"' This very
instructive
and rare book is
"
Bibliotheca, MSS.
"
Bibliotheca, MSS.
O'Hanlon - Lives of the Irish Saints - v1
Nor can we omit the names of Thomas De Burgo, Bishop of Ossory,'° of Walter Harris," of the Venerable Charles O'Conor," of Ballenagare, of Dr.
Thomas Le-
* See Rev. J. M. Brenan's " Ecclesiasti- cal History of Ireland, from the Introduc- tion of Christianity into that country to the year M. DCCCXXix. " Eighteenth Century, chap, iii. , pp. 580, 581. New edition :
Dublin, 1864, 8vo.
5 Published in Dublin, 1718, l2mo.
'
Published in Dublin, 1 720, fol.
1 In quarto shape, and in Latin. It was translated into English, by the Rev. Mr. Hely. See Thomas D'Arcy M 'Gee's "Gal-
^
edited for the Irish Archaeological Society, in 1846, with valuable notes and illustra-
tions by James Hardiman, Esq. , M. R. I. A.
'° See an account of this learned man and his works in the Rev. M. J. Brenan's " Ec- clesiastical History of Ireland. " Eigh- teenth Century, chap, iii. , pp. 585 to 587. He was bom in Dublin about a. d. 1709, and he died at Kilkenny a. d. 1786.
of Irish Writers," 200 to lery pp.
his are noticed in W. B. S.
" His-
209,
Both of these have been published and
Taylor's
9 In his Preface to
it,
Charles O'Conor
to a highly respectable and ancient family
in He " Disserta- Connaught. published,
tions on the History of Ireland. " To which
"
The second edi- tion is dated Dublin, 1766, 8vo, and a,
gives some interesting particulars of the author, an account of whom, still more ex-
tended, from the pen of Mr. Hardiman, will
A Dissertation on the Irish Colonies established in Britain. With some Remarks on Mr. Mac Pherson's Translation
"
be found in his edition of the "
phical Description of West or H-IarCon- naught. " Appendix iii. , pp. 419 to 430.
Chorogra-
Ogygia Vindicated against the
" He was a native of Dublin, and a ne- phew to Sir James Ware, whose works he translated and edited in three large folio volumes, published in Dublin, before the middle of the last century.
tory of the University of Dublin," chap. vL,
§ iii. , pp. 427, 428.
'*
This excellent Irish scholar belonged
is subjoined
ofFingal and Temora.
Other works of
publication
third edition in like shape was there issued,
A. D. 1812. The author died 1st, 1791, July
in his eighty-second year. See Richard Ryan's "Biographical Dictionary of the Worthies of Ireland," vol, ii. , pp. 453, 454.
Century. " London : 1778. 2 vols. , 4to. He died in June, 1807. See Ryan's *' Bio- graphical Dictionary of the Worthies of Ire- land," vol. ii. , pp. 456, 457.
'* He was bom in Dublin, A. D. and 1723,
hediedA. D. 1791. See W. B. S. Taylor's
"History of the University of Dublin," chap, vi. , § iii. , pp. 422, 423. After his death was published an enlarged edition of Lodge's Peerage, in seven octavo volumes, Forty years he was engaged on the " Mo- nasticum Hibeinicum; or an History of the Abbies, Priories, and other Religious Houses in Ireland. " It was published at London,
a. d. 1786,inathick4tovolume. Seealso '•
Ryan's Biographical Dictionary of the Worthies of Ireland," vol i. , pp. 17 to 19.
'^ Editor of " The Irish Magazine. " See
volume for a. d. 1814, p. 528. The office
of his periodical was at No. 1 50 Abbey- street, iJublin. A very singular account of
613; vol. iv. , pp. 259 et seq. Dublin, i860, 8vo.
'3 Among his other works a
"
History of
INTRODUCTION. Ixiil
land,'3 of the Abbe Ma-Geoghegan,'* of Dr. Sylvester 0'Halloran,'s and of Rev. Mervyn Archdall,'^ with a few other writers. These have rendered some special services to our history.
In the beginning of this present century, a work was intended for issue,
" The Lives of the Saints of Ireland, com* piled from the works of the Venerated Father Colgan, of the Franciscan Order; asalsofromthelearnedDr. DeBurgo,BishopofOssor/sHistory of the Irish Dominicans, and from other Catholic Hagiographers, and authors of equal estimation for orthodoxy and erudition. By a Catholic Divine. " It was announced, that this work was to be dedicated to the Catholics of Ireland, and to be published by the notorious and eccentric Walter Cox'7 The
and bearing the following title
:
:
werethusannounced "I. TheLivesoftheIrish
conditionsof
Saints will be printed in the octavo size. II. The history of each will be apportioned in extent to the rank and estimation of the Saint in the Catholic Church. III. Each life will be accompanied with notes, chiefly from Col- gan's works, for illustrating the saints' birth-place, nomenclature, festival day religious foundations, &c. IV. No Saint's Life shall be recorded or admitted in the work, but that of a native of Ireland. V. In arranging and publishing the work, each Saint's Life will be placed in succession, according to the order of its festival day in the Calendar, from the first of January to the year's end. VI. For the accommodation of pious Catholics, whose pecuniary resources are so limited, as to preclude the possibility of their purchasing
Ireland," with a Preliminary discourse, ap-
peared simultaneously in Dublin and Lon-
don, in three volumes, 4to, a. d. 1773. See
an account of this writer in W. B. S. Tay-
"
"
History of the University of Dublin,"
lor's
chap, vi. , § iii. , p. 422.
'^ His " Histoire de I'lrknde," appeared at Paris in 1758 and 1762, in two thick 4to volumes. The author was chaplain to the Irish troops in the service of France, and his work, written in the French Ian- guage, was found v. ry serviceable in fami- liarizing the people of that country with a knowledge of Irish History.
'5 He was a native of Limerick
born December 31st, 1728. Besides his
city,
Introduction to the Study of the History
extraordinary
and Antiquities of Ireland," he published "A General History of Ireland, from the earliest accounts to the Close of the Twelfth
and
character will be found in
this
Dr. Richard R. Madden's "United Irish- men, their Lives and Times," vol. i. , p. 385 ; vol. ii. , pp. 234 to 449 ; vol. iii. , pp. 481 to
Ixlv INTRODUCTION,
the work together, it will be printed in Numbers of Three sheets, or Forty-eight pages each, at the moderate price of One and Three Pence. VII. The first Number will be published God willing, on the ist of January next. "*^ I have not been able to find any further account of this projected publication : but, most probably, ^it fell still-born through the hands both of author and publisher.
