The pivot of these crises is to be found in moneyed capital, and their sphere of direct action is
therefore
the sphere of that capital, viz.
Marx - Capital-Volume-I
&c.
, 1691, Works Ed.
1777, Vol.
II.
, p.
15.
)
34 It lies of course, entirely beyond my purpose to take into consideration such details as the s
eigniorage on minting. I will, however, cite for the benefit of the romantic sycophant, Adam Muller, who admires the --generous liberality? with which the English Government coins gratuitously, the following opinion of Sir Dudley North: --Silver and gold, like other commodities, have their ebbings and flowings. Upon the arrival of quantities from Spain . . . it is carried into the Tower, and coined. Not long after there will come a demand for bullion to be exported again. If there is none, but all happens to be in coin, what then? Melt it down again; there's no loss in it, for the coining costs the owner nothing. Thus the nation has been abused, and made to pay for the twisting of straw for asses to eat. If the merchant were made to pay the price of the coinage, he would not have sent his silver to the Tower without consideration, and coined money would always keep a value above uncoined silver. ? (North, l. c. , p. 18. ) North was himself one of the foremost merchants in the reign of Charles II.
35 --If silver never exceed what is wanted for the smaller payments it cannot be collected in sufficient quantities for the larger payments . . . the use of gold in the main payments necessarily implies also Its use in the retail trade: those who have gold coin offering them for small purchases, and receiving with the commodity purchased a balance of silver in return; by which means the surplus of silver that would otherwise encumber the retail dealer, is drawn off and dispersed into general circulation. But if there is as much silver as will transact the small payments independent of gold, the retail trader must then receive silver for small purchases ; and it must of necessity accumulate in his hands. ? (David Buchanan; --Inquiry into the Taxation and Commercial Policy of Great Britain. ? Edinburgh, 1844, pp. 248, 249. )
36 The mandarin Wan-mao-in, the Chinese Chancellor of the Exchequer, took it into his head one day to lay before the Son of Heaven a proposal that secretly aimed at converting the assignats of the empire into convertible bank-notes. The assignats Committee, in its report of April, 1854, gives him a severe snubbing. Whether he also received the traditional drubbing with bamboos is not stated. The concluding part of the report is as follows: -- --The Committee has carefully examined his proposal and finds that it is entirely in favour of the merchants, and that no advantage will result to the crown. ? (--Arbeiten der Kaiserlich Russischen Gesandtschaft zu Peking u? ber China. ? Aus dem Russischen von Dr. K. Abel und F. A. Mecklenburg. Erster Band. Berlin, 1858, p. 47 sq. ) In his evidence before the
? ? 96 Chapter 3
Committee of the House of Lords on the Bank Acts, a governor of the Bank of England says, with regard to the abrasion of gold coins during currency: --Every year a fresh class of sovereigns becomes too light. The class which one year passes with full weight, loses enough by wear and tear to draw the scales next year against it. ? (House of Lords' Committee, 1848, n. 429. )
37 The following passage from Fullarton shows the want of clearness on the pan of even the best writers on money, in their comprehension of its various functions: --That, as far as concerns our domestic exchanges, all the monetary functions which are usually performed by gold and silver coins, may be performed as effectually by a circulation of inconvertible notes paying no value but that factitious and conventional value they derive from the law is a fact which admits, I conceive, of no denial. Value of this description may be made to answer all the purposes of intrinsic value, and supersede even the necessity for a standard, provided only the quantity of issues be kept under due limitation. ? (Fullerton: --Regulation of Currencies,? London, 1845, p. 21. ) Because the commodity that serves as money is capable of being replaced in circulation by mere symbols of value, therefore its functions as a measure of value and a standard of prices are declared to be superfluous!
38 From the fact that gold and silver, so far as they are coins, or exclusively serve as the medium of circulation, become mere tokens of themselves, Nicholas Barbon deduces the right of Governments --to raise money,? that is, to give to the weight of silver that is called a shilling the name of a greater weight, such as a crown; and so to pay creditors shillings, instead of crowns. --Money does wear and grow lighter by often telling over. . . It is the denomination and currency of the money that men regard in bargaining, and not the quantity of silver. . . 'Tis the public authority upon the metal that makes it money. ? (N. Barbon, l. c. , pp. 29, 30, 25. )
39 --Une richesse en argent n'est que . . . richesse en productions, converties en argent. ? [--Monetary wealth is nothing but . . . wealth in products, transformed into money? ] (Mercier de la Rivie`re, l. c. ) --Une valeur en productions n'a fait que changer de forme. ? [--A value in the form of products, which has merely changed its form. ? ] (Id. , p. 486. )
40 --'Tis by this practice' they keep all their goods and manufactures at such low rates. ? (Vanderlint, l. c. , pp. 95, 96. )
41 --Money . . . is a pledge. ? (John Bellers: --Essays about the Poor, Manufactures, Trade, Plantations, and Immorality,? Lond. , 1699, p. 13. )
42 A purchase. in a --categorical? sense, implies that gold and silver are already the converted form of commodities, or the product of a sale.
