a second-floor gallery. But in spite of its huge size, viewers received the impression of a calm and peaceful deity. According to Dio Chrysostom (Or. 12. 51), "whoever is deeply burdened with pain in his soul, having borne much misfortune and grief in his life and never being able to attain sweet sleep, even this man, I believe, standing before this image, would forget all the terrible and harsh things which one must suffer in human life. "
Further reading
Cook 1964 [1914-] is still valuable for its collection of primary sources, but this massive study should be used with caution because its materials and methods are outdated. Much of Burkert 1983b focuses on cults of Zeus in relation to sacrificial practices. Jameson, Jordan, and Kotansky 1993 and Lalonde 2006 collect information about Zeus Meilichios and his role in purifications. Parke 1967 is still the best account in English of the oracles of Zeus. Sinn 2000 provides a popular account of Olympia by an excavator and scholar of religion who knows the site intimately.
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3
LADY OF GRAND TEMPLES Hera
Major cults of Hera were not evenly spread over the Greek world, but instead were characteristic of certain regions and peoples. The Dorians of the north- east Peloponnese (Argos, Korinth, Tiryns) and the Peloponnesians who colonized southern Italy honored her the most. A famous Ionian seat of her worship was the island of Samos. Her cult enjoyed its greatest prosperity during the Archaic period, when Argos and Samos were at the height of their power. Hera's origins are generally thought to lie in a powerful prehellenic goddess (or goddesses) whose cult was adopted by the Mycenaean Greeks. Her name has been connected with the word ho ? ra, season, indicating fertility and ripeness for marriage, and appears on Linear B tablets from Pylos (in connection with Zeus) and Thebes. The same etymology makes Hera a feminine form of hero ? s, and this background may help to elucidate the goddess' complex ties to heroes, Herakles above all, and the genesis of the Greek concept of the mythic and cultic hero. 1
Greek poetry and myth tell us of a goddess who vehemently opposes her husband's extramarital affairs and attempts to punish her rivals and their offspring. She is a scheming and vengeful deity, who plots against the Trojans when she loses the beauty contest judged by Paris, but she also has favorites such as the hero Jason, whom she aids in his quest for the Golden Fleece. She is not a tender mother, but Homer describes her sexual union with Zeus as a source of fecund power (Il. 14. 347-49): "under them the divine earth grew newly-sprouted grass, dewy clover, crocuses, and hyacinths, thick and soft. " In some of her cults, Hera is likewise viewed primarily as a bride or wife, and her status as Zeus' consort is central for worshipers. But in her most famous cults (Argos and Samos) Hera is a powerful city goddess who fosters economic and military success. In these cases her relationship to Zeus is not a crucial factor, and the literary portrait of a jealous, scheming wife seems far removed from the cultic experience of an awe-inspiring deity who brings success in battle, multiplies the herds of cattle, frees the enslaved, and protects the young for her chosen people.
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Argive Hera
Despite Homer's Panhellenizing tendencies, he recognizes Hera's regional character as goddess of the Argive peninsula, giving her the epithet Hera Argeia (e. g. Il. 4. 8). In historical times she became the city-goddess of Argos itself, and her Argive sanctuary was the most venerable and famed center of her worship. Her festival there, known as the Heraia or Hekatombaia (Sacrifice of one hundred Oxen), was held in the first month of the year. A grand procession escorted the priestess, who rode in an ox-drawn wagon from the city to the sanctuary several miles distant. The youth recognized as most virtuous carried a sacred shield in the procession, marking his and his age-mates' transition to adulthood and warrior status. After the procession, there were athletic competitions for which the prize was, again, a bronze shield. 2 Hera's cult at Argos shows a preoccupation with two aspects of the Argolid's prosperity: the herds of cattle on which its wealth was based, and its military might. Terracotta figurines from the Heraion indicate that Hera was also viewed as a kourotrophic deity, one who nourished and protected the young. Often she is shown holding a child in her lap. Sometimes she holds not a child but a horse, an emblem of aristocratic privilege. Hera's cult seems to have been closely bound up with the efforts of the early Archaic Argives to define their relationship with the heroic past.
The Argive Heraion was constructed over the remains of a Mycenaean settlement, but there is no clear evidence of continuity of cult from the Bronze Age to the ninth century, when activity at the Heraion becomes archaeologic- ally visible. Around 700, a terrace was built using huge "Cyclopean" blocks in imitation of the Bronze Age architectural style, and shortly thereafter a temple of stone and wood with a colonnade was added. This Archaic struc- ture was not superseded by a newer temple until the fifth century, when the sanctuary was transformed from a rallying center for the towns in the region to a symbol of the power of Argos, by then the dominant city. In 2000-01, excavators found (SEG 51 [2001] 410) a cache of inscribed bronze tablets recording, among other things, the sums borrowed from the state treasuries of Pallas and Hera to pay for the construction of this temple. It possessed sculptures depicting not myths of Hera herself, but subjects of interest to the Argives: the birth of Zeus, the battle of the gods and giants, the Trojan war, and the saga of Orestes.
In Pausanias' time, one entered the temple after walking through a series of statues of the former priestesses (styled kleidouchoi or Keyholders), whose tenures provided a chronological framework for the city's history. The list of priestesses was already ancient in the fifth century, when Hellanicus (FGrH 4 F 74-82) used it as the basis for an account of the Greeks from the Trojan war to his own day. The cult image of the Classical period was a famous one by Polykleitos, fashioned of gold and ivory over a wood core. The seated goddess held a scepter and a pomegranate, symbols of temporal power and
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fertility. A more ancient wooden image must have existed, but presumably was destroyed when the Archaic temple burned in 423/2. When Pausanias (2. 17. 3) visited the temple, he saw a venerable image of pearwood taken from nearby Tiryns, another ancient Heraian cult center, which the Argives had installed on a pillar beside Polykleitos' statue. The pillar itself may have held special significance, for a fragment of the Argive epic Phoronis (fr. 3 Davies, EGF) describes Hera's priestess adorning "the high column of the Olympian queen, Hera Argeia" with fillets and tassels. Another item of interest in the temple was the "couch of Hera," a symbol of Hera's status as the bride of Zeus.
The Asterion river near the Heraion was regarded as the father of Hera's three nurses, the nymphs Akraia, Prosymna and Euboia, who were named after features of the sanctuary's topography. Local tradition, therefore, held that Argos was Hera's birthplace. Women conducted secret rituals at the Heraion, involving purifications, sacrifices, and the offering of garlands twined from a local herb also called asterion. The women wove a robe for Hera, as they did at Olympia, first taking a ritual bath in the waters of the spring or well called Amymone. The hundreds of miniature water vessels (hudriai) from the excavations further attest the importance of water in these activities. Perhaps the ritual involved a bath for Hera's image; a legend describing how Hera took an annual bath to restore her virginity was attached to the spring Kanathos in nearby Nauplia. The "water of freedom" of the stream Eleutherion, near the Heraion, was used for the women's secret rites, and was also drunk by slaves and prisoners about to be emancipated. Hera's daughter Hebe (Youth), whose statue stood beside hers in the Heraion, similarly granted asylum to suppliants and freed prisoners at her ancient sanctuary in Phlious. 3
Hera of Samos
Half of one column from the Heraion at Samos has been reconstructed, scarcely hinting at the former glory of this sanctuary. A succession of temples stood in the marshy site, beginning with the late eighth-century hekatompedon or hundred-foot temple. One of the later temples was a truly gigantic Ionic structure with a forest of columns, which Herodotus (3. 60) called the largest temple of his time. Among the dedications at the Samian Heraion were over thirty house models in stone and terracotta. The Hera sanctuaries at Argos and Perachora have also produced models with Geometric decoration, causing speculation that the houses are intended to represent the earliest temples, before the construction of hekatompeda. Given the fact that Hera's temples are everywhere among the earliest attested, this is likely, but other explanations are possible. If the models represent chieftains' houses, they could symbolize Hera's association with political authority and social status. 4
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? Figure 3. 1 Terracotta house or temple model from Perachora. End of the ninth century. Athens, National Archaeological Museum. Bildarchiv Foto Marburg.