In the beginning of the present century, likewise, the Rev. Charles O'Conor, D. D. ,'9 and Rev. John Lanigan, D. D. ,='«' produced most important and valuable works, containing disquisitions, which are masterpieces of criticism and extensive research. The " Rerum Hibernicanmi Scriptores," Four Quarto volumes, is a truly valuable collection of Annals. Dr. Charles O'Conor's First Volume of the " Rerum Hibernicarum Scriptores," con- taining his invaluable Epistola Nuncupatoria, and Prologomena ad Annales, fully exhibits the variety and extent of his erudition, with his critical abilitj-.
The Second Volume comprises his elaborate editions of the "Annales Tigemachi,''"' the "Annales Inisfalenses,"" and the "Annales Buelliani ;"'3 the Third Volume contains the " Quatuor Magistrorum Annales Hibernici;"'* which, however, are only brought down to a. d. 1172; the Fourth Volume embraces the "Annales Ultonienses,"*s to the year 1 131. Translations of the original Irish into Latin, with suitable Dissertations, Annotations, and Critices, characterize those Tomes throughout; while they must ever remain as monuments of patient industry and of genuine scholarship, indispensable for consultation to all writers who may happen to deal exhaustively with the varied subjects of early Irish history. *^ The " Stowe Catalogue,"^? of materials for Irish History, was published with the former work, mainly owing to the muni-
'^ To the foregoing we find this notice a very interesting account of this distin* appended: "The public are requested to guished scholar in W. J. Fitzpatrick's
observe, that the publication is a distinct work, from the Rev. Alban Butler's Lives
of Saints, and owes nothing to the same, as Mr. Butler's general work could not afford space enough for the insertion of Irish Bio- graphy, which, indeed, is very briefly no- ticed by him ; and, therefore, the pubiica- tion now about to appear will be found to be the best and most authentic, that has yet been offered to the patronage of Catho- lie Ireland, and equally interesting, also, for local antiquities and family histories. "
'» The reader will find an interesting ac- count of his life and writings in S. Austin
*'
Irish Wits and Worthies ; including Dr. Lanigan,hisLifeandTimes,"&c. Dublin: 1873, cr. 8vo.
" They extend from A. M. 305 to A. D.
lo88, and are executed with great learning
and chronological knowledge,
"These commence with A. D. 428, and
continue to a. d. 1196, following the Bod- leian Codex, and from A. D. 250 to A. D. 1088, following the Dublin Codex,
=^3 These extend from A. D. 420 to 1245. *< These begin A. M. 2242.
'S These begin at A. D. 431.
"
Literature, and British and American Au-
thors, Living and Deceased," vol. ii. , p. 1448.
Allibone's
Critical Dictionary of English
inghamije, A. D. \%\6fetseq.
"' This very instructive and rare book is
"
Bibliotheca, MSS. Stowensis: A Descriptive Catalogue of the Manuscripts in the Stowe Library, with Appendix. "
Two volumes in tlirec, 4to. Buttkinghami* iSlS-igL
''°
ThislearnedDivinewasborainthecity
of Cashel, A. D. 1758, and he died at Finglas, near Dublin, on the 7th of July, 1288. See
**
These volumes were published. Buck-
intituled,
**SeeW. "Dr. J. Fitzpatrick's
INTRODUCTION. Ixv
ficent patronage of an English nobleman, the Duke of Buckingham. These pre- ceded in time of publication Dr. Lanigan's remarkable "Ecclesiastical History of Ireland. " Considering accessible materials which formed this author's chief resources, no writer in any age or country has brought a more discriminating judgment, patience, industry, and candour, to the investigation of abstruse historic points, than this wonderfully learned and laborious enquirer. '^ We can hardly over-estimate the difficult task on which Dr. Lanigan entered,
or the innumerable obstacles that were presented at almost every step. To consult so many original authorities, and to compare or analyse their varying
statements, to unravel specious theories, and to subject wild speculations to the crucial test of searching and legitimate criticism, were accomplished with an amount of care and exactness worthy of a true scholar. Nothing
was received on trust. Even the superior authority of Ussher, Colgan, Ware, and other celebrated writers, had been minutely scrutinized. In
many instances, when the statements of early annalists and hagiographers had been found obscure and incomprehensible. Dr. Lanigan has reconciled
apparently conflicting accounts ; he has suggested many important explana- tions, which, if not always found perfectly satisfactory, are at least most
ingenious and suggestive ; while, he has detected and thoroughly refuted various inaccuracies and mistakes of previous writers. In the Lives of our
early Saints, attempts to reconcile recorded incidents and personal acts, with dates to which they had been ascribed, and even to determine the
authorship or periods of such compositions, were very difficult subjects for examination. '? Yet, with all his varied erudition and sagacious induction, occasionally was Dr. Lanigan led astray by the very acuteness of a critical spirit, and by his conscientious discrimination, in attempts to synchronize events, which might accord with some preconceived ideas. He had, also, a dread of being charged with credulity, and with accepting romantic or supernatural accounts, on uncertain evidence. He became almost hypercri- tical, while his power of analysing statements rendered his great work too realistic for popular reading. It also showed his want of sympathy with the legendary aspects and poetic colouring uf our saints' biographies.
Since the time of Dr. Lanigan, much has been published, that should have tended to lighten his labours, had such materials been accessible to him. Only to a limited extent could manuscripts or works published, in Irish, and without a translation, have been available ; for he does not appear to have had a sufficient knowledge of that language, in which the most valuable materials for historic purposes had been clothed. In some instance? , it is true, he professes to derive the meaning of proper names, places and pre-
10235. M. J. Brenan's
mortalwork,andin1822it wasfirst
his Life and Times," chap, xxxii. , pp. 224 lished in four octavo volumes. See Rev,
"
Lanigan,
pub-
Ecclesiastical History of
^ About the year 1813, he commenced Ireland," Nineteenth Century, chap, iii. , the arraugemeat of materials for this im- pp. 650, 651.
Ixvi INTRODUCTICN,
fixes, from our national tongue. 3° Yet, in such cases, he often had recourse to glossaries, or to the kind assistance of persons, more accurately versed than he was in a knowledge of Irish etymologies and structural peculiarities.