43 Henry III. , most Christian king of France, robbed cloisters of their relics, and turned them into money. It is well known what part the despoiling of the Delphic Temple, by the Phocians, played in the history of Greece. Temples with the ancients served as the dwellings of the gods of commodities. They were --sacred banks. ? With the Phoenicians, a trading people par excellence, money was the transmuted shape of everything. It was, therefore, quite in order that the virgins, who, at the feast of the Goddess of Love, gave themselves up to strangers, should offer to the goddess the piece of money
they received.
? 43a
--Gold, yellow, glittering, precious gold!
Thus much of this, will make black white, foul, fair; Wrong, right; base, noble; old, young; coward, valiant. . . . What this, you gods? Why, this
Will lug your priests and servants from your sides; Pluck stout men's pillows from below their heads; This yellow slave
Will knit and break religions; bless the accurs'd;
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Chapter 3
? Make the hoar leprosy ador'd; place thieves, And give them title, knee and approbation; With senators on the bench, this is it;
That makes the wappen'd widow wed again: . . . Come damned earth,
Though common whore of mankind. " (Shakespeare: Timon of Athens. )
43b (Sophocles, Antigone. )
44 The desire of avarice to draw Pluto himself out of the bowels of the earth. ? (The Deipnosophistst, VI, 23, Athenaeus)
45 --Accrescere quanto piu` si puo` il numero de'venditori d'ogni merce, diminuere quanto piu` si puo il numero dei compratori, quest) sono i cardini sui quali si raggirano tutte le operazioni di economia politica. ? [--These are the pivots around which all the measures of political economy turn: the maximum possible increase in the number of sellers of each commodity, and the maximum possible decrease in the number of buyers? ] (Verri, l. c. , p. 52. )
46 --There is required for carrying on the trade of the nation a determinate sum of specifick money which varies, and is sometimes more, sometimes less, as the circumstances we are in require. . . . This ebbing and flowing of money supplies and accommodates itself, without any aid of Politicians. . . . The buckets work alternately; when money is scarce, bullion is coined; when bullion is scarce, money is melted. ? (Sir D. North, l. c. , Postscript, p. 3. ) John Stuart Mill, who for a long time was an official of the East India Company, confirms the fact that in India silver ornaments still continue to perform directly the functions of a hoard. The silver ornaments are brought out and coined when there is a high rate of interest, and go back again when the rate of interest falls. (J. S. Mill's Evidence --Reports on Bank Acts,? 1857, 2084. ) According to a Parliamentary document of 1864 on the gold and silver import and export of India, the import of gold and silver in 1863 exceeded the export by ? 19,367,764. During the 8 years immediately preceding 1864, the excess of imports over exports of the precious metals amounted to ? 109,652,917. During this century far more than ? 200,000,000 has been coined in India.
47 The following shows the debtor and creditor relations existing between English traders at the beginning of the 18th century. --Such a spirit of crudity reigns here in England among the men of trade, that is not to be met with in any other society of men, nor in any other kingdom of the world. ? (--An Essay on Credit and the Bankrupt Act,? Lond. ,
48 It will be seen from the following quotation from my book which appeared in 1859, why I take no notice in the text of an opposite form: --Contrariwise, in the process in M--C, the money can be alienated as a real means of purchase, and in that way, the price of the commodity can be realised before the use-value of the money is realised and the commodity actually delivered. This occurs constantly under the every-day form of prepayments. And it is under this form, that the English government purchases opium from the ryots of India. . . . In these cases, however, the money always acts as a means of purchase. . . . Of course capital also is advanced in the shape of money. . . . This point of view, however, does not fall within the horizon of simple circulation. ? (--Zur Kritik, &c. ,? pp. 119, 120. )
49 The monetary crisis referred to in the text, being a phase of every crisis, must be clearly distinguished from that particular form of crisis, which also is called a monetary crisis, but which may be produced by itself as an independent phenomenon in such a way as to react only indirectly on industry and commerce.
The pivot of these crises is to be found in moneyed capital, and their sphere of direct action is therefore the sphere of that capital, viz. , banking, the stock exchange, and finance.