The center of the sanctuary, and its earliest feature, was the altar, which existed from the tenth century. Like the temple, it was rebuilt several times, culminating in a monumental 40 m structure. 5 All this grandeur, however, came after the sanctuary was well established. While not of Panhellenic stature, its fortunes rose with those of the maritime state of Samos in the seventh and sixth centuries. Asius, a poet of this period, described the wealthy Samians visiting the sanctuary dressed in flowing white tunics, with long hair bound in golden bands, and adorned with gold cicadas. A stunning variety of imported objects was uncovered in the excavations: Egyptian ivories, Babylonian bronze figurines, and a collection of exotic animal trophies including crocodile and antelope skulls. In spite of the cosmopolitan nature of the sanctuary, the dedications show that it was also a local center of worship. The excavations turned up many humble, crudely carved vessels and figurines, as well as natural curiosities like coral and rock crystal. 6
There were conflicting stories about the origins of the sanctuary and to what degree it was dependent on the Heraion at Argos. One tradition said that it was founded by the Argonauts, who brought the cult statue from Argos, while the Samians themselves said that Hera was born here under the lugos, a willow-like tree preserved in the sanctuary, and that the place was founded by non-Greek Karians. Still, their tradition allowed that the first Greek priestess of the sanctuary was the Argive Admete, daughter of
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Eurystheus. Once, Karian pirates had attempted to steal the cult image of Hera, but found their ship immobilized when they placed the statue on board. Terrified, they left the image on the beach with a food offering and made their escape. There the searching Samians found it, and believing that it had run away, bound it to the lugos with the tree's flexible branches. Admete herself purified the image and restored it to its place in the temple. This myth provided the background for the annual festival called the Tonaia (Binding), during which the goddess' statue was carried to the sea, purified, and given a meal of barley-cakes. At some point during the rite, it was probably also bound with lugos branches. Celebrants at the feast wore wreaths made of lugos and reclined on beds of it. This festival has been interpreted as a drama of the deity's disappearance and return, in which the recovery of the goddess is symbolic of the yearly cycle of vegetative abundance. A related possibility is that the drama expresses the Samians' anxiety lest Hera, the protector of their city and guarantor of their good fortune, abandon them. The goddess is annually bound to her birthplace and her proper residence at Samos is reaffirmed. The myth itself asserts that even should outside forces attempt to move the goddess, she would express a preference for her home and actively resist leaving it. 7
There are indeed indications that Hera at Samos was a goddess concerned with fertility. Among the objects dedicated to her were pinecones and pome- granates (real fruits as well as clay and ivory models), symbols of fecund reproduction. The offering of pomegranates, however, appears to cease after about 600. Joan V. O'Brien suggests that this is due to a shift in the percep- tion of Hera, through which her role as bride of Zeus came to be emphasized over her earlier manifestation as a powerful, independent goddess. In any case, Hera's role at Samos was never limited to assuring fertility, but must have been closely connected with the Samians' successful trading ventures. Stylized wooden ship models were common votives, and in the Archaic period two full-size ships were dedicated in the sanctuary. 8
The cult image of Samian Hera has been described by ancient witnesses as crudely carved and planklike. It was wooden, small and light enough to be carried annually to the shore for the Tonaia, but spent the rest of the year ensconced in the temple, dressed in rich garments and wearing a high crown. It also wore a pectoral ornament, resembling an extended collar or series of necklaces, which was characteristic of East Greek and Anatolian deities (the so-called "multiple breasts" of Artemis at Ephesos are another example). When the Samians built the huge Classical temple, they supplied it with a new cult image that resided in the cella, the normal location. The venerable old image was kept in the pronaos, or front room, of the temple. This arrangement was perhaps dictated by the need to keep the old image in its original location: its base in the pronaos stood on the same spot it had occupied in the cella of the old temple. As we have seen, keeping the goddess fixed in her proper place was a major cultic concern for the Samians. 9
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Hera at Korinth and Perachora
The Heraion at Perachora was among the richest minor sanctuaries in Greece.
Literary sources are almost completely silent about this sanctuary, but the archaeological finds show that it was of great importance during the Archaic period. In the territory of the prosperous mercantile state of Korinth, it was founded in the eighth century and saw the construction of yet another of the very early temples to Hera we have noted. The first temple had a curved (apsidal) back wall and was only about 7. 5 m in length. Nothing is known about the cult image, but the goddess here was called Hera Akraia (of the Headland), a reference to the Perachora promontory on which the sanctuary was situated near a small harbor. Sixth-century dedications to Hera Limenia (of the Harbor) have also been found; surprisingly, these appear on a terrace above the harbor itself and the main part of the sanctuary. An Archaic struc- ture on the terrace, once thought to be a separate temple of Hera Limenia, is now considered an auxiliary building, probably a dining room. Blocks used in this building contain dedications to Hera under yet another title, Hera Leukolene (of the White Arms). These early (seventh- and sixth-century) dedications echo one of Homer's favorite epithets for Hera (e. g. Il. 5. 711, 8. 381, etc. ).
The pattern of votives shows that this was an important cult site for local people, as well as for sailors traveling up and down the Gulf of Korinth. The many imported objects, including Egyptian-style scarabs and Phoenician bronzes, illustrate the wide trading contacts of the Archaic Korinthians. The earliest, eighth-century temple at the harbor was accompanied by a deposit of Geometric votive objects, including drinking vessels, wine jugs, clay models of cakes presented as offerings to the goddess (koulouria), and house models. This temple was replaced in the sixth century with a new Doric stone temple, and a monumental altar was added. North of the altar the excavators found a flight of steps, which probably functioned as a spectator area for viewing the sacrifices. 10
The myth of Medeia, the young sorceress whom Jason brought back from his travels in the Black Sea, is best known from the play by Euripides. This work portrays her as a spurned wife who kills her children by Jason in order to avenge herself for his abandonment, then buries the children in the sanc- tuary of Hera Akraia and founds their cult (Eur. Med. 1378-83). There were, however, other myths about how the children of Medeia died. According to one, Medeia took each of her children in turn to the sanctuary of Hera to "hide them away" (katakruptein), thinking that this operation would make them immortal. (The word may mean that she buried them. ) When her hopes were disappointed and Jason discovered what she had done, he abandoned her. Another version held that Medeia instructed her children to bring a poisoned robe to her rival Glauke. When Glauke perished as a result of the gift, the enraged Korinthians stoned the innocent children. The murdered
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children took a supernatural vengeance by causing Korinthian infants to die, until the desperate citizens consulted an oracle and were told to institute annual sacrifices to Medeia's children. They also set up a statue known as Deima, or Terror, which took the form of "a frightening woman. " In antiquity, infant mortality was often attributed to female demons (Mormo, Lamia) who had a hideous appearance; the statue seems to have been designed to ward off such malign influences. Other sources tell us more about the relationship between the children's cult and that of Hera. Every year, seven boys and seven girls from noble families were dressed in black and sent to live in the sanctuary of Hera Akraia (it is unclear whether this refers to a sanctuary in Korinth itself, since no such sanctuary has been identified, or to that at Perachora). They cut their hair and dedicated it to Medeia's children, and presumably participated in the thre ? noi, or laments, sung for the children, and the enagismata, or sacrifices for the dead. 11
All these myths and related customs have been taken as evidence of a real (in the distant past) or symbolic child sacrifice to appease hostile divine forces, or as an initiation rite by which the youths and maidens, after a period of separation from the community, reached adult status. Certainly they indicate that the Korinthians thought it was necessary to devote elite children to the service of the goddess, and that upon this service depended the health and welfare of the entire community's children. The rituals originally may have been conducted for Medeia herself, since some scholars view her as a divine figure whose cult was superseded by Hera's. 12
Hera at Olympia
One of the paradoxes of the Panhellenic site of Olympia is that its earliest temple was erected not for Zeus, the primary deity of the sanctuary, but for Hera. During the late seventh century, a Heraion was built in the Altis, or sacred enclosure, which then contained no other major structures. Originally, only the foundations were of stone, while the walls were mud brick, and the rest of the structure, including the colonnade, was wood. The temple was refurbished in such a way that the columns were gradually replaced in stone, and each one was slightly different in style, thickness, and the type of stone used. The mismatched columns were probably the result of contributions by many donors, each of whom supplied one column and wanted it to be recog- nizably different from the rest.
Some scholars, disturbed by the anomaly of a Heraion as the only temple in a sanctuary of Zeus, have suggested that the temple was from the beginning dedicated jointly to Zeus and Hera, or that it was originally a temple of Zeus, and was rededicated to Hera only after Zeus' Classical temple was built in the fifth century. The question is still open, but we should keep in mind that a temple was never a requirement for a sanctuary, and was often absent from sanctuaries of Zeus in particular (as at Dodona, another Panhellenic Zeus
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sanctuary). The focus of Zeus' cult was not a cult statue, but the great ash altar where he received sacrifices. Furthermore, Hera was, as we have seen, one of the earliest temple deities, and one who was consistently provided with temples in the early Archaic period. Hera's cult in the Altis may have been introduced by Pheidon, the seventh-century king of Argos who estab- lished a military presence in Elis and reorganized the Olympic games. If this is the case, the Hera temple originally served as an offshoot of the Argive Heraion, and a reminder of the political and military supremacy of Argos in the early Archaic period. 13
Pausanias (5. 16. 1-20. 5) provides a detailed description of the temple's amazing contents. The cult image of Hera was seated, and behind it stood a statue of Zeus wearing a helmet. The positioning of Zeus' statue suggests that he was not the primary deity of this temple, but that his role as Hera's spouse was important to the cult (this is borne out by other aspects of the cult described below). Both statues are described as "simple" works, and thus probably belonged to the Archaic period. Nearby were images of many other deities in ivory and gold, some by famous sculptors and others by unknown artists: the Horai (Seasons) and Themis their mother, Athena, Demeter and Kore, Apollo and Artemis, Hermes, and so on. A richly decorated cedar- wood chest was dedicated by the family of Kypselos, the seventh-century tyrant of Korinth; this famous chest was covered with labeled episodes from heroic myths. There was also a small bed, recalling the "couch of Hera" in the Heraion at Argos; a disc on which was inscribed the ritual formula for the Olympic truce forbidding men in arms to enter the sanctuary, and the ivory and gold table used to hold the wreaths for Olympic victors.