So much as could have been reasonably expected has been accomplished by Dr. Lanigan, in the publication of his learned, well-arranged, and valuable Ecclesiastical History. Had he given us a complete and connected series of Irish Saints' Lives, somewhat on the plan now adopted, and with the necessary materials within his reach, he should have found it a much less
laborious task, although forming a more comprehensive design, than that he attempted, when engaging upon his very celebrated historical work. But
the duration of an ordinary lifetime, even with possession of the highest abilities, and the utmost desirable leisure, could hardly have sufficed for
including complete Lives, or even extended notices, regarding all the Saints to be found in our Calendars, with adequate notes or critical disquisitions.
As it Dr. stands.
" Ecclesiastical
of be Ireland," may
Lanigan's
considered a chronological arrangement of our principal saints' biographies,
with their Acts necessarily abridged, while, for the most part, their recorded miracles have been suppressed. To arrange incidents, and to produce a
continuous, really important narrative of ecclesiastical affairs, without running into personal and obscure details, become tasks of extreme difficulty.
Subsequent to Christianity being established in this country, and previous to the English invasion, for many centuries our National Church was singularly free, not only from inroads of heresy and schism, but even from very radical changes in her governmental rites and general discipline. From the time Faith had been first securely established in Ireland, and to the period last named, our Church met with little opposition from native dynasts or kings. Even Danish and Norwegian spoliations were of too sporadic a character permanently to affect her material or spiritual interests. With such diffi- culties to encounter, and precluding the possibility of framing a luminous and connected narrative, Dr. Lanigan has contrived to present a clear, con- secutive and recondite history. 31 After a careful examination of this historio- grapher's work, the present writer is greatly under an impression, that the author was only careful to correct and improve his style, throughout the text of his history, and that he allowed the original draft of his notes to stand without much alteration as to mere phraseology. Perhaps, he shrank from the additional and very considerable time and labour that must have
3° In one passage, Dr. Lanigan leaves his readers to infer, that he had some general acquaintance with the Irish language. See "Ecclesiastical History of Ireland," vol. iii. , chap, xviii. , § v. , n. 59, p. loo.
3« It is to be regretted that in many in- stances his notes have been disfigured by writing in a careless style, while occasional
acrimonious remarks —however justly me- rited by writers to whom they apply— de- tract much from the literary merits of his
work. They partake more of the pamphle- teer's or the polemic's questionable temper, than the dignified tone and calm judgment
of an accomplished historian, conscious of his own intellectual superiority.
History
3* Although not observing minor graces of composition throughout his notes ; yet, in a critical and historical point of view,
their value is unquestionable to the student of this island's ecclesiastical history and anti-
quities.
33 About the year 1830, this work com-
menced. The very complete materials for county and parish histories, which were the
result, had been originally preserved in the Ordnance Survey Office, at Moun joy Bar-
hour has he passed in the Ordnance Survey Library, with the privilege, a:corJel by
Major-General Sir H. Jam^s, Chief Super- intendent of the Depariment, Colonel Georg* A. Leach, R. E. , and Lieutenant-Colonel Berdoe Wilkinson, R. E. , Local Directors, to take transcripts or copies, and otherwise consult ancient and modern records or maps, illustrating the past and present history or topography of Ireland. Especially, to the obliging and talented chief clerks, Messrs.
INTRODUCTION. Ixvii
devolved upcn him, by instituting a more careful revision and exami- nation. 3*
Prizing greatly the researches of previous investigators, many additional facts have been ascertained since their time, and many errors of those laborious, critical, and learned writers having been detected, are more easily corrected or refuted. Systematic efforts have been made, by eminently gifted histo- rians and archaeologists, to overturn visionary speculations, and to place our archaic studies on the firm basis of scientific research. Periodical litera- ture and able contributors served to elicit and record many local traditions and facts of importance. These were popularized, and even the sympathy and enquiries of distant scholars were directed to Ireland. It was then known, almost for the first time, that our country was yet covered with the ruins of churches and monasteries, capable of being identified with numerous saints, clerics, and students. The Irish Ordnance Survey staff of Antiqua- ries was organized, and foremost among these able directors were the late John O'Donovan, LL. D. , George Petrie, LL. D. , Sir Thomas Larcom, and ProfessorEugeneO'Curry. Sofarasavailablemanuscriptsandpublished works, in various languages, had reference to local history, tradition, and topo- graphy, suitable and requisite extracts were furnished by competent scribes. 33 Those afforded a vast amount of special information for purposes of local investigators, fully conversant with the subject, when sometimes set apart, or frequently in communication, visiting and examining on the spot ancient buildings and remains, by the additional light of documents supplied to them. 3* Observations and accurate measurements were usually taken down
racks, Phcenix Park, Dublin. Afterwards, Joseph Mooney and John O'Lalor, the the most important of those manuscripts, in writer feels most grateful. For their solici- a historical sense, were transferred to the tude and unremitting attention to afford Library of the Royal Irish Academy. every facility during his researches, he is Owing to the kindness of his learned and truly indebted.
lamented friend, the late John O'Donovan, 3^ At the request of Rev. James Graves, LL. D. , the writer was introduced to the A. 15. , M. R. I. A. , the writer prepared a
chiefs of this department, who, on all occa^
Eions, have manifested uniform courtesy,
and furnished every possible facility to the writer, while he had been very constantly oc- cupiedinpreparingthepresentserialvolumes for the press. Many a solitary and studious
pretty complete catalogue of the Ordnance Survey materials for County and Parish
Histories, which were published seriat. in in the "Transactions of the Kilkenny and Souih-East of Ireland Archaeological So- ciety. "
Ixviii INTRODUCTION,
amid the ecclesiastical and civic ruins, or on the sites of duns, battlefields, and ancient remains. Popular traditions were noted and tested by com-
parison with existing records. Using great care and accuracy, ancient divi- sions of Ireland were traced out, according with the most correct modem mapsandmeasurements. Changesofnamesanddifferencesoforthography, at various dates, and in different authorities, were duly recorded. The statements of writers, imperfectly acquainted with old documents, and who frequently mistook local positions, were at once corrected, not alone by in- disputableinferences,butoftenbymostconvincingtestimony. Therecordsof our ancient Annals, Poems, Calendars, and Martyrologies, in many in- stances, were elucidated by local monuments and popular traditions, coupled with the nomenclature of ancient districts, parishes, and townlands, in the several Irish counties. In many instances, the memory of former patron days and festivals, referring to early Irish Saints, had been obliterated, at particular localities ; yet, in a vast number of cases, the district or parish patron saint had not been unknown, especially to the older living inhabi- tants. The holy wells, where devotions to certain patron saints had been heretofore practised, but of late years discontinued, were closed or diverted to other channels, in various places ; still, in most cases, the position of those wells could be shown, while popular traditions connected them with the old saints and their festival days, even when the existing nomenclature
hardly afforded any other clue towards investigation. Penitential stations
and pilgrimages were not altogether forgotten, in remote districts of country,
before the introduction of modern influences and customs.