? 98 Chapter 3
50 --The sudden reversion from a system of credit to a system of hard cash heaps theoretical fright on top of the practical panic; and the dealers by whose agency circulation is affected, shudder before the impenetrable mystery in which their own economic relations are involved? (Karl Marx, l. c. , p. 126. ) --The poor stand still, because the rich have no money to employ them, though they have the same land and hands to provide victuals and clothes, as ever they had; . . . which is the true riches of a nation, and not the money. ? John Bellers, Proposals for Raising a College of Industry, London, 1696, p3.
51 he following shows how such times are exploited by the --amis du commerce. ? --On one occasion (1839) an old grasping banker (in the city) in his private room raised the lid of the desk he sat over, and displayed to a friend rolls of bank-notes, saying with intense glee there were ? 600,000 of them, they were held to make money tight, and would all be let out after three o'clock on the same day. ? (--The Theory of Exchanges. The Bank Charter Act of 1844. ? Lond. 1864, p. 81). The Observer, a semi-official government organ, contained the following paragraph on 24th April, 1864: --Some very curious rumours are current of the means which have been resorted to in order to create a scarcity of banknotes. . . . Questionable as it would seem, to suppose that any trick of the kind would be adopted, the report has been so universal that it really deserves mention. ?
52 --The amount of purchases or contracts entered upon during the course of any given day, will not affect the quantity of money afloat on that particular day, but, in the vast majority of cases, will resolve themselves into multifarious drafts upon the quantity of money which may be afloat at subsequent dates more or less distant. . . . The bills granted or credits opened, to-day, need have no resemblance whatever, either in quantity, amount or duration, to those granted or entered upon to- morrow or next day, nay, many of today's bills, and credits, when due, fall in with a mass of liabilities whose origins traverse a range of antecedent dates altogether indefinite, bills at 12, 6, 3 months or 1 often aggregating together to swell the common liabilities of one particular day. . . . ? (--The Currency Theory Reviewed; in a Letter to the Scottish People. ? By a Banker in England. Edinburgh, 1845, pp. 29, 30 passim. )
53 As an example of how little ready money is required in true commercial operations, I give below a statement by one of the largest London houses of its yearly receipts and payments. Its transactions during the year 1856, extending to many millions of pounds sterling, are here reduced to the scale of one million.
? Receipts.
Bankers' and Merchants'
Cheques on Bankers, &c. payable on demand
Country Notes
Bank of England Notes Gold
Silver and Copper
Payments.
? 533,596 Bills payable after date
357,715 Cheques on London
Bankers
9,627 Bank of England Notes
68,554 Gold
28,089 Silver and Copper
1,486
? 302,674 663,672
22,743
9,427 1,484
? 99 Chapter 3
? Post Office Orders 933
Total ? 1,000,000 Total ? 1,000,000
--Report from the Select Committee on the Bank Acts, July, 1858,? p. lxxi.
54 --The course of trade being thus turned, from exchanging of goods for goods, or delivering and taking, to selling and paying, all the bargains . . . are now stated upon the foot of a Price in money. ? (--An Essay upon Publick Credit. ? 3rd Ed. Lond. , 1710, p. 8. )
55 --L'argent . . . est devenu le bourreau de toutes choses. ? Finance is the --alambic, qui a fait e? vaporer une quantite? effroyable de biens et de denre? es pour faire ce fatal pre? cis. ? --L'argent de? clare la guerre a` tout le genre humain. ? [--Money . . . has become the executioner of all things. ? Finance is the --alembic that evaporates a frightful quantity of goods and commodities in order to obtain this fatal extract. ? --Money [. . . ] declares war [. . . ] on the whole human race? ] (Boisguillebert: --Dissertation sur la nature des richesses, de l'argent et des tributs. ? Edit. Daire. Economistes financiers. Paris, 1843, t. i. , pp. 413, 419, 417. )
56 --On Whitsuntide, 1824,? says Mr. Craig before the Commons' Committee of 1826, --there was such an immense demand for notes upon the banks of Edinburgh, that by 11 o'clock they had not a note left in their custody. They sent round to all the different banks to borrow, but could not get them, and many of the transactions were adjusted by slips of paper only; yet by three o'clock the whole of the notes were returned into the banks from which they had issued! It was a mere transfer from hand to hand. --Although the average effective circulation of bank-notes in Scotland is less than three millions sterling, yet on certain pay days in the year, every single note in the possession of the bankers, amounting in the whole to about ? 7,000,000, is called into activity. On these occasions the notes have a single and specific function to perform, and so soon as they have performed it, they How back into the various banks from which they issued. (See John Fullarton, --Regulation of Currencies. ? Lond. 1845, p. 86, note. ) In explanation it should be stated, that in Scotland, at the date of Fullarton's work, notes and not cheques were used to withdraw deposits.