Hera's cult at Olympia was administered by a college of sixteen women chosen from the most venerable and respected matrons of the district. These women organized the Heraia, or games held to honor Hera, concurrently with the quadrennial Olympic games. While women were generally excluded from the Olympic games both as competitors and as spectators, the Heraia involved a footrace for girls of three different age categories. They ran in the same stadium as the men and boys, though the track was one-sixth shorter. The winners received a portion of the meat from the cow sacrificed to Hera and a crown of olive. The sixteen women of Elis also wove a robe for Hera, which was presumably dedicated in the temple and may have adorned the cult image. They arranged choruses for Physkoa, a Dionysiac heroine, and for Hippodameia, the heroine who figures in one of the founding myths of Olympia. 14 It was to win the hand of Hippodameia that Pelops raced against her father, the king of Elis, thus inaugurating the chariot races at Olympia. The sixteen women traced their origin to Hippodameia, who first formed the college in order to give thanks to Hera for her marriage to Pelops. An alter- native story said that the women were brought together as arbiters to settle disputes between the Eleans and the Pisatans, who fought over the control of the sanctuary in the seventh and sixth centuries. If the story is accurate, this is
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one of the rare cases in which women's religious authority translated into a limited form of political authority.
Hera in Italy
The city of Poseidonia/Paestum in southern Italy was settled by Greeks from the Argolid. Within the walls to the south of the city, the new inhabitants built a Doric temple of Hera in the sixth century. The temple is notable for its double cella; the two halves are separated by a central row of columns. Since there was no technical need for this feature, which had been used in early temples to support the roof, scholars have speculated that there may have been two cult images. Perhaps Zeus was worshiped with Hera, as he was at Olympia. Terracottas from the sanctuary show the king and queen of the gods enthroned together. A second temple to Hera was built beside the first in the fifth century, and must have contained a newer cult image. Another theory about this temple holds that it was consecrated to Poseidon, the patron god of the city. 15
The Hera cult in the city was linked to an extraurban sanctuary at the mouth of the river Sele, north of Paestum. The medieval lime kilns on the site show that the sanctuary's structures were long ago dismantled and the marble components burned, yet here one of the most significant caches of Greek sculpture to be uncovered in the twentieth century escaped destruc- tion. Buried in the sand, excavators found more than thirty sculptured metopes from what was probably the earliest Hera temple at the site (c. 560). Many of these metopes illustrate the deeds of Herakles; others are scenes from the epic cycle of poems about Troy. 16 A second, larger temple of Hera, dating to about 500, was differently ornamented, with metopes depicting dancing pairs of maidens. The terracotta votives in this sanctuary are very reminiscent of those in the other Heraia we have studied: they show the enthroned goddess holding a spear, a child, a horse, or a pomegranate. Not coincidentally, the Virgin of the eighth-century CE church built near this site is known as the Madonna of the Pomegranate. Other typical gifts to the goddess, also found at both Argos and Samos, are implements of war: mini- ature terracotta shields and armor. Like the Heraion at Samos, this famous sanctuary was supposed to have been founded by Jason and the Argonauts to honor Argive Hera. 17
The sanctuary of Hera Lakinia at Kroton has been described as the most important sanctuary in southern Italy during the Classical period because of its role as the seat of the Achaian and Italian Leagues. Its rich votives begin in the seventh century and include a bronze ship model and a diadem decorated with leaves and acorns that may have adorned a wooden cult image. Like the other Olympian goddesses, Hera often received gifts of clothing, among which an elaborate purple cloak, embroidered with figures in gold and silver and presented by Alkistenes of Sybaris, was renowned. The nearby sanctuary
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? Figure 3. 2 Metope from Hera sanctuary at Foce del Sele: Centaur, 570-60. Museo Archeologico Nazionale. Bildarchiv Foto Marburg.
of Vigna Nuova contained numerous chains and tools, which may have been dedications to Hera by prisoners captured during Kroton's destruction of Sybaris (510) and ultimately freed. 18
Hera and marriage
Hera often receives the cult title Teleia (the Fulfilled) in reference to her status as an archetypal bride and consort. In Greek culture, marriage and mother- hood were the only acceptable goals for most women, and while Hera is not an enthusiastic mother in myth, we have seen that she functions as a nurturing goddess in some cults. Myths of Hera often illustrate the socially sanctioned status of the legitimate wife. The "marriage month" Gamelion, which appeared in many city calendars and involved sacrifices to Hera, was an auspicious time for weddings. Her union with Zeus was celebrated in the
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villages of Attica during the minor festival of Hieros Gamos (Sacred Marriage), while Zeus Teleios and Hera Teleia are invoked by Athenian poets in contexts that have to do with marriage. 19
In Boiotian Plataiai, the site of a major Hera festival, the temple contained two statues of the goddess. One was called Hera Nympheuomene (Led as a Bride) referring to the marriage procession, and the other was Hera Teleia. The goddess' festival, the Daidala, was celebrated every four (or six) years. According to Pausanias' account (9. 2. 5-3. 4), this involved the felling of an oak tree selected when the Plataians set out food for the crows in a sacred grove. The first tree the birds settled in was cut and fashioned into a crude statue called Daidala. At much longer intervals of sixty years, the festival called the Great Daidala took place. Unlike the annual observance, this involved the participation of cities all over Boiotia, each of whom contributed a cow and a bull. One of the wooden figures produced at the quadrennial festival was dressed as a bride and ceremoniously conducted in a cart from the river Asopos up to the peak of Mt. Kithairon. There, along with the other wooden figures and the sacrificial animals, it was burnt in a huge bonfire on the altar. 20
The myth that explained the origin of this custom told how Zeus had quarreled with Hera, who "hid herself away" in the area of Mt. Kithairon. On the advice of a local king, Zeus devised a method to find and reconcile her: he pretended to marry a rival, the oaken statue. Hera and the outraged matrons of Plataiai disrupted the wedding procession, only to discover that the bride was a wooden image. Amused at the trick, Hera nevertheless insisted on the burning of the false rival. In the historical period, the festival was understood to commemorate the reconciliation of Zeus and Hera, and was therefore a celebration of divine and human marriage. Both the images in Hera's temple, Nympheuomene and Teleia, refer to aspects of Hera's concern with legitimate, socially sanctioned unions, and the myth likewise stresses how Hera and the women of Plataiai jealously protected their prerogatives as wives in a culture that considered extramarital sex for men normal, yet took seriously the rule that a man must have only one wife. Otherwise, issues of social status and inheritance could become muddied.
On the other hand, the festival seems to incorporate elements that predate the myth of Hera's feminine jealousy, and point to the worship of an inde- pendently powerful goddess. Zeus has no place in the ritual itself, which seems to be akin to other sacred log processions attested in Boiotia and elsewhere, such as the Daphnephoria (Carrying the Laurel). Sacrifices on mountain peaks were characteristic of Minoan religion, and a shrine known as the Daidaleion is attested from Mycenaean Knossos. Hera's cult, with its marital preoccupations, may have been superimposed upon rituals that were once carried out for a prehellenic tree or mountain goddess who disappeared and returned on a seasonal basis. At the same time, the myth of Hera's quarrel with Zeus should not be dismissed as a comical tale concocted to explain the
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ritual. At Stymphalos in Arkadia, there was a similar myth of Hera's quarrel with and separation from Zeus, and there too the goddess' cult titles referred to marital status. Hera, it was said, grew up in Stymphalos, and possessed three sanctuaries, one as Pais (Girl), one as Teleia, which she received upon her marriage to Zeus, and one as Chera (Widow). She received the latter because she returned to Stymphalos "while she was quarreling with Zeus" and was without a husband. Thus, in the Stymphalian cult Hera provided models for the three stages of female life as the Greeks conceptualized it, but it was her period of separation from Zeus that provided the impetus for the goddess' return to her own land. Hera's identity as a local goddess could best be manifested when she was apart from Zeus, not installed as his bride on Olympos. 21
Further reading
Clark 1998 compares several festivals of Hera in relation to the institution of marriage. Kyrieleis 1993 is a useful account of the sanctuary of Hera at Samos by one of its excavators. O'Brien 1993 argues, speculatively at times, for continuity in Hera's cults from the Bronze Age to the Archaic period and gives detailed archaeological information. Tomlinson 1992 is a good intro- duction to the material record at Perachora, while Pedley 1990 (cf. Pedley 2005. 167-85) provides one of the few accounts in English of the Hera sanc- tuaries at Poseidonia/Paestum and Foce del Sele.
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4
MISTRESS OF CITADELS Athena
Athena's name probably comes from the city of Athens and not the other way around. In a Linear B tablet from Knossos, we hear of the Potnia (Mistress) of At(h)ana, and there is a consensus that Athena was in origin a Minoan or Mycenaean deity, perhaps identical with the shield goddess who appears on a painted tablet at Mycenae itself. 1 As a warrior goddess who protected the king and citadel, this Mistress had parallels in the Near East (Ishtar, Anat) and Egypt (Neith). Still, the exact relationship between the Bronze Age goddess and the Athena of the Classical Greeks is unclear, for gaps and incon- sistencies in the archaeological evidence mean that we cannot demonstrate continuity of worship. Athena's sanctuaries and temples are very often to be found at the city center, particularly on fortified heights like the Athenian Akropolis. In Greek towns of the early Iron Age, her dwelling place was often juxtaposed to that of the local chieftain or king; later she championed the polis with its varied forms of government. She presided over the arts of war, such as the taming of horses, the training of warriors, and the building of ships. As a goddess of crafts, particularly weaving and metalworking, she evokes the palace economies of the Bronze Age.