vious writers had agreed, that nothing was known or could be discovered, regarding individual saints, or their exact localities ; yet, those Ordnance Survey antiquaries were enabled to demonstrate the inaccuracy of such statements, by furnishing necessary and conclusive evidence to substantiate opposite opinions. Various styles of building, the forms of different objects and their constituent materials or position, often afforded intrinsic evidence, regarding \ urposes for which such erections had been designed, as also indi- cating their periods, apart from extrinsic evidence, pertaining to their origin and history. Artists who had been engaged on the survey rendered very material assistance in this branch of enquiry, by delineating most accurately ancient buildings, crosses, inscriptions, &c. , which abounded in different places. 35 Accurate criticism was brought to bear on every object and record, for the purpose of arriving at correct conclusions ; while vague etymological conjectures and groundless theories were set aside, for more legitimate modes of demonstration. Former writers had created a great
35 All these collections are exceedingly Taluab'e, as tending very fully to illustrate l. -eland's civil and ecclesiastical history and topography, not even omitting the records of her natural productions and social condition.
Although in a shape sufficiently classified for reference, it is to be regretted, they have not yet been properly digested for publi-
cation, with a view of rendering them generally accessible*
Although pre-
tNTRODUCTION. Ixbc
amount of popular delusion on the subject of Irish history and antiquities. Those writers, having neither requisite capabilities to decipher ancient Irish
manuscripts, nor opportunities for historic investigation afforded, had the pretension and imprudence often to dogmatize on ill-constructed theories and obscure matters. When the test of strict examination had been applied, their ignorance and incompetency were fully manifested. Published pro- ductions often tended to spread a thicker mist over those dark passages of enquiry, even where they professed to guide. The masters of a new and better school were consequently obliged to pursue their investigations, not only without deriving much aid from writers who had preceded them, but firequently were they obliged to controvert absurd or unfounded state-
ments, and to dissipate existing prepossessions.
The establishment of our Irish Archaeological and Celtic Societies procured
the translation and publication, at various intervals, of important manuscripts —especially from the Irish language—and other historic documents were edited by most competent scholars. The independent issue of Dr. O'Dono-
"
Annals of the Four Masters," of Dr. Petrie's learned work on the ancient " Ecclesiastical Architecture and Round Towers of Ireland," the historical works of Dr. William Reeves, Rev. M. J. Brenan, Dr. James Henthom Todd, John D'Alton, Rev. Dr. Kelly, Professor Eugene O'Curry, Right Rev. Patrick F. Moran, D. D. , Bishop of Ossory, and many
other writers, gave a signal impulse to the study of national antiquities. Their works naturally induced enquiry, regarding our Irish Saints' Lives, the homesteads where they Hved, and the places which had been hallowed by their traces. 3^ To all the foregoing authorities has the writer frequently
referred, because he felt satisfied, that nothing which zeal, industry, and ability could master had been left unattempted, in order to render our historic literature reliable and complete. Besides, he has adopted indepen- dent means to procure information. Through local enquiries and personal investigation, or through epistolary correspondence, the writer has often discovered traditions and remains, of exceeding great value for his purpose.
Section VI. —The Chief Foreign Ecclesiastical and other Writers, WHOSE Works serve directly or incidentally to elucidate Irish Hagiology.
As we have already indicated. Acts of the Saints and Martyrologies were compiled for the Eastern and Western Churches, from a very early period. St. Clement I. , Pope and Martyr, who lived in the first century,' had the city
3* We may observe, that a crown octavo M. A. , and publ—ished in London,
'
volume appeared in 1873, and intituled, Section vi. From A. D. 91 to 1 00 was
"Biographical Sketches of Ancient Irish the duration of his Pontifical dignity. . See Saints «nJ other Missionaries. " This was Sir Harris Nicholas' "Chronology of His« written by the Rev. Herbert . M'Laughlin, tory," p. 209.
van's most important
Ixx INTRonUCTION.
ofRomedividedamongsevennotaries—onenotaryforeachofits districts'—
and it was their charge, to make a diHgent investigation, regarding the acts and sufferings of the martyrs, so as to write them with accuracy and care. 3 Those notaries diligently recorded in ecclesiastical tablets the days called Fasti. From those noles were compiled Martyrologies, which were read on theeveoftheMartyrs'Festivals. * Itwouldseem,likewise,thatourIrishec- clesiasticswerequiteconversantwithsuchdocuments. Brieflymustwere- capitulate this species of literaiure, which has a collateral affinity with our na- tionalhagiology,throughvariousstagesofitsdevelopment. Thewritingsof the first and most celebrated fathers of the Church abound in anecdotes or
noticesoftheirholypredecessorsorcontemporaries. ButchieflyinEurope— excluding consideration of Irish writers already referred to—St. Sulpicius
Severus,5 who flourished in the fourth and fifth centuries, Rufinus and St.
Gregory, Bishop of Tours,^ born at Auvergne, and who died at Rome a. d. 595 o^ 59^>^ cultivated letters, in connexion with sacred history and bio- graphy. The Greek and Eastern Churches were sedulous in committing to writing the acts of saints and martyrs. ^ The Rule of St. Benedict? re- quired the reading of passages from Lives of the Fathers of the Church, after meals, and to instruct his monks ;'° while a decree of Pope St. Gelasius" had enumerated those Livesof those Holy Fathers, Anthony," Paul,-3 Hilarion,'*
* See Rev.
Joseph Mullooly's
" Saint
and Civil History of France, in sixteen books, is of the greatest possible value to
the antiquary ; because, it is a repertory of
the ancient usages and laws of the Gauls,
hardly to be found elsewhere. See Collier's
"
Great Historical, Geographical, Genealo- gical and Poetical Dictionary," voL i. , art. Gregory of Tours.