57 Note by the Institute of Marxism-Leninism in the Russian edition: Apparently a slip of the pen. When writing faverse the author evidently meant direct.
58 To the question, --If there were occasion to raise 40 millions p. a. , whether the same 6 millions (gold) . . . would suffice for such revolutions and circulations thereof, as trade requires,? Petty replies in his usual masterly manner, --I answer yes: for the expense being 40 millions, if the revolutions were in such short circles, viz. , weekly, as happens among poor artisans and labourers, who receive and pay every Saturday, then 40/52 parts of 1 million of money would answer these ends, but if the circles be quarterly, according to our custom of paying rent, and gathering taxes, then 10 millions were requisite. Wherefore, supposing payments in general to be of a mixed circle between one week and 13, then add 10 millions to 40/52, the half of which will be 51/2, so as if we have 51/2 millions we have enough. ? (William Petty: --Political Anatomy of Ireland. ? 1672, Edit. : Lond. 1691, pp. 13, 14. )
59 Hence the absurdity of every law prescribing that the banks of a country shall form reserves of that precious metal alone which circulates at home. The --pleasant difficulties? thus self-created by the Bank of England, are well known. On the subject of the great epochs in the history of the changes in the relative value of gold and silver, see Karl Marx, l. c. , p. 136 sq. Sir Robert Peel, by his Bank Act of 1844, sought to tide over the difficulty, by allowing the Bank of England to issue notes against silver bullion, on condition that the reserve of silver should never exceed more than one-fourth of the reserve of gold. The value of silver being for that purpose estimated at its price in the London market.
.
? 100 Chapter 3
Added in the 4th German edition. -- We find ourselves once more in a period of serious change in the relative values of gold and silver. About 25 years ago the ratio expressing the relative value of gold and silver was 15-1/2:1; now it is approximately 22:1, and silver is still constantly falling as against gold. This is essentially the result of a revolution in the mode of production of both metals. Formerly gold was obtained almost exclusively by washing it out from gold-bearing alluvial deposits, products of the weathering of auriferous rocks. Now this method has become inadequate and has been forced into the background by the processing of the quartz lodes themselves, a way of extraction which formerly was only of secondary importance, although well known to the ancients (Diodorus, III, 12- 14) (Diodor's v. Sicilien --Historische Bibliothek,? book III, 12-14. Stuttgart 1828, pp. 258-261). Moreover, not only were new huge silver deposits discovered in North America, in the Western part of the Rocky Mountains, but these and the Mexican silver mines were really opened up by the laying of railways, which made possible the shipment of modern machinery and fuel and in consequence the mining of silver on a very large scale at a low cost. However there is a great difference in the way the two metals occur in the quartz lodes. The gold is mostly native, but disseminated throughout the quartz in minute quantities. The whole mass of the vein must therefore be crushed and the gold either washed out or extracted by means of mercury. Often 1,000,000 grammes of quartz barely yield 1-3 and very seldom 30-60 grammes of gold. Silver is seldom found native, however it occurs in special quartz that is separated from the lode with comparative ease and contains mostly 40-90% silver; or it is contained, in smaller quantities, in copper, lead and other ores which in themselves are worthwhile working. From this alone it is apparent that the labour expended on the production of gold is rather in creasing while that expended on silver production has decidedly decreased, which quite naturally explains the drop in the value of the latter. This fall in value would express itself in a still greater fall in price if the price of silver were not pegged even to-day by artificial means. But America's rich silver deposits have so far barely been tapped, and thus the prospects are that the value of this metal will keep on dropping for rather a long time to come. A still greater contributing factor here is the relative decrease in the requirement of silver for articles of general use and for luxuries, that is its replacement by plated goods, aluminium, etc. One may thus gauge the utopianism of the bimetallist idea that compulsory international quotation will raise silver again to the old value ratio of 1:15-1/2. It is more likely that silver will forfeit its money function more and more in the markets of the world. -- F E. ]
60 The opponents, themselves, of the mercantile system, a system which considered the settlement of surplus trade balances in gold and silver as the aim of international trade, entirely misconceived the functions of money of the world. I have shown by the example of Ricardo in what way their false conception of the laws that regulate the quantity of the circulating medium, is reflected in their equally false conception of the international movement of the precious metals (l. c. , pp. 150 sq. ). His erroneous dogma: --An unfavourable balance of trade never arises but from a redundant currency. . . . The exportation of the coin is caused by its cheapness, and is not the effect, but the cause of an unfavourable balance,? already occurs in Barbon: --The Balance of Trade, if there be one, is not the cause of sending away the money out of a nation; but that proceeds from the difference of the value of bullion in every country. ? (N. Barbon; l. c. , pp. 59, 60. ) MacCulloch in --The Literature of Political Economy, a classified catalogue, Lond. 1845,? praises Barbon for this anticipation, but prudently passes over the naive forms, in which Barbon clothes the absurd supposition on which the --currency principle? is based. The absence of real criticism and even of honesty, in that catalogue culminates in the sections devoted to the history of the theory of money; the reason is that MacCulloch in this part of the work is flattering Lord Overstone whom he calls --facile princeps argentanorum. ?