The Athenian Akropolis
Fittingly, the center of Athena's worship in her namesake city was a most impressive citadel, the Akropolis. Among the many riddles of Athenian cult topography, the question of Athena's temples on the Archaic and Classical Akropolis is perhaps the most vexing. Nobody has yet achieved a definitive reconstruction of the sequence of major Athena temples and how these match up with the structures mentioned in the inscriptions and literary sources. Archaeological remains provide evidence of several temples. First, there is the so-called Bluebeard temple, named for the triple-bodied, snake-legged creature in its pediment, which belonged to the second quarter of the sixth century. This Doric temple, the first monumental temple on the Akropolis, may have stood on the north side, directly over the old Mycenaean palace, or on the south side where the Parthenon was later built; it is sometimes called
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the "grandfather of the Parthenon. " Second, well-preserved foundations on the north side, excavated in the nineteenth century by Wilhelm Do? rpfeld, belong to a splendid late sixth-century temple, also Doric, which possessed two porches and a cella divided into four chambers. Sculpture from this temple, including a striding Athena attacking a giant, has been identified. A number of sculptures from unidentified buildings, such as the "Olive tree pediment," are also known. Finally, immediately following the victories of 490, the Athenians began to build a splendid, large temple as a thank offering to the goddess. Located on the south side of the Akropolis, this was the Older Parthenon, the direct predecessor of the great Periklean temple. When the Persians sacked the Akropolis in 480, they burned the existing temples, including the unfinished Older Parthenon, and the remains of these were incorporated into the north Akropolis defensive wall. 2
It is safe to say that Athena possessed a temple from the eighth or seventh century, since this is the most likely date of the ancient olivewood cult image around which the central rituals for the goddess were organized. 3 Two Homeric passages are relevant; in the Iliad (2. 549) she establishes the cult of Erechtheus "in her own rich temple" while in the Odyssey (7. 78-81) she travels across the sea and enters "the strong-built house of Erechtheus. " The Ionic building we call the Erechtheion was known to the Classical Athenians as "the temple with the image" or the archaios neo ? s (Old Temple), even though it was quite new at the time. It took over this name from its predeces- sor, either the Do? rpfeld temple or a "pre-Erechtheion. " Active controversy attends the question of whether the Ionic building, in addition to housing Athena's olivewood statue, is also the shrine of Erechtheus; some say the latter, described by Pausanias (1. 26. 5-27. 4), is to be found elsewhere on the Akropolis. Though the question must remain open, the Homeric passages above suggest that Athena's holiest shrine always housed Erechtheus' cult as well. The same sacerdotal family, known as the Eteoboutadai, supplied the priests for both Poseidon-Erechtheus and Athena Polias. If the cults were housed together, we also have an explanation for the four-chambered cellas of both the Do? rpfeld temple and the Ionic temple. 4
An early fifth-century decree (IG I3 4) was carved on a metope from the Bluebeard temple and therefore postdates the dismantling of that structure. It refers to a neo ? s (Temple) and a hekatompedon (Hundred-Footer) as separate sacred areas, but there is no consensus on which labels fit which places. This inscription does however illustrate the pattern, probably dating to the early sixth century, of maintaining two Akropolis temples dedicated to Athena. One, situated on the north side, held the olivewood statue (and perhaps the associated cult of Erechtheus) and was the focus of the most ancient rituals. The other, on the south, came about as a result of the competitive vogue for elaborate "Hundred-Footers" that swept the Greek world in the seventh and sixth centuries, and the final representative of this tradition was the Parthe- non, with its colossal gold and ivory cult statue sculpted by Pheidias. 5 The
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? Figure 4. 1 Athena Parthenos. Roman marble copy of the cult statue in the Parthenon at Athens, 447-39. Ht 1. 045 m. National Archaeological Museum, Athens. Alinari/Art Resource.
southern temples, whose primary function was to store and display the increasing number of rich objects dedicated to Athena, were themselves a form of offering from the citizens to their goddess.
Some two hundred marble fragments preserve the inventories of the tamiai (treasurers) of Athena, officials who were responsible for keeping track of the valuable ritual objects and dedications stored in the Parthenon and the Erechtheion in the Classical period. These inventories show that the interior walls of the temples were fitted with shelves or cupboards. For smaller items, baskets (often gilded) and bronze boxes were used. The earliest inventory of objects in the Parthenon (434/3) includes gold and silver ritual vessels, armor, at least fifty-seven items of furniture, several lyres, and six Persian daggers inlaid with gold. Many of these objects were used in Athena's festivals and returned to the temple, while others were simply valuable or decorative items owned by the goddess. The inventories for the Ionic temple describe the contents of the room where Athena's olivewood cult statue stood, including a gold incense burner fitted into the floor and a lustral basin held by a male
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statue. The cult image itself is said to possess a gold circlet, earrings, a neck- band, five necklaces, a gold owl (probably on the statue's shoulder), a gold aegis with a gorgon's head, and a gold libation bowl. 6
The bastion flanking the south entrance to the Akropolis was the site of a cult of Athena Nike (Victory) dating to the early sixth century.
Zeus Diktaios was the most important deity of eastern Krete, and a deity of this name was worshiped in Mycenaean Knossos. He appears in a number of inscribed treaty oaths between Kretan cities in the Hellenistic period, but the oath formulas themselves appear to be of Archaic date. 22 All refer to the god whose cult was localized at Mt. Dikte, where Rhea gave birth to him in a cave and he was protected by a band of youthful warriors, the Kouretes, and nourished with the milk of the goat Amaltheia. There has been much debate in both ancient and modern times about the location of Dikte: modern scholars once linked Dikte with Psychro cave near Lyktos, because Hesiod (Theog. 477-79) mentions this area in his description of Zeus' birth. But this
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identification was refuted when excavation of an ancient sanctuary at Palaikastro brought to light an inscribed hymn that begins "Io, greatest Youth (Kouros), welcome, son of Kronos, all-powerful Brightness, here now present, leading the gods (daimones), come for the New Year to Dikte, and rejoice in this song. " The hymn was inscribed at a late date, but its content and style show that it goes back to the Classical period or earlier. 23 It tells how, with the coming of Rhea's divine child, Justice and Peace attend the earth, and it urges the Kouros to "leap into" the herds, fields, and cities. Diktaian Zeus appears to be primarily a god of vegetative and procreative energies who is "born anew" every year.
The excavations also brought to light rich votive offerings showing that the sanctuary was most prosperous from the seventh to fifth centuries. Mt. Dikte, then, is probably the peak overlooking Palaikastro, known today as Mt. Petsophas. Significantly, the Classical site of Palaikastro overlay a Middle Minoan settlement, and on Mt. Petsophas was a Minoan peak sanc- tuary that yielded terracotta figures of a young deity. The most spectacular find, discovered within a hundred meters of the inscribed hymn, was a magnificent Minoan statuette of gold and ivory, depicting a youth in the same pose as the Petsophas figurines. The striking spatial juxtaposition of the Minoan and Greek cults of a youthful god suggests that memories of the Bronze Age persisted into Classical times. At the same time, there is a gap in archaeological continuity at the site from the Bronze Age to the early Archaic period, so the cult was presumably interrupted and re-established. In those intervening centuries, it must have undergone significant changes. 24
Another famous cult site of Zeus was the cave below the summit of Mt. Ida in central Krete, which served as a sanctuary for over a thousand years. Excavated in the nineteenth century, it contained many layers of burnt sacrificial offerings, and an unusually rich hoard of votive objects, including bronze and gold items. Some of the objects from the Idaian cave, including a famous group of bronze shields with orientalizing decorations, date to the time of Homer, the eighth or seventh centuries. 25 The cult here, as at Dikte, was concerned with the youthful Zeus and his band of protective warriors, the Kouretes, who clashed their shields to conceal the infant's cries from his hostile father. Idaian Zeus was a mysterious god into whose rites young men were initiated on the model of the Kouretes, according to a fragment of Euripides' Cretans. 26 The chorus of this play tell how the god's worshipers led a life of purity, wearing only white clothing and abstaining from all meat except the raw flesh of the bull sacrificed to Zeus. The celebrations are described as ecstatic and involved torch-lit processions over the mountain. There is a story that the philosopher Pythagoras was initiated into this cult: after strenuous preparations, he descended into the cave for twenty-seven days and viewed the "tomb of Zeus. "27 This concept of a tomb for Zeus would have seemed reasonable to Egyptians or Syrians, who were familiar with dying gods, but it was alien to other Greeks, who never questioned that
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the gods were immortal. The poet Callimachus, commenting on the tomb in
his Hymn to Zeus (1. 8-9), concluded: "Kretans always lie. " Oracular Zeus
Zeus was the ultimate source of oracular wisdom, but generally did not give oracles at his own shrines, delegating this task instead to his son Apollo. There were a few exceptions to this rule, including the oracles of Zeus read from sacrificial omens at the Panhellenic sanctuary of Olympia, and the oracle of Ammon in the Libyan desert, where the Egyptian god Amun-Ra was syncretized with Zeus as early as the sixth century. 28 But the most important oracular center of Zeus, established in the eighth century, was Dodona in northwestern Greece. Zeus' cult title here was Naios (the Flow- ing), probably from the abundant springs in the area, and he shared the sanctuary with a consort, Dione, whose name is merely a feminine form of his own. Homer (Il. 16. 233-35) mentions the Selloi, interpreters of Dodo- naian Zeus, who have unwashed feet and sleep on the ground. These early prophets apparently obeyed an ascetic rule designed to preserve and increase their contact with the earth, often viewed as a source of oracular knowledge. But in the Odyssey (14. 327-28), we hear that Odysseus went to Dodona to get Zeus' advice "from the god's high-leafed oak tree. " In some descriptions of the oracle, an oak tree sacred to Zeus speaks with a human voice. Other accounts tell of messages from doves perched in the tree's branches, or from dove-priestesses who presumably replaced the male Selloi. Evidence from the excavations, however, shows that by the Classical period, one consulted Zeus and Dione by writing a question on a ribbon-shaped lead tablet and handing it to the priestess. Most questions dealt with personal matters, such as whether to undertake a voyage or whether to marry. Often, the oracle advised people on which gods they should sacrifice to in order to ensure health, the birth of children, or prosperity. 29