Clement, Pope and Martyr, and his Basi-
lica in Rome," chap, iii. , pp. io2, 103.
'*
Breviarium Romanum," Officium S. dementis, P. M. , ii. noct. , lect. iv. , die xxiii.
* See Rev. J. M. Brenan's " Ecclesiasti- cal History of Ireland, from the Introduc- tion of Christianity into that country to the year M. DCCCXXix. " Eighteenth Century, chap, iii. , pp. 580, 581. New edition :
Dublin, 1864, 8vo.
5 Published in Dublin, 1718, l2mo.
'
Published in Dublin, 1 720, fol.
1 In quarto shape, and in Latin. It was translated into English, by the Rev. Mr. Hely. See Thomas D'Arcy M 'Gee's "Gal-
^
edited for the Irish Archaeological Society, in 1846, with valuable notes and illustra-
tions by James Hardiman, Esq. , M. R. I. A.
'° See an account of this learned man and his works in the Rev. M. J. Brenan's " Ec- clesiastical History of Ireland. " Eigh- teenth Century, chap, iii. , pp. 585 to 587. He was bom in Dublin about a. d. 1709, and he died at Kilkenny a. d. 1786.
of Irish Writers," 200 to lery pp.
his are noticed in W. B. S.
" His-
209,
Both of these have been published and
Taylor's
9 In his Preface to
it,
Charles O'Conor
to a highly respectable and ancient family
in He " Disserta- Connaught. published,
tions on the History of Ireland. " To which
"
The second edi- tion is dated Dublin, 1766, 8vo, and a,
gives some interesting particulars of the author, an account of whom, still more ex-
tended, from the pen of Mr. Hardiman, will
A Dissertation on the Irish Colonies established in Britain. With some Remarks on Mr. Mac Pherson's Translation
"
be found in his edition of the "
phical Description of West or H-IarCon- naught. " Appendix iii. , pp. 419 to 430.
Chorogra-
Ogygia Vindicated against the
" He was a native of Dublin, and a ne- phew to Sir James Ware, whose works he translated and edited in three large folio volumes, published in Dublin, before the middle of the last century.
tory of the University of Dublin," chap. vL,
§ iii. , pp. 427, 428.
'*
This excellent Irish scholar belonged
is subjoined
ofFingal and Temora.
Other works of
publication
third edition in like shape was there issued,
A. D. 1812. The author died 1st, 1791, July
in his eighty-second year. See Richard Ryan's "Biographical Dictionary of the Worthies of Ireland," vol, ii. , pp. 453, 454.
Century. " London : 1778. 2 vols. , 4to. He died in June, 1807. See Ryan's *' Bio- graphical Dictionary of the Worthies of Ire- land," vol. ii. , pp. 456, 457.
'* He was bom in Dublin, A. D. and 1723,
hediedA. D. 1791. See W. B. S. Taylor's
"History of the University of Dublin," chap, vi. , § iii. , pp. 422, 423. After his death was published an enlarged edition of Lodge's Peerage, in seven octavo volumes, Forty years he was engaged on the " Mo- nasticum Hibeinicum; or an History of the Abbies, Priories, and other Religious Houses in Ireland. " It was published at London,
a. d. 1786,inathick4tovolume. Seealso '•
Ryan's Biographical Dictionary of the Worthies of Ireland," vol i. , pp. 17 to 19.
'^ Editor of " The Irish Magazine. " See
volume for a. d. 1814, p. 528. The office
of his periodical was at No. 1 50 Abbey- street, iJublin. A very singular account of
613; vol. iv. , pp. 259 et seq. Dublin, i860, 8vo.
'3 Among his other works a
"
History of
INTRODUCTION. Ixiil
land,'3 of the Abbe Ma-Geoghegan,'* of Dr. Sylvester 0'Halloran,'s and of Rev. Mervyn Archdall,'^ with a few other writers. These have rendered some special services to our history.
In the beginning of this present century, a work was intended for issue,
" The Lives of the Saints of Ireland, com* piled from the works of the Venerated Father Colgan, of the Franciscan Order; asalsofromthelearnedDr. DeBurgo,BishopofOssor/sHistory of the Irish Dominicans, and from other Catholic Hagiographers, and authors of equal estimation for orthodoxy and erudition. By a Catholic Divine. " It was announced, that this work was to be dedicated to the Catholics of Ireland, and to be published by the notorious and eccentric Walter Cox'7 The
and bearing the following title
:
:
werethusannounced "I. TheLivesoftheIrish
conditionsof
Saints will be printed in the octavo size. II. The history of each will be apportioned in extent to the rank and estimation of the Saint in the Catholic Church. III. Each life will be accompanied with notes, chiefly from Col- gan's works, for illustrating the saints' birth-place, nomenclature, festival day religious foundations, &c. IV. No Saint's Life shall be recorded or admitted in the work, but that of a native of Ireland. V. In arranging and publishing the work, each Saint's Life will be placed in succession, according to the order of its festival day in the Calendar, from the first of January to the year's end. VI. For the accommodation of pious Catholics, whose pecuniary resources are so limited, as to preclude the possibility of their purchasing
Ireland," with a Preliminary discourse, ap-
peared simultaneously in Dublin and Lon-
don, in three volumes, 4to, a. d. 1773. See
an account of this writer in W. B. S. Tay-
"
"
History of the University of Dublin,"
lor's
chap, vi. , § iii. , p. 422.
'^ His " Histoire de I'lrknde," appeared at Paris in 1758 and 1762, in two thick 4to volumes. The author was chaplain to the Irish troops in the service of France, and his work, written in the French Ian- guage, was found v. ry serviceable in fami- liarizing the people of that country with a knowledge of Irish History.
'5 He was a native of Limerick
born December 31st, 1728. Besides his
city,
Introduction to the Study of the History
extraordinary
and Antiquities of Ireland," he published "A General History of Ireland, from the earliest accounts to the Close of the Twelfth
and
character will be found in
this
Dr. Richard R. Madden's "United Irish- men, their Lives and Times," vol. i. , p. 385 ; vol. ii. , pp. 234 to 449 ; vol. iii. , pp. 481 to
Ixlv INTRODUCTION,
the work together, it will be printed in Numbers of Three sheets, or Forty-eight pages each, at the moderate price of One and Three Pence. VII. The first Number will be published God willing, on the ist of January next. "*^ I have not been able to find any further account of this projected publication : but, most probably, ^it fell still-born through the hands both of author and publisher.