61 For instance, in subsidies, money loans for carrying on wars or for enabling banks to resume cash payments, &c. , it is the money-form, and no other, of value that may be wanted.
?
34 It lies of course, entirely beyond my purpose to take into consideration such details as the s
eigniorage on minting. I will, however, cite for the benefit of the romantic sycophant, Adam Muller, who admires the --generous liberality? with which the English Government coins gratuitously, the following opinion of Sir Dudley North: --Silver and gold, like other commodities, have their ebbings and flowings. Upon the arrival of quantities from Spain . . . it is carried into the Tower, and coined. Not long after there will come a demand for bullion to be exported again. If there is none, but all happens to be in coin, what then? Melt it down again; there's no loss in it, for the coining costs the owner nothing. Thus the nation has been abused, and made to pay for the twisting of straw for asses to eat. If the merchant were made to pay the price of the coinage, he would not have sent his silver to the Tower without consideration, and coined money would always keep a value above uncoined silver. ? (North, l. c. , p. 18. ) North was himself one of the foremost merchants in the reign of Charles II.
35 --If silver never exceed what is wanted for the smaller payments it cannot be collected in sufficient quantities for the larger payments . . . the use of gold in the main payments necessarily implies also Its use in the retail trade: those who have gold coin offering them for small purchases, and receiving with the commodity purchased a balance of silver in return; by which means the surplus of silver that would otherwise encumber the retail dealer, is drawn off and dispersed into general circulation. But if there is as much silver as will transact the small payments independent of gold, the retail trader must then receive silver for small purchases ; and it must of necessity accumulate in his hands. ? (David Buchanan; --Inquiry into the Taxation and Commercial Policy of Great Britain. ? Edinburgh, 1844, pp. 248, 249. )
36 The mandarin Wan-mao-in, the Chinese Chancellor of the Exchequer, took it into his head one day to lay before the Son of Heaven a proposal that secretly aimed at converting the assignats of the empire into convertible bank-notes. The assignats Committee, in its report of April, 1854, gives him a severe snubbing. Whether he also received the traditional drubbing with bamboos is not stated. The concluding part of the report is as follows: -- --The Committee has carefully examined his proposal and finds that it is entirely in favour of the merchants, and that no advantage will result to the crown. ? (--Arbeiten der Kaiserlich Russischen Gesandtschaft zu Peking u? ber China. ? Aus dem Russischen von Dr. K. Abel und F. A. Mecklenburg. Erster Band. Berlin, 1858, p. 47 sq. ) In his evidence before the
? ? 96 Chapter 3
Committee of the House of Lords on the Bank Acts, a governor of the Bank of England says, with regard to the abrasion of gold coins during currency: --Every year a fresh class of sovereigns becomes too light. The class which one year passes with full weight, loses enough by wear and tear to draw the scales next year against it. ? (House of Lords' Committee, 1848, n. 429. )
37 The following passage from Fullarton shows the want of clearness on the pan of even the best writers on money, in their comprehension of its various functions: --That, as far as concerns our domestic exchanges, all the monetary functions which are usually performed by gold and silver coins, may be performed as effectually by a circulation of inconvertible notes paying no value but that factitious and conventional value they derive from the law is a fact which admits, I conceive, of no denial. Value of this description may be made to answer all the purposes of intrinsic value, and supersede even the necessity for a standard, provided only the quantity of issues be kept under due limitation. ? (Fullerton: --Regulation of Currencies,? London, 1845, p. 21. ) Because the commodity that serves as money is capable of being replaced in circulation by mere symbols of value, therefore its functions as a measure of value and a standard of prices are declared to be superfluous!