Zeus at Olympia and Nemea
Two of the "big four" sanctuaries that hosted Panhellenic athletic festivals, Olympia and Nemea, were dedicated to Zeus. The younger of the two was Nemea, controlled by Kleonai in the sixth century (when the first temple was built) and later by Argos. The founding myth of the festival linked the cult of Zeus with that of a child-hero, Archemoros/Opheltes, for whom funeral games were established. The recently excavated hero shrine of Opheltes consisted of a long, mounded embankment containing some forty drinking vessels left as foundation deposits. On the broad end of the embankment, from which spectators could view the stadium, was a pentagonal wall enclosing at least two stone altars and a fire pit with the remains of sacrifices. The pottery from this shrine dates no earlier than the early sixth century,
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when the Nemean games were established, though a few scraps and sherds suggest cult activity at Nemea as early as the eighth century. The Archaic temple of Zeus was destroyed by fire during the late fifth century, probably as a result of warfare to judge from the remains of weapons in the burnt layer of soil. 30
As early as the tenth century, Olympia was a meeting place where local chieftains displayed their wealth by dedicating valuable bronze sculptures and tripods to Zeus. The traditional date for the founding of the games them- selves is 776, and during the eighth century, Olympia gradually developed into the most elaborate and important cult site of Zeus. In place of local Peloponnesian chiefs, it now became the arena for rivalries between devel- oping city-states. 31 The center of the sanctuary was a walled precinct called the Altis (Sacred Grove), where stood the primitive altar of Zeus, a great conical pile of molded sacrificial ashes. Every four years, the high point of the festival was the sacrifice of one hundred or more cattle, whose thighs were burned on the altar by Olympic victors. Zeus' altar was also the seat of an oracle; at its summit a mantis (prophet) drawn from the Klytiad or Iamid families would observe and interpret the burn pattern of the offerings for those consulting the god. 32
An early structure near Zeus' altar was the Pelopion, or tomb of Pelops, an ancestral hero who gave his name to the Peloponnese; his archetypal chariot race was immortalized in the eastern pediment of Zeus' temple. This tomb consisted of a mound on which stood a polygonal enclosure wall (probably the model for the similar hero shrine of Opheltes at Nemea). At every festival the hero received a black ram, whose blood flowed into a pit in the Pelopion, as well as preliminary offerings whenever sacrifice was made to Zeus. There has been vigorous debate over the age of Pelops' cult; though Early Helladic walls were found beneath the Pelopion, they may be unrelated to the Archaic cult, and the stratigraphy is not well enough preserved to draw conclusions about continuity. On the other hand, the mound on which the Pelopion sat was itself prehistoric, and the fact that this site was chosen shows a desire on the part of the sanctuary's founders to forge links to the heroic past. 33
Over the centuries, hundreds of secondary and minor deities became attached to the sanctuary. Among the most important of these were Hera, whose temple dated to the seventh century, Kronos (on the Hill of Kronos), Rhea (in the Metroo? n), and Herakles, who was credited with founding the games. Once a month the Eleans, inhabitants of the surrounding district, made offerings at the roughly seventy lesser altars on the site. In the time of Pausanias (5. 14. 4-10), these included at least eight altars of Zeus in various aspects, including Zeus Katharsios (of Purification), Kataibates (of Descending Lightning), Chthonios (of the Underworld), and Hypsistos (the Highest).
As we have seen, Zeus' cults seldom required a temple or image, and the first temple on the site was that of Hera. None was supplied for Zeus until the
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fifth century, when the Eleans defeated the Pisatans, their rivals for control of the sanctuary, and began a building program with the spoils. Completed before 457, the Doric temple was furnished with a colossal ivory and gold statue of Zeus, which became one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world. The god was depicted in a restful pose that departed from the standard Archaic representations of him striding forward with raised thunderbolt, and drew instead on Homer's description (Il. 1. 497-99) of a majestic Zeus enthroned on Mt. Olympos. Seated on an elaborately ornamented, gem- encrusted throne, he held Nike (Victory) in his raised right hand, and his left hand grasped a staff, on which perched an eagle. It was said that when the sculptor Pheidias completed the statue, he prayed to Zeus to make a sign if the work pleased him, and a flash of lightning immediately appeared. Few visitors to the temple failed to be moved with religious awe at the sight of the image, which measured about 13 m in height and could be viewed from a second-floor gallery. But in spite of its huge size, viewers received the impression of a calm and peaceful deity. According to Dio Chrysostom (Or. 12. 51), "whoever is deeply burdened with pain in his soul, having borne much misfortune and grief in his life and never being able to attain sweet sleep, even this man, I believe, standing before this image, would forget all the terrible and harsh things which one must suffer in human life. "
Further reading
Cook 1964 [1914-] is still valuable for its collection of primary sources, but this massive study should be used with caution because its materials and methods are outdated. Much of Burkert 1983b focuses on cults of Zeus in relation to sacrificial practices. Jameson, Jordan, and Kotansky 1993 and Lalonde 2006 collect information about Zeus Meilichios and his role in purifications. Parke 1967 is still the best account in English of the oracles of Zeus. Sinn 2000 provides a popular account of Olympia by an excavator and scholar of religion who knows the site intimately.
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LADY OF GRAND TEMPLES Hera
Major cults of Hera were not evenly spread over the Greek world, but instead were characteristic of certain regions and peoples. The Dorians of the north- east Peloponnese (Argos, Korinth, Tiryns) and the Peloponnesians who colonized southern Italy honored her the most. A famous Ionian seat of her worship was the island of Samos. Her cult enjoyed its greatest prosperity during the Archaic period, when Argos and Samos were at the height of their power. Hera's origins are generally thought to lie in a powerful prehellenic goddess (or goddesses) whose cult was adopted by the Mycenaean Greeks. Her name has been connected with the word ho ? ra, season, indicating fertility and ripeness for marriage, and appears on Linear B tablets from Pylos (in connection with Zeus) and Thebes. The same etymology makes Hera a feminine form of hero ? s, and this background may help to elucidate the goddess' complex ties to heroes, Herakles above all, and the genesis of the Greek concept of the mythic and cultic hero. 1
Greek poetry and myth tell us of a goddess who vehemently opposes her husband's extramarital affairs and attempts to punish her rivals and their offspring. She is a scheming and vengeful deity, who plots against the Trojans when she loses the beauty contest judged by Paris, but she also has favorites such as the hero Jason, whom she aids in his quest for the Golden Fleece. She is not a tender mother, but Homer describes her sexual union with Zeus as a source of fecund power (Il. 14. 347-49): "under them the divine earth grew newly-sprouted grass, dewy clover, crocuses, and hyacinths, thick and soft. " In some of her cults, Hera is likewise viewed primarily as a bride or wife, and her status as Zeus' consort is central for worshipers. But in her most famous cults (Argos and Samos) Hera is a powerful city goddess who fosters economic and military success. In these cases her relationship to Zeus is not a crucial factor, and the literary portrait of a jealous, scheming wife seems far removed from the cultic experience of an awe-inspiring deity who brings success in battle, multiplies the herds of cattle, frees the enslaved, and protects the young for her chosen people.
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Argive Hera
Despite Homer's Panhellenizing tendencies, he recognizes Hera's regional character as goddess of the Argive peninsula, giving her the epithet Hera Argeia (e. g. Il. 4. 8). In historical times she became the city-goddess of Argos itself, and her Argive sanctuary was the most venerable and famed center of her worship. Her festival there, known as the Heraia or Hekatombaia (Sacrifice of one hundred Oxen), was held in the first month of the year. A grand procession escorted the priestess, who rode in an ox-drawn wagon from the city to the sanctuary several miles distant. The youth recognized as most virtuous carried a sacred shield in the procession, marking his and his age-mates' transition to adulthood and warrior status. After the procession, there were athletic competitions for which the prize was, again, a bronze shield. 2 Hera's cult at Argos shows a preoccupation with two aspects of the Argolid's prosperity: the herds of cattle on which its wealth was based, and its military might. Terracotta figurines from the Heraion indicate that Hera was also viewed as a kourotrophic deity, one who nourished and protected the young. Often she is shown holding a child in her lap. Sometimes she holds not a child but a horse, an emblem of aristocratic privilege. Hera's cult seems to have been closely bound up with the efforts of the early Archaic Argives to define their relationship with the heroic past.
The Argive Heraion was constructed over the remains of a Mycenaean settlement, but there is no clear evidence of continuity of cult from the Bronze Age to the ninth century, when activity at the Heraion becomes archaeologic- ally visible. Around 700, a terrace was built using huge "Cyclopean" blocks in imitation of the Bronze Age architectural style, and shortly thereafter a temple of stone and wood with a colonnade was added. This Archaic struc- ture was not superseded by a newer temple until the fifth century, when the sanctuary was transformed from a rallying center for the towns in the region to a symbol of the power of Argos, by then the dominant city. In 2000-01, excavators found (SEG 51 [2001] 410) a cache of inscribed bronze tablets recording, among other things, the sums borrowed from the state treasuries of Pallas and Hera to pay for the construction of this temple. It possessed sculptures depicting not myths of Hera herself, but subjects of interest to the Argives: the birth of Zeus, the battle of the gods and giants, the Trojan war, and the saga of Orestes.