In the beginning of the present century, likewise, the Rev. Charles O'Conor, D. D. ,'9 and Rev. John Lanigan, D. D. ,='«' produced most important and valuable works, containing disquisitions, which are masterpieces of criticism and extensive research. The " Rerum Hibernicanmi Scriptores," Four Quarto volumes, is a truly valuable collection of Annals. Dr. Charles O'Conor's First Volume of the " Rerum Hibernicarum Scriptores," con- taining his invaluable Epistola Nuncupatoria, and Prologomena ad Annales, fully exhibits the variety and extent of his erudition, with his critical abilitj-.
The Second Volume comprises his elaborate editions of the "Annales Tigemachi,''"' the "Annales Inisfalenses,"" and the "Annales Buelliani ;"'3 the Third Volume contains the " Quatuor Magistrorum Annales Hibernici;"'* which, however, are only brought down to a. d. 1172; the Fourth Volume embraces the "Annales Ultonienses,"*s to the year 1 131. Translations of the original Irish into Latin, with suitable Dissertations, Annotations, and Critices, characterize those Tomes throughout; while they must ever remain as monuments of patient industry and of genuine scholarship, indispensable for consultation to all writers who may happen to deal exhaustively with the varied subjects of early Irish history. *^ The " Stowe Catalogue,"^? of materials for Irish History, was published with the former work, mainly owing to the muni-
'^ To the foregoing we find this notice a very interesting account of this distin* appended: "The public are requested to guished scholar in W. J. Fitzpatrick's
observe, that the publication is a distinct work, from the Rev. Alban Butler's Lives
of Saints, and owes nothing to the same, as Mr. Butler's general work could not afford space enough for the insertion of Irish Bio- graphy, which, indeed, is very briefly no- ticed by him ; and, therefore, the pubiica- tion now about to appear will be found to be the best and most authentic, that has yet been offered to the patronage of Catho- lie Ireland, and equally interesting, also, for local antiquities and family histories. "
'» The reader will find an interesting ac- count of his life and writings in S. Austin
*'
Irish Wits and Worthies ; including Dr. Lanigan,hisLifeandTimes,"&c. Dublin: 1873, cr. 8vo.
" They extend from A. M. 305 to A. D.
lo88, and are executed with great learning
and chronological knowledge,
"These commence with A. D. 428, and
continue to a. d. 1196, following the Bod- leian Codex, and from A. D. 250 to A. D. 1088, following the Dublin Codex,
=^3 These extend from A. D. 420 to 1245. *< These begin A. M. 2242.
'S These begin at A. D. 431.
"
Literature, and British and American Au-
thors, Living and Deceased," vol. ii. , p. 1448.
Allibone's
Critical Dictionary of English
inghamije, A. D. \%\6fetseq.
"' This very instructive and rare book is
"
Bibliotheca, MSS. Stowensis: A Descriptive Catalogue of the Manuscripts in the Stowe Library, with Appendix. "
Two volumes in tlirec, 4to. Buttkinghami* iSlS-igL
''°
ThislearnedDivinewasborainthecity
of Cashel, A. D. 1758, and he died at Finglas, near Dublin, on the 7th of July, 1288. See
**
These volumes were published. Buck-
intituled,
**SeeW. "Dr. J. Fitzpatrick's
INTRODUCTION. Ixv
ficent patronage of an English nobleman, the Duke of Buckingham. These pre- ceded in time of publication Dr. Lanigan's remarkable "Ecclesiastical History of Ireland. " Considering accessible materials which formed this author's chief resources, no writer in any age or country has brought a more discriminating judgment, patience, industry, and candour, to the investigation of abstruse historic points, than this wonderfully learned and laborious enquirer. '^ We can hardly over-estimate the difficult task on which Dr. Lanigan entered,
or the innumerable obstacles that were presented at almost every step. To consult so many original authorities, and to compare or analyse their varying
statements, to unravel specious theories, and to subject wild speculations to the crucial test of searching and legitimate criticism, were accomplished with an amount of care and exactness worthy of a true scholar. Nothing
was received on trust. Even the superior authority of Ussher, Colgan, Ware, and other celebrated writers, had been minutely scrutinized. In
many instances, when the statements of early annalists and hagiographers had been found obscure and incomprehensible. Dr. Lanigan has reconciled
apparently conflicting accounts ; he has suggested many important explana- tions, which, if not always found perfectly satisfactory, are at least most
ingenious and suggestive ; while, he has detected and thoroughly refuted various inaccuracies and mistakes of previous writers. In the Lives of our
early Saints, attempts to reconcile recorded incidents and personal acts, with dates to which they had been ascribed, and even to determine the
authorship or periods of such compositions, were very difficult subjects for examination. '? Yet, with all his varied erudition and sagacious induction, occasionally was Dr. Lanigan led astray by the very acuteness of a critical spirit, and by his conscientious discrimination, in attempts to synchronize events, which might accord with some preconceived ideas. He had, also, a dread of being charged with credulity, and with accepting romantic or supernatural accounts, on uncertain evidence. He became almost hypercri- tical, while his power of analysing statements rendered his great work too realistic for popular reading. It also showed his want of sympathy with the legendary aspects and poetic colouring uf our saints' biographies.
Since the time of Dr. Lanigan, much has been published, that should have tended to lighten his labours, had such materials been accessible to him. Only to a limited extent could manuscripts or works published, in Irish, and without a translation, have been available ; for he does not appear to have had a sufficient knowledge of that language, in which the most valuable materials for historic purposes had been clothed. In some instance? , it is true, he professes to derive the meaning of proper names, places and pre-
10235. M. J. Brenan's
mortalwork,andin1822it wasfirst
his Life and Times," chap, xxxii. , pp. 224 lished in four octavo volumes. See Rev,
"
Lanigan,
pub-
Ecclesiastical History of
^ About the year 1813, he commenced Ireland," Nineteenth Century, chap, iii. , the arraugemeat of materials for this im- pp. 650, 651.
Ixvi INTRODUCTICN,
fixes, from our national tongue. 3° Yet, in such cases, he often had recourse to glossaries, or to the kind assistance of persons, more accurately versed than he was in a knowledge of Irish etymologies and structural peculiarities.