38 From the fact that gold and silver, so far as they are coins, or exclusively serve as the medium of circulation, become mere tokens of themselves, Nicholas Barbon deduces the right of Governments --to raise money,? that is, to give to the weight of silver that is called a shilling the name of a greater weight, such as a crown; and so to pay creditors shillings, instead of crowns. --Money does wear and grow lighter by often telling over. . . It is the denomination and currency of the money that men regard in bargaining, and not the quantity of silver. . . 'Tis the public authority upon the metal that makes it money. ? (N. Barbon, l. c. , pp. 29, 30, 25. )
39 --Une richesse en argent n'est que . . . richesse en productions, converties en argent. ? [--Monetary wealth is nothing but . . . wealth in products, transformed into money? ] (Mercier de la Rivie`re, l. c. ) --Une valeur en productions n'a fait que changer de forme. ? [--A value in the form of products, which has merely changed its form. ? ] (Id. , p. 486. )
40 --'Tis by this practice' they keep all their goods and manufactures at such low rates. ? (Vanderlint, l. c. , pp. 95, 96. )
41 --Money . . . is a pledge. ? (John Bellers: --Essays about the Poor, Manufactures, Trade, Plantations, and Immorality,? Lond. , 1699, p. 13. )
42 A purchase. in a --categorical? sense, implies that gold and silver are already the converted form of commodities, or the product of a sale.
43 Henry III. , most Christian king of France, robbed cloisters of their relics, and turned them into money. It is well known what part the despoiling of the Delphic Temple, by the Phocians, played in the history of Greece. Temples with the ancients served as the dwellings of the gods of commodities. They were --sacred banks. ? With the Phoenicians, a trading people par excellence, money was the transmuted shape of everything. It was, therefore, quite in order that the virgins, who, at the feast of the Goddess of Love, gave themselves up to strangers, should offer to the goddess the piece of money
they received.
? 43a
--Gold, yellow, glittering, precious gold!
Thus much of this, will make black white, foul, fair; Wrong, right; base, noble; old, young; coward, valiant. . . . What this, you gods? Why, this
Will lug your priests and servants from your sides; Pluck stout men's pillows from below their heads; This yellow slave
Will knit and break religions; bless the accurs'd;
? 97
Chapter 3
? Make the hoar leprosy ador'd; place thieves, And give them title, knee and approbation; With senators on the bench, this is it;
That makes the wappen'd widow wed again: . . . Come damned earth,
Though common whore of mankind. " (Shakespeare: Timon of Athens. )
43b (Sophocles, Antigone. )
44 The desire of avarice to draw Pluto himself out of the bowels of the earth. ? (The Deipnosophistst, VI, 23, Athenaeus)
45 --Accrescere quanto piu` si puo` il numero de'venditori d'ogni merce, diminuere quanto piu` si puo il numero dei compratori, quest) sono i cardini sui quali si raggirano tutte le operazioni di economia politica. ? [--These are the pivots around which all the measures of political economy turn: the maximum possible increase in the number of sellers of each commodity, and the maximum possible decrease in the number of buyers? ] (Verri, l. c. , p. 52. )
46 --There is required for carrying on the trade of the nation a determinate sum of specifick money which varies, and is sometimes more, sometimes less, as the circumstances we are in require. . . . This ebbing and flowing of money supplies and accommodates itself, without any aid of Politicians. . . . The buckets work alternately; when money is scarce, bullion is coined; when bullion is scarce, money is melted. ? (Sir D. North, l. c. , Postscript, p. 3. ) John Stuart Mill, who for a long time was an official of the East India Company, confirms the fact that in India silver ornaments still continue to perform directly the functions of a hoard. The silver ornaments are brought out and coined when there is a high rate of interest, and go back again when the rate of interest falls. (J. S. Mill's Evidence --Reports on Bank Acts,? 1857, 2084. ) According to a Parliamentary document of 1864 on the gold and silver import and export of India, the import of gold and silver in 1863 exceeded the export by ? 19,367,764. During the 8 years immediately preceding 1864, the excess of imports over exports of the precious metals amounted to ? 109,652,917. During this century far more than ? 200,000,000 has been coined in India.