In Pausanias' time, one entered the temple after walking through a series of statues of the former priestesses (styled kleidouchoi or Keyholders), whose tenures provided a chronological framework for the city's history. The list of priestesses was already ancient in the fifth century, when Hellanicus (FGrH 4 F 74-82) used it as the basis for an account of the Greeks from the Trojan war to his own day. The cult image of the Classical period was a famous one by Polykleitos, fashioned of gold and ivory over a wood core. The seated goddess held a scepter and a pomegranate, symbols of temporal power and
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fertility. A more ancient wooden image must have existed, but presumably was destroyed when the Archaic temple burned in 423/2. When Pausanias (2. 17. 3) visited the temple, he saw a venerable image of pearwood taken from nearby Tiryns, another ancient Heraian cult center, which the Argives had installed on a pillar beside Polykleitos' statue. The pillar itself may have held special significance, for a fragment of the Argive epic Phoronis (fr. 3 Davies, EGF) describes Hera's priestess adorning "the high column of the Olympian queen, Hera Argeia" with fillets and tassels. Another item of interest in the temple was the "couch of Hera," a symbol of Hera's status as the bride of Zeus.
The Asterion river near the Heraion was regarded as the father of Hera's three nurses, the nymphs Akraia, Prosymna and Euboia, who were named after features of the sanctuary's topography. Local tradition, therefore, held that Argos was Hera's birthplace. Women conducted secret rituals at the Heraion, involving purifications, sacrifices, and the offering of garlands twined from a local herb also called asterion. The women wove a robe for Hera, as they did at Olympia, first taking a ritual bath in the waters of the spring or well called Amymone. The hundreds of miniature water vessels (hudriai) from the excavations further attest the importance of water in these activities. Perhaps the ritual involved a bath for Hera's image; a legend describing how Hera took an annual bath to restore her virginity was attached to the spring Kanathos in nearby Nauplia. The "water of freedom" of the stream Eleutherion, near the Heraion, was used for the women's secret rites, and was also drunk by slaves and prisoners about to be emancipated. Hera's daughter Hebe (Youth), whose statue stood beside hers in the Heraion, similarly granted asylum to suppliants and freed prisoners at her ancient sanctuary in Phlious. 3
Hera of Samos
Half of one column from the Heraion at Samos has been reconstructed, scarcely hinting at the former glory of this sanctuary. A succession of temples stood in the marshy site, beginning with the late eighth-century hekatompedon or hundred-foot temple. One of the later temples was a truly gigantic Ionic structure with a forest of columns, which Herodotus (3. 60) called the largest temple of his time. Among the dedications at the Samian Heraion were over thirty house models in stone and terracotta. The Hera sanctuaries at Argos and Perachora have also produced models with Geometric decoration, causing speculation that the houses are intended to represent the earliest temples, before the construction of hekatompeda. Given the fact that Hera's temples are everywhere among the earliest attested, this is likely, but other explanations are possible. If the models represent chieftains' houses, they could symbolize Hera's association with political authority and social status. 4
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? Figure 3. 1 Terracotta house or temple model from Perachora. End of the ninth century. Athens, National Archaeological Museum. Bildarchiv Foto Marburg.
The center of the sanctuary, and its earliest feature, was the altar, which existed from the tenth century. Like the temple, it was rebuilt several times, culminating in a monumental 40 m structure. 5 All this grandeur, however, came after the sanctuary was well established. While not of Panhellenic stature, its fortunes rose with those of the maritime state of Samos in the seventh and sixth centuries. Asius, a poet of this period, described the wealthy Samians visiting the sanctuary dressed in flowing white tunics, with long hair bound in golden bands, and adorned with gold cicadas. A stunning variety of imported objects was uncovered in the excavations: Egyptian ivories, Babylonian bronze figurines, and a collection of exotic animal trophies including crocodile and antelope skulls. In spite of the cosmopolitan nature of the sanctuary, the dedications show that it was also a local center of worship. The excavations turned up many humble, crudely carved vessels and figurines, as well as natural curiosities like coral and rock crystal. 6
There were conflicting stories about the origins of the sanctuary and to what degree it was dependent on the Heraion at Argos. One tradition said that it was founded by the Argonauts, who brought the cult statue from Argos, while the Samians themselves said that Hera was born here under the lugos, a willow-like tree preserved in the sanctuary, and that the place was founded by non-Greek Karians. Still, their tradition allowed that the first Greek priestess of the sanctuary was the Argive Admete, daughter of
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Eurystheus. Once, Karian pirates had attempted to steal the cult image of Hera, but found their ship immobilized when they placed the statue on board. Terrified, they left the image on the beach with a food offering and made their escape. There the searching Samians found it, and believing that it had run away, bound it to the lugos with the tree's flexible branches. Admete herself purified the image and restored it to its place in the temple. This myth provided the background for the annual festival called the Tonaia (Binding), during which the goddess' statue was carried to the sea, purified, and given a meal of barley-cakes. At some point during the rite, it was probably also bound with lugos branches. Celebrants at the feast wore wreaths made of lugos and reclined on beds of it. This festival has been interpreted as a drama of the deity's disappearance and return, in which the recovery of the goddess is symbolic of the yearly cycle of vegetative abundance. A related possibility is that the drama expresses the Samians' anxiety lest Hera, the protector of their city and guarantor of their good fortune, abandon them. The goddess is annually bound to her birthplace and her proper residence at Samos is reaffirmed. The myth itself asserts that even should outside forces attempt to move the goddess, she would express a preference for her home and actively resist leaving it. 7
There are indeed indications that Hera at Samos was a goddess concerned with fertility. Among the objects dedicated to her were pinecones and pome- granates (real fruits as well as clay and ivory models), symbols of fecund reproduction. The offering of pomegranates, however, appears to cease after about 600. Joan V. O'Brien suggests that this is due to a shift in the percep- tion of Hera, through which her role as bride of Zeus came to be emphasized over her earlier manifestation as a powerful, independent goddess. In any case, Hera's role at Samos was never limited to assuring fertility, but must have been closely connected with the Samians' successful trading ventures. Stylized wooden ship models were common votives, and in the Archaic period two full-size ships were dedicated in the sanctuary. 8
The cult image of Samian Hera has been described by ancient witnesses as crudely carved and planklike. It was wooden, small and light enough to be carried annually to the shore for the Tonaia, but spent the rest of the year ensconced in the temple, dressed in rich garments and wearing a high crown. It also wore a pectoral ornament, resembling an extended collar or series of necklaces, which was characteristic of East Greek and Anatolian deities (the so-called "multiple breasts" of Artemis at Ephesos are another example). When the Samians built the huge Classical temple, they supplied it with a new cult image that resided in the cella, the normal location. The venerable old image was kept in the pronaos, or front room, of the temple. This arrangement was perhaps dictated by the need to keep the old image in its original location: its base in the pronaos stood on the same spot it had occupied in the cella of the old temple. As we have seen, keeping the goddess fixed in her proper place was a major cultic concern for the Samians. 9
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Hera at Korinth and Perachora
The Heraion at Perachora was among the richest minor sanctuaries in Greece.
Literary sources are almost completely silent about this sanctuary, but the archaeological finds show that it was of great importance during the Archaic period. In the territory of the prosperous mercantile state of Korinth, it was founded in the eighth century and saw the construction of yet another of the very early temples to Hera we have noted. The first temple had a curved (apsidal) back wall and was only about 7. 5 m in length. Nothing is known about the cult image, but the goddess here was called Hera Akraia (of the Headland), a reference to the Perachora promontory on which the sanctuary was situated near a small harbor. Sixth-century dedications to Hera Limenia (of the Harbor) have also been found; surprisingly, these appear on a terrace above the harbor itself and the main part of the sanctuary. An Archaic struc- ture on the terrace, once thought to be a separate temple of Hera Limenia, is now considered an auxiliary building, probably a dining room. Blocks used in this building contain dedications to Hera under yet another title, Hera Leukolene (of the White Arms). These early (seventh- and sixth-century) dedications echo one of Homer's favorite epithets for Hera (e. g. Il. 5. 711, 8. 381, etc. ).