So much as could have been reasonably expected has been accomplished by Dr. Lanigan, in the publication of his learned, well-arranged, and valuable Ecclesiastical History. Had he given us a complete and connected series of Irish Saints' Lives, somewhat on the plan now adopted, and with the necessary materials within his reach, he should have found it a much less
laborious task, although forming a more comprehensive design, than that he attempted, when engaging upon his very celebrated historical work. But
the duration of an ordinary lifetime, even with possession of the highest abilities, and the utmost desirable leisure, could hardly have sufficed for
including complete Lives, or even extended notices, regarding all the Saints to be found in our Calendars, with adequate notes or critical disquisitions.
As it Dr. stands.
" Ecclesiastical
of be Ireland," may
Lanigan's
considered a chronological arrangement of our principal saints' biographies,
with their Acts necessarily abridged, while, for the most part, their recorded miracles have been suppressed. To arrange incidents, and to produce a
continuous, really important narrative of ecclesiastical affairs, without running into personal and obscure details, become tasks of extreme difficulty.
Subsequent to Christianity being established in this country, and previous to the English invasion, for many centuries our National Church was singularly free, not only from inroads of heresy and schism, but even from very radical changes in her governmental rites and general discipline. From the time Faith had been first securely established in Ireland, and to the period last named, our Church met with little opposition from native dynasts or kings. Even Danish and Norwegian spoliations were of too sporadic a character permanently to affect her material or spiritual interests. With such diffi- culties to encounter, and precluding the possibility of framing a luminous and connected narrative, Dr. Lanigan has contrived to present a clear, con- secutive and recondite history. 31 After a careful examination of this historio- grapher's work, the present writer is greatly under an impression, that the author was only careful to correct and improve his style, throughout the text of his history, and that he allowed the original draft of his notes to stand without much alteration as to mere phraseology. Perhaps, he shrank from the additional and very considerable time and labour that must have
3° In one passage, Dr. Lanigan leaves his readers to infer, that he had some general acquaintance with the Irish language. See "Ecclesiastical History of Ireland," vol. iii. , chap, xviii. , § v. , n. 59, p. loo.
3« It is to be regretted that in many in- stances his notes have been disfigured by writing in a careless style, while occasional
acrimonious remarks —however justly me- rited by writers to whom they apply— de- tract much from the literary merits of his
work. They partake more of the pamphle- teer's or the polemic's questionable temper, than the dignified tone and calm judgment
of an accomplished historian, conscious of his own intellectual superiority.
History
3* Although not observing minor graces of composition throughout his notes ; yet, in a critical and historical point of view,
their value is unquestionable to the student of this island's ecclesiastical history and anti-
quities.
33 About the year 1830, this work com-
menced. The very complete materials for county and parish histories, which were the
result, had been originally preserved in the Ordnance Survey Office, at Moun joy Bar-
hour has he passed in the Ordnance Survey Library, with the privilege, a:corJel by
Major-General Sir H. Jam^s, Chief Super- intendent of the Depariment, Colonel Georg* A. Leach, R. E. , and Lieutenant-Colonel Berdoe Wilkinson, R. E. , Local Directors, to take transcripts or copies, and otherwise consult ancient and modern records or maps, illustrating the past and present history or topography of Ireland. Especially, to the obliging and talented chief clerks, Messrs.
INTRODUCTION. Ixvii
devolved upcn him, by instituting a more careful revision and exami- nation. 3*
Prizing greatly the researches of previous investigators, many additional facts have been ascertained since their time, and many errors of those laborious, critical, and learned writers having been detected, are more easily corrected or refuted. Systematic efforts have been made, by eminently gifted histo- rians and archaeologists, to overturn visionary speculations, and to place our archaic studies on the firm basis of scientific research. Periodical litera- ture and able contributors served to elicit and record many local traditions and facts of importance. These were popularized, and even the sympathy and enquiries of distant scholars were directed to Ireland. It was then known, almost for the first time, that our country was yet covered with the ruins of churches and monasteries, capable of being identified with numerous saints, clerics, and students. The Irish Ordnance Survey staff of Antiqua- ries was organized, and foremost among these able directors were the late John O'Donovan, LL. D. , George Petrie, LL. D. , Sir Thomas Larcom, and ProfessorEugeneO'Curry. Sofarasavailablemanuscriptsandpublished works, in various languages, had reference to local history, tradition, and topo- graphy, suitable and requisite extracts were furnished by competent scribes. 33 Those afforded a vast amount of special information for purposes of local investigators, fully conversant with the subject, when sometimes set apart, or frequently in communication, visiting and examining on the spot ancient buildings and remains, by the additional light of documents supplied to them. 3* Observations and accurate measurements were usually taken down
racks, Phcenix Park, Dublin. Afterwards, Joseph Mooney and John O'Lalor, the the most important of those manuscripts, in writer feels most grateful. For their solici- a historical sense, were transferred to the tude and unremitting attention to afford Library of the Royal Irish Academy. every facility during his researches, he is Owing to the kindness of his learned and truly indebted.
lamented friend, the late John O'Donovan, 3^ At the request of Rev. James Graves, LL. D. , the writer was introduced to the A. 15. , M. R. I. A. , the writer prepared a
chiefs of this department, who, on all occa^
Eions, have manifested uniform courtesy,
and furnished every possible facility to the writer, while he had been very constantly oc- cupiedinpreparingthepresentserialvolumes for the press. Many a solitary and studious
pretty complete catalogue of the Ordnance Survey materials for County and Parish
Histories, which were published seriat. in in the "Transactions of the Kilkenny and Souih-East of Ireland Archaeological So- ciety. "
Ixviii INTRODUCTION,
amid the ecclesiastical and civic ruins, or on the sites of duns, battlefields, and ancient remains. Popular traditions were noted and tested by com-
parison with existing records. Using great care and accuracy, ancient divi- sions of Ireland were traced out, according with the most correct modem mapsandmeasurements. Changesofnamesanddifferencesoforthography, at various dates, and in different authorities, were duly recorded. The statements of writers, imperfectly acquainted with old documents, and who frequently mistook local positions, were at once corrected, not alone by in- disputableinferences,butoftenbymostconvincingtestimony. Therecordsof our ancient Annals, Poems, Calendars, and Martyrologies, in many in- stances, were elucidated by local monuments and popular traditions, coupled with the nomenclature of ancient districts, parishes, and townlands, in the several Irish counties. In many instances, the memory of former patron days and festivals, referring to early Irish Saints, had been obliterated, at particular localities ; yet, in a vast number of cases, the district or parish patron saint had not been unknown, especially to the older living inhabi- tants. The holy wells, where devotions to certain patron saints had been heretofore practised, but of late years discontinued, were closed or diverted to other channels, in various places ; still, in most cases, the position of those wells could be shown, while popular traditions connected them with the old saints and their festival days, even when the existing nomenclature
hardly afforded any other clue towards investigation. Penitential stations
and pilgrimages were not altogether forgotten, in remote districts of country,
before the introduction of modern influences and customs.