47 The following shows the debtor and creditor relations existing between English traders at the beginning of the 18th century. --Such a spirit of crudity reigns here in England among the men of trade, that is not to be met with in any other society of men, nor in any other kingdom of the world. ? (--An Essay on Credit and the Bankrupt Act,? Lond. ,
48 It will be seen from the following quotation from my book which appeared in 1859, why I take no notice in the text of an opposite form: --Contrariwise, in the process in M--C, the money can be alienated as a real means of purchase, and in that way, the price of the commodity can be realised before the use-value of the money is realised and the commodity actually delivered. This occurs constantly under the every-day form of prepayments. And it is under this form, that the English government purchases opium from the ryots of India. . . . In these cases, however, the money always acts as a means of purchase. . . . Of course capital also is advanced in the shape of money. . . . This point of view, however, does not fall within the horizon of simple circulation. ? (--Zur Kritik, &c. ,? pp. 119, 120. )
49 The monetary crisis referred to in the text, being a phase of every crisis, must be clearly distinguished from that particular form of crisis, which also is called a monetary crisis, but which may be produced by itself as an independent phenomenon in such a way as to react only indirectly on industry and commerce.
The pivot of these crises is to be found in moneyed capital, and their sphere of direct action is therefore the sphere of that capital, viz. , banking, the stock exchange, and finance.
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50 --The sudden reversion from a system of credit to a system of hard cash heaps theoretical fright on top of the practical panic; and the dealers by whose agency circulation is affected, shudder before the impenetrable mystery in which their own economic relations are involved? (Karl Marx, l. c. , p. 126. ) --The poor stand still, because the rich have no money to employ them, though they have the same land and hands to provide victuals and clothes, as ever they had; . . . which is the true riches of a nation, and not the money. ? John Bellers, Proposals for Raising a College of Industry, London, 1696, p3.
51 he following shows how such times are exploited by the --amis du commerce. ? --On one occasion (1839) an old grasping banker (in the city) in his private room raised the lid of the desk he sat over, and displayed to a friend rolls of bank-notes, saying with intense glee there were ? 600,000 of them, they were held to make money tight, and would all be let out after three o'clock on the same day. ? (--The Theory of Exchanges. The Bank Charter Act of 1844. ? Lond. 1864, p. 81). The Observer, a semi-official government organ, contained the following paragraph on 24th April, 1864: --Some very curious rumours are current of the means which have been resorted to in order to create a scarcity of banknotes. . . . Questionable as it would seem, to suppose that any trick of the kind would be adopted, the report has been so universal that it really deserves mention. ?
52 --The amount of purchases or contracts entered upon during the course of any given day, will not affect the quantity of money afloat on that particular day, but, in the vast majority of cases, will resolve themselves into multifarious drafts upon the quantity of money which may be afloat at subsequent dates more or less distant. . . . The bills granted or credits opened, to-day, need have no resemblance whatever, either in quantity, amount or duration, to those granted or entered upon to- morrow or next day, nay, many of today's bills, and credits, when due, fall in with a mass of liabilities whose origins traverse a range of antecedent dates altogether indefinite, bills at 12, 6, 3 months or 1 often aggregating together to swell the common liabilities of one particular day. . . . ? (--The Currency Theory Reviewed; in a Letter to the Scottish People. ? By a Banker in England. Edinburgh, 1845, pp. 29, 30 passim. )
53 As an example of how little ready money is required in true commercial operations, I give below a statement by one of the largest London houses of its yearly receipts and payments. Its transactions during the year 1856, extending to many millions of pounds sterling, are here reduced to the scale of one million.
? Receipts.
Bankers' and Merchants'
Cheques on Bankers, &c. payable on demand
Country Notes
Bank of England Notes Gold
Silver and Copper
Payments.
? 533,596 Bills payable after date
357,715 Cheques on London
Bankers
9,627 Bank of England Notes
68,554 Gold
28,089 Silver and Copper
1,486
? 302,674 663,672
22,743
9,427 1,484
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? Post Office Orders 933
Total ? 1,000,000 Total ? 1,000,000
--Report from the Select Committee on the Bank Acts, July, 1858,? p. lxxi.
54 --The course of trade being thus turned, from exchanging of goods for goods, or delivering and taking, to selling and paying, all the bargains . . . are now stated upon the foot of a Price in money. ? (--An Essay upon Publick Credit. ? 3rd Ed. Lond. , 1710, p. 8. )
55 --L'argent . . . est devenu le bourreau de toutes choses. ? Finance is the --alambic, qui a fait e? vaporer une quantite? effroyable de biens et de denre? es pour faire ce fatal pre? cis. ? --L'argent de? clare la guerre a` tout le genre humain. ? [--Money . . . has become the executioner of all things. ? Finance is the --alembic that evaporates a frightful quantity of goods and commodities in order to obtain this fatal extract. ? --Money [. . . ] declares war [. . . ] on the whole human race? ] (Boisguillebert: --Dissertation sur la nature des richesses, de l'argent et des tributs. ? Edit. Daire. Economistes financiers. Paris, 1843, t. i. , pp. 413, 419, 417. )
56 --On Whitsuntide, 1824,? says Mr. Craig before the Commons' Committee of 1826, --there was such an immense demand for notes upon the banks of Edinburgh, that by 11 o'clock they had not a note left in their custody. They sent round to all the different banks to borrow, but could not get them, and many of the transactions were adjusted by slips of paper only; yet by three o'clock the whole of the notes were returned into the banks from which they had issued! It was a mere transfer from hand to hand. --Although the average effective circulation of bank-notes in Scotland is less than three millions sterling, yet on certain pay days in the year, every single note in the possession of the bankers, amounting in the whole to about ? 7,000,000, is called into activity. On these occasions the notes have a single and specific function to perform, and so soon as they have performed it, they How back into the various banks from which they issued. (See John Fullarton, --Regulation of Currencies. ? Lond. 1845, p. 86, note. ) In explanation it should be stated, that in Scotland, at the date of Fullarton's work, notes and not cheques were used to withdraw deposits.