The pattern of votives shows that this was an important cult site for local people, as well as for sailors traveling up and down the Gulf of Korinth. The many imported objects, including Egyptian-style scarabs and Phoenician bronzes, illustrate the wide trading contacts of the Archaic Korinthians. The earliest, eighth-century temple at the harbor was accompanied by a deposit of Geometric votive objects, including drinking vessels, wine jugs, clay models of cakes presented as offerings to the goddess (koulouria), and house models. This temple was replaced in the sixth century with a new Doric stone temple, and a monumental altar was added. North of the altar the excavators found a flight of steps, which probably functioned as a spectator area for viewing the sacrifices. 10
The myth of Medeia, the young sorceress whom Jason brought back from his travels in the Black Sea, is best known from the play by Euripides. This work portrays her as a spurned wife who kills her children by Jason in order to avenge herself for his abandonment, then buries the children in the sanc- tuary of Hera Akraia and founds their cult (Eur. Med. 1378-83). There were, however, other myths about how the children of Medeia died. According to one, Medeia took each of her children in turn to the sanctuary of Hera to "hide them away" (katakruptein), thinking that this operation would make them immortal. (The word may mean that she buried them. ) When her hopes were disappointed and Jason discovered what she had done, he abandoned her. Another version held that Medeia instructed her children to bring a poisoned robe to her rival Glauke. When Glauke perished as a result of the gift, the enraged Korinthians stoned the innocent children. The murdered
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children took a supernatural vengeance by causing Korinthian infants to die, until the desperate citizens consulted an oracle and were told to institute annual sacrifices to Medeia's children. They also set up a statue known as Deima, or Terror, which took the form of "a frightening woman. " In antiquity, infant mortality was often attributed to female demons (Mormo, Lamia) who had a hideous appearance; the statue seems to have been designed to ward off such malign influences. Other sources tell us more about the relationship between the children's cult and that of Hera. Every year, seven boys and seven girls from noble families were dressed in black and sent to live in the sanctuary of Hera Akraia (it is unclear whether this refers to a sanctuary in Korinth itself, since no such sanctuary has been identified, or to that at Perachora). They cut their hair and dedicated it to Medeia's children, and presumably participated in the thre ? noi, or laments, sung for the children, and the enagismata, or sacrifices for the dead. 11
All these myths and related customs have been taken as evidence of a real (in the distant past) or symbolic child sacrifice to appease hostile divine forces, or as an initiation rite by which the youths and maidens, after a period of separation from the community, reached adult status. Certainly they indicate that the Korinthians thought it was necessary to devote elite children to the service of the goddess, and that upon this service depended the health and welfare of the entire community's children. The rituals originally may have been conducted for Medeia herself, since some scholars view her as a divine figure whose cult was superseded by Hera's. 12
Hera at Olympia
One of the paradoxes of the Panhellenic site of Olympia is that its earliest temple was erected not for Zeus, the primary deity of the sanctuary, but for Hera. During the late seventh century, a Heraion was built in the Altis, or sacred enclosure, which then contained no other major structures. Originally, only the foundations were of stone, while the walls were mud brick, and the rest of the structure, including the colonnade, was wood. The temple was refurbished in such a way that the columns were gradually replaced in stone, and each one was slightly different in style, thickness, and the type of stone used. The mismatched columns were probably the result of contributions by many donors, each of whom supplied one column and wanted it to be recog- nizably different from the rest.
Some scholars, disturbed by the anomaly of a Heraion as the only temple in a sanctuary of Zeus, have suggested that the temple was from the beginning dedicated jointly to Zeus and Hera, or that it was originally a temple of Zeus, and was rededicated to Hera only after Zeus' Classical temple was built in the fifth century. The question is still open, but we should keep in mind that a temple was never a requirement for a sanctuary, and was often absent from sanctuaries of Zeus in particular (as at Dodona, another Panhellenic Zeus
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sanctuary). The focus of Zeus' cult was not a cult statue, but the great ash altar where he received sacrifices. Furthermore, Hera was, as we have seen, one of the earliest temple deities, and one who was consistently provided with temples in the early Archaic period. Hera's cult in the Altis may have been introduced by Pheidon, the seventh-century king of Argos who estab- lished a military presence in Elis and reorganized the Olympic games. If this is the case, the Hera temple originally served as an offshoot of the Argive Heraion, and a reminder of the political and military supremacy of Argos in the early Archaic period. 13
Pausanias (5. 16. 1-20. 5) provides a detailed description of the temple's amazing contents. The cult image of Hera was seated, and behind it stood a statue of Zeus wearing a helmet. The positioning of Zeus' statue suggests that he was not the primary deity of this temple, but that his role as Hera's spouse was important to the cult (this is borne out by other aspects of the cult described below). Both statues are described as "simple" works, and thus probably belonged to the Archaic period. Nearby were images of many other deities in ivory and gold, some by famous sculptors and others by unknown artists: the Horai (Seasons) and Themis their mother, Athena, Demeter and Kore, Apollo and Artemis, Hermes, and so on. A richly decorated cedar- wood chest was dedicated by the family of Kypselos, the seventh-century tyrant of Korinth; this famous chest was covered with labeled episodes from heroic myths. There was also a small bed, recalling the "couch of Hera" in the Heraion at Argos; a disc on which was inscribed the ritual formula for the Olympic truce forbidding men in arms to enter the sanctuary, and the ivory and gold table used to hold the wreaths for Olympic victors.
Hera's cult at Olympia was administered by a college of sixteen women chosen from the most venerable and respected matrons of the district. These women organized the Heraia, or games held to honor Hera, concurrently with the quadrennial Olympic games. While women were generally excluded from the Olympic games both as competitors and as spectators, the Heraia involved a footrace for girls of three different age categories. They ran in the same stadium as the men and boys, though the track was one-sixth shorter. The winners received a portion of the meat from the cow sacrificed to Hera and a crown of olive. The sixteen women of Elis also wove a robe for Hera, which was presumably dedicated in the temple and may have adorned the cult image. They arranged choruses for Physkoa, a Dionysiac heroine, and for Hippodameia, the heroine who figures in one of the founding myths of Olympia. 14 It was to win the hand of Hippodameia that Pelops raced against her father, the king of Elis, thus inaugurating the chariot races at Olympia. The sixteen women traced their origin to Hippodameia, who first formed the college in order to give thanks to Hera for her marriage to Pelops. An alter- native story said that the women were brought together as arbiters to settle disputes between the Eleans and the Pisatans, who fought over the control of the sanctuary in the seventh and sixth centuries. If the story is accurate, this is
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one of the rare cases in which women's religious authority translated into a limited form of political authority.
Hera in Italy
The city of Poseidonia/Paestum in southern Italy was settled by Greeks from the Argolid. Within the walls to the south of the city, the new inhabitants built a Doric temple of Hera in the sixth century. The temple is notable for its double cella; the two halves are separated by a central row of columns. Since there was no technical need for this feature, which had been used in early temples to support the roof, scholars have speculated that there may have been two cult images. Perhaps Zeus was worshiped with Hera, as he was at Olympia. Terracottas from the sanctuary show the king and queen of the gods enthroned together. A second temple to Hera was built beside the first in the fifth century, and must have contained a newer cult image. Another theory about this temple holds that it was consecrated to Poseidon, the patron god of the city. 15
The Hera cult in the city was linked to an extraurban sanctuary at the mouth of the river Sele, north of Paestum. The medieval lime kilns on the site show that the sanctuary's structures were long ago dismantled and the marble components burned, yet here one of the most significant caches of Greek sculpture to be uncovered in the twentieth century escaped destruc- tion. Buried in the sand, excavators found more than thirty sculptured metopes from what was probably the earliest Hera temple at the site (c. 560). Many of these metopes illustrate the deeds of Herakles; others are scenes from the epic cycle of poems about Troy. 16 A second, larger temple of Hera, dating to about 500, was differently ornamented, with metopes depicting dancing pairs of maidens. The terracotta votives in this sanctuary are very reminiscent of those in the other Heraia we have studied: they show the enthroned goddess holding a spear, a child, a horse, or a pomegranate. Not coincidentally, the Virgin of the eighth-century CE church built near this site is known as the Madonna of the Pomegranate. Other typical gifts to the goddess, also found at both Argos and Samos, are implements of war: mini- ature terracotta shields and armor. Like the Heraion at Samos, this famous sanctuary was supposed to have been founded by Jason and the Argonauts to honor Argive Hera. 17
The sanctuary of Hera Lakinia at Kroton has been described as the most important sanctuary in southern Italy during the Classical period because of its role as the seat of the Achaian and Italian Leagues. Its rich votives begin in the seventh century and include a bronze ship model and a diadem decorated with leaves and acorns that may have adorned a wooden cult image. Like the other Olympian goddesses, Hera often received gifts of clothing, among which an elaborate purple cloak, embroidered with figures in gold and silver and presented by Alkistenes of Sybaris, was renowned. The nearby sanctuary
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? Figure 3. 2 Metope from Hera sanctuary at Foce del Sele: Centaur, 570-60. Museo Archeologico Nazionale. Bildarchiv Foto Marburg.
of Vigna Nuova contained numerous chains and tools, which may have been dedications to Hera by prisoners captured during Kroton's destruction of Sybaris (510) and ultimately freed. 18
Hera and marriage
Hera often receives the cult title Teleia (the Fulfilled) in reference to her status as an archetypal bride and consort. In Greek culture, marriage and mother- hood were the only acceptable goals for most women, and while Hera is not an enthusiastic mother in myth, we have seen that she functions as a nurturing goddess in some cults. Myths of Hera often illustrate the socially sanctioned status of the legitimate wife. The "marriage month" Gamelion, which appeared in many city calendars and involved sacrifices to Hera, was an auspicious time for weddings. Her union with Zeus was celebrated in the
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villages of Attica during the minor festival of Hieros Gamos (Sacred Marriage), while Zeus Teleios and Hera Teleia are invoked by Athenian poets in contexts that have to do with marriage. 19
In Boiotian Plataiai, the site of a major Hera festival, the temple contained two statues of the goddess. One was called Hera Nympheuomene (Led as a Bride) referring to the marriage procession, and the other was Hera Teleia. The goddess' festival, the Daidala, was celebrated every four (or six) years. According to Pausanias' account (9. 2. 5-3. 4), this involved the felling of an oak tree selected when the Plataians set out food for the crows in a sacred grove. The first tree the birds settled in was cut and fashioned into a crude statue called Daidala. At much longer intervals of sixty years, the festival called the Great Daidala took place. Unlike the annual observance, this involved the participation of cities all over Boiotia, each of whom contributed a cow and a bull. One of the wooden figures produced at the quadrennial festival was dressed as a bride and ceremoniously conducted in a cart from the river Asopos up to the peak of Mt. Kithairon. There, along with the other wooden figures and the sacrificial animals, it was burnt in a huge bonfire on the altar. 20
The myth that explained the origin of this custom told how Zeus had quarreled with Hera, who "hid herself away" in the area of Mt. Kithairon. On the advice of a local king, Zeus devised a method to find and reconcile her: he pretended to marry a rival, the oaken statue. Hera and the outraged matrons of Plataiai disrupted the wedding procession, only to discover that the bride was a wooden image. Amused at the trick, Hera nevertheless insisted on the burning of the false rival. In the historical period, the festival was understood to commemorate the reconciliation of Zeus and Hera, and was therefore a celebration of divine and human marriage. Both the images in Hera's temple, Nympheuomene and Teleia, refer to aspects of Hera's concern with legitimate, socially sanctioned unions, and the myth likewise stresses how Hera and the women of Plataiai jealously protected their prerogatives as wives in a culture that considered extramarital sex for men normal, yet took seriously the rule that a man must have only one wife. Otherwise, issues of social status and inheritance could become muddied.