vious writers had agreed, that nothing was known or could be discovered, regarding individual saints, or their exact localities ; yet, those Ordnance Survey antiquaries were enabled to demonstrate the inaccuracy of such statements, by furnishing necessary and conclusive evidence to substantiate opposite opinions. Various styles of building, the forms of different objects and their constituent materials or position, often afforded intrinsic evidence, regarding \ urposes for which such erections had been designed, as also indi- cating their periods, apart from extrinsic evidence, pertaining to their origin and history. Artists who had been engaged on the survey rendered very material assistance in this branch of enquiry, by delineating most accurately ancient buildings, crosses, inscriptions, &c. , which abounded in different places. 35 Accurate criticism was brought to bear on every object and record, for the purpose of arriving at correct conclusions ; while vague etymological conjectures and groundless theories were set aside, for more legitimate modes of demonstration. Former writers had created a great
35 All these collections are exceedingly Taluab'e, as tending very fully to illustrate l. -eland's civil and ecclesiastical history and topography, not even omitting the records of her natural productions and social condition.
Although in a shape sufficiently classified for reference, it is to be regretted, they have not yet been properly digested for publi-
cation, with a view of rendering them generally accessible*
Although pre-
tNTRODUCTION. Ixbc
amount of popular delusion on the subject of Irish history and antiquities. Those writers, having neither requisite capabilities to decipher ancient Irish
manuscripts, nor opportunities for historic investigation afforded, had the pretension and imprudence often to dogmatize on ill-constructed theories and obscure matters. When the test of strict examination had been applied, their ignorance and incompetency were fully manifested. Published pro- ductions often tended to spread a thicker mist over those dark passages of enquiry, even where they professed to guide. The masters of a new and better school were consequently obliged to pursue their investigations, not only without deriving much aid from writers who had preceded them, but firequently were they obliged to controvert absurd or unfounded state-
ments, and to dissipate existing prepossessions.
The establishment of our Irish Archaeological and Celtic Societies procured
the translation and publication, at various intervals, of important manuscripts —especially from the Irish language—and other historic documents were edited by most competent scholars. The independent issue of Dr. O'Dono-
"
Annals of the Four Masters," of Dr. Petrie's learned work on the ancient " Ecclesiastical Architecture and Round Towers of Ireland," the historical works of Dr. William Reeves, Rev. M. J. Brenan, Dr. James Henthom Todd, John D'Alton, Rev. Dr. Kelly, Professor Eugene O'Curry, Right Rev. Patrick F. Moran, D. D. , Bishop of Ossory, and many
other writers, gave a signal impulse to the study of national antiquities. Their works naturally induced enquiry, regarding our Irish Saints' Lives, the homesteads where they Hved, and the places which had been hallowed by their traces. 3^ To all the foregoing authorities has the writer frequently
referred, because he felt satisfied, that nothing which zeal, industry, and ability could master had been left unattempted, in order to render our historic literature reliable and complete. Besides, he has adopted indepen- dent means to procure information. Through local enquiries and personal investigation, or through epistolary correspondence, the writer has often discovered traditions and remains, of exceeding great value for his purpose.
Section VI. —The Chief Foreign Ecclesiastical and other Writers, WHOSE Works serve directly or incidentally to elucidate Irish Hagiology.
As we have already indicated. Acts of the Saints and Martyrologies were compiled for the Eastern and Western Churches, from a very early period. St. Clement I. , Pope and Martyr, who lived in the first century,' had the city
3* We may observe, that a crown octavo M. A. , and publ—ished in London,
'
volume appeared in 1873, and intituled, Section vi. From A. D. 91 to 1 00 was
"Biographical Sketches of Ancient Irish the duration of his Pontifical dignity. . See Saints «nJ other Missionaries. " This was Sir Harris Nicholas' "Chronology of His« written by the Rev. Herbert . M'Laughlin, tory," p. 209.
van's most important
Ixx INTRonUCTION.
ofRomedividedamongsevennotaries—onenotaryforeachofits districts'—
and it was their charge, to make a diHgent investigation, regarding the acts and sufferings of the martyrs, so as to write them with accuracy and care. 3 Those notaries diligently recorded in ecclesiastical tablets the days called Fasti. From those noles were compiled Martyrologies, which were read on theeveoftheMartyrs'Festivals. * Itwouldseem,likewise,thatourIrishec- clesiasticswerequiteconversantwithsuchdocuments. Brieflymustwere- capitulate this species of literaiure, which has a collateral affinity with our na- tionalhagiology,throughvariousstagesofitsdevelopment. Thewritingsof the first and most celebrated fathers of the Church abound in anecdotes or
noticesoftheirholypredecessorsorcontemporaries. ButchieflyinEurope— excluding consideration of Irish writers already referred to—St. Sulpicius
Severus,5 who flourished in the fourth and fifth centuries, Rufinus and St.
Gregory, Bishop of Tours,^ born at Auvergne, and who died at Rome a. d. 595 o^ 59^>^ cultivated letters, in connexion with sacred history and bio- graphy. The Greek and Eastern Churches were sedulous in committing to writing the acts of saints and martyrs. ^ The Rule of St. Benedict? re- quired the reading of passages from Lives of the Fathers of the Church, after meals, and to instruct his monks ;'° while a decree of Pope St. Gelasius" had enumerated those Livesof those Holy Fathers, Anthony," Paul,-3 Hilarion,'*
* See Rev.
Joseph Mullooly's
" Saint
and Civil History of France, in sixteen books, is of the greatest possible value to
the antiquary ; because, it is a repertory of
the ancient usages and laws of the Gauls,
hardly to be found elsewhere. See Collier's
"
Great Historical, Geographical, Genealo- gical and Poetical Dictionary," voL i. , art. Gregory of Tours.
Clement, Pope and Martyr, and his Basi-
lica in Rome," chap, iii. , pp. io2, 103.
'*
Breviarium Romanum," Officium S. dementis, P. M. , ii. noct. , lect. iv. , die xxiii.