On the other hand, the festival seems to incorporate elements that predate the myth of Hera's feminine jealousy, and point to the worship of an inde- pendently powerful goddess. Zeus has no place in the ritual itself, which seems to be akin to other sacred log processions attested in Boiotia and elsewhere, such as the Daphnephoria (Carrying the Laurel). Sacrifices on mountain peaks were characteristic of Minoan religion, and a shrine known as the Daidaleion is attested from Mycenaean Knossos. Hera's cult, with its marital preoccupations, may have been superimposed upon rituals that were once carried out for a prehellenic tree or mountain goddess who disappeared and returned on a seasonal basis. At the same time, the myth of Hera's quarrel with Zeus should not be dismissed as a comical tale concocted to explain the
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ritual. At Stymphalos in Arkadia, there was a similar myth of Hera's quarrel with and separation from Zeus, and there too the goddess' cult titles referred to marital status. Hera, it was said, grew up in Stymphalos, and possessed three sanctuaries, one as Pais (Girl), one as Teleia, which she received upon her marriage to Zeus, and one as Chera (Widow). She received the latter because she returned to Stymphalos "while she was quarreling with Zeus" and was without a husband. Thus, in the Stymphalian cult Hera provided models for the three stages of female life as the Greeks conceptualized it, but it was her period of separation from Zeus that provided the impetus for the goddess' return to her own land. Hera's identity as a local goddess could best be manifested when she was apart from Zeus, not installed as his bride on Olympos. 21
Further reading
Clark 1998 compares several festivals of Hera in relation to the institution of marriage. Kyrieleis 1993 is a useful account of the sanctuary of Hera at Samos by one of its excavators. O'Brien 1993 argues, speculatively at times, for continuity in Hera's cults from the Bronze Age to the Archaic period and gives detailed archaeological information. Tomlinson 1992 is a good intro- duction to the material record at Perachora, while Pedley 1990 (cf. Pedley 2005. 167-85) provides one of the few accounts in English of the Hera sanc- tuaries at Poseidonia/Paestum and Foce del Sele.
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MISTRESS OF CITADELS Athena
Athena's name probably comes from the city of Athens and not the other way around. In a Linear B tablet from Knossos, we hear of the Potnia (Mistress) of At(h)ana, and there is a consensus that Athena was in origin a Minoan or Mycenaean deity, perhaps identical with the shield goddess who appears on a painted tablet at Mycenae itself. 1 As a warrior goddess who protected the king and citadel, this Mistress had parallels in the Near East (Ishtar, Anat) and Egypt (Neith). Still, the exact relationship between the Bronze Age goddess and the Athena of the Classical Greeks is unclear, for gaps and incon- sistencies in the archaeological evidence mean that we cannot demonstrate continuity of worship. Athena's sanctuaries and temples are very often to be found at the city center, particularly on fortified heights like the Athenian Akropolis. In Greek towns of the early Iron Age, her dwelling place was often juxtaposed to that of the local chieftain or king; later she championed the polis with its varied forms of government. She presided over the arts of war, such as the taming of horses, the training of warriors, and the building of ships. As a goddess of crafts, particularly weaving and metalworking, she evokes the palace economies of the Bronze Age.
The Athenian Akropolis
Fittingly, the center of Athena's worship in her namesake city was a most impressive citadel, the Akropolis. Among the many riddles of Athenian cult topography, the question of Athena's temples on the Archaic and Classical Akropolis is perhaps the most vexing. Nobody has yet achieved a definitive reconstruction of the sequence of major Athena temples and how these match up with the structures mentioned in the inscriptions and literary sources. Archaeological remains provide evidence of several temples. First, there is the so-called Bluebeard temple, named for the triple-bodied, snake-legged creature in its pediment, which belonged to the second quarter of the sixth century. This Doric temple, the first monumental temple on the Akropolis, may have stood on the north side, directly over the old Mycenaean palace, or on the south side where the Parthenon was later built; it is sometimes called
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the "grandfather of the Parthenon. " Second, well-preserved foundations on the north side, excavated in the nineteenth century by Wilhelm Do? rpfeld, belong to a splendid late sixth-century temple, also Doric, which possessed two porches and a cella divided into four chambers. Sculpture from this temple, including a striding Athena attacking a giant, has been identified. A number of sculptures from unidentified buildings, such as the "Olive tree pediment," are also known. Finally, immediately following the victories of 490, the Athenians began to build a splendid, large temple as a thank offering to the goddess. Located on the south side of the Akropolis, this was the Older Parthenon, the direct predecessor of the great Periklean temple. When the Persians sacked the Akropolis in 480, they burned the existing temples, including the unfinished Older Parthenon, and the remains of these were incorporated into the north Akropolis defensive wall. 2
It is safe to say that Athena possessed a temple from the eighth or seventh century, since this is the most likely date of the ancient olivewood cult image around which the central rituals for the goddess were organized. 3 Two Homeric passages are relevant; in the Iliad (2. 549) she establishes the cult of Erechtheus "in her own rich temple" while in the Odyssey (7. 78-81) she travels across the sea and enters "the strong-built house of Erechtheus. " The Ionic building we call the Erechtheion was known to the Classical Athenians as "the temple with the image" or the archaios neo ? s (Old Temple), even though it was quite new at the time. It took over this name from its predeces- sor, either the Do? rpfeld temple or a "pre-Erechtheion. " Active controversy attends the question of whether the Ionic building, in addition to housing Athena's olivewood statue, is also the shrine of Erechtheus; some say the latter, described by Pausanias (1. 26. 5-27. 4), is to be found elsewhere on the Akropolis. Though the question must remain open, the Homeric passages above suggest that Athena's holiest shrine always housed Erechtheus' cult as well. The same sacerdotal family, known as the Eteoboutadai, supplied the priests for both Poseidon-Erechtheus and Athena Polias. If the cults were housed together, we also have an explanation for the four-chambered cellas of both the Do? rpfeld temple and the Ionic temple. 4
An early fifth-century decree (IG I3 4) was carved on a metope from the Bluebeard temple and therefore postdates the dismantling of that structure. It refers to a neo ? s (Temple) and a hekatompedon (Hundred-Footer) as separate sacred areas, but there is no consensus on which labels fit which places. This inscription does however illustrate the pattern, probably dating to the early sixth century, of maintaining two Akropolis temples dedicated to Athena. One, situated on the north side, held the olivewood statue (and perhaps the associated cult of Erechtheus) and was the focus of the most ancient rituals. The other, on the south, came about as a result of the competitive vogue for elaborate "Hundred-Footers" that swept the Greek world in the seventh and sixth centuries, and the final representative of this tradition was the Parthe- non, with its colossal gold and ivory cult statue sculpted by Pheidias. 5 The
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? Figure 4. 1 Athena Parthenos. Roman marble copy of the cult statue in the Parthenon at Athens, 447-39. Ht 1. 045 m. National Archaeological Museum, Athens. Alinari/Art Resource.
southern temples, whose primary function was to store and display the increasing number of rich objects dedicated to Athena, were themselves a form of offering from the citizens to their goddess.
Some two hundred marble fragments preserve the inventories of the tamiai (treasurers) of Athena, officials who were responsible for keeping track of the valuable ritual objects and dedications stored in the Parthenon and the Erechtheion in the Classical period. These inventories show that the interior walls of the temples were fitted with shelves or cupboards. For smaller items, baskets (often gilded) and bronze boxes were used. The earliest inventory of objects in the Parthenon (434/3) includes gold and silver ritual vessels, armor, at least fifty-seven items of furniture, several lyres, and six Persian daggers inlaid with gold. Many of these objects were used in Athena's festivals and returned to the temple, while others were simply valuable or decorative items owned by the goddess. The inventories for the Ionic temple describe the contents of the room where Athena's olivewood cult statue stood, including a gold incense burner fitted into the floor and a lustral basin held by a male
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statue. The cult image itself is said to possess a gold circlet, earrings, a neck- band, five necklaces, a gold owl (probably on the statue's shoulder), a gold aegis with a gorgon's head, and a gold libation bowl. 6
The bastion flanking the south entrance to the Akropolis was the site of a cult of Athena Nike (Victory) dating to the early sixth century.