57 Note by the Institute of Marxism-Leninism in the Russian edition: Apparently a slip of the pen. When writing faverse the author evidently meant direct.
58 To the question, --If there were occasion to raise 40 millions p. a. , whether the same 6 millions (gold) . . . would suffice for such revolutions and circulations thereof, as trade requires,? Petty replies in his usual masterly manner, --I answer yes: for the expense being 40 millions, if the revolutions were in such short circles, viz. , weekly, as happens among poor artisans and labourers, who receive and pay every Saturday, then 40/52 parts of 1 million of money would answer these ends, but if the circles be quarterly, according to our custom of paying rent, and gathering taxes, then 10 millions were requisite. Wherefore, supposing payments in general to be of a mixed circle between one week and 13, then add 10 millions to 40/52, the half of which will be 51/2, so as if we have 51/2 millions we have enough. ? (William Petty: --Political Anatomy of Ireland. ? 1672, Edit. : Lond. 1691, pp. 13, 14. )
59 Hence the absurdity of every law prescribing that the banks of a country shall form reserves of that precious metal alone which circulates at home. The --pleasant difficulties? thus self-created by the Bank of England, are well known. On the subject of the great epochs in the history of the changes in the relative value of gold and silver, see Karl Marx, l. c. , p. 136 sq. Sir Robert Peel, by his Bank Act of 1844, sought to tide over the difficulty, by allowing the Bank of England to issue notes against silver bullion, on condition that the reserve of silver should never exceed more than one-fourth of the reserve of gold. The value of silver being for that purpose estimated at its price in the London market.
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Added in the 4th German edition. -- We find ourselves once more in a period of serious change in the relative values of gold and silver. About 25 years ago the ratio expressing the relative value of gold and silver was 15-1/2:1; now it is approximately 22:1, and silver is still constantly falling as against gold. This is essentially the result of a revolution in the mode of production of both metals. Formerly gold was obtained almost exclusively by washing it out from gold-bearing alluvial deposits, products of the weathering of auriferous rocks. Now this method has become inadequate and has been forced into the background by the processing of the quartz lodes themselves, a way of extraction which formerly was only of secondary importance, although well known to the ancients (Diodorus, III, 12- 14) (Diodor's v. Sicilien --Historische Bibliothek,? book III, 12-14. Stuttgart 1828, pp. 258-261). Moreover, not only were new huge silver deposits discovered in North America, in the Western part of the Rocky Mountains, but these and the Mexican silver mines were really opened up by the laying of railways, which made possible the shipment of modern machinery and fuel and in consequence the mining of silver on a very large scale at a low cost. However there is a great difference in the way the two metals occur in the quartz lodes. The gold is mostly native, but disseminated throughout the quartz in minute quantities. The whole mass of the vein must therefore be crushed and the gold either washed out or extracted by means of mercury. Often 1,000,000 grammes of quartz barely yield 1-3 and very seldom 30-60 grammes of gold. Silver is seldom found native, however it occurs in special quartz that is separated from the lode with comparative ease and contains mostly 40-90% silver; or it is contained, in smaller quantities, in copper, lead and other ores which in themselves are worthwhile working. From this alone it is apparent that the labour expended on the production of gold is rather in creasing while that expended on silver production has decidedly decreased, which quite naturally explains the drop in the value of the latter. This fall in value would express itself in a still greater fall in price if the price of silver were not pegged even to-day by artificial means. But America's rich silver deposits have so far barely been tapped, and thus the prospects are that the value of this metal will keep on dropping for rather a long time to come. A still greater contributing factor here is the relative decrease in the requirement of silver for articles of general use and for luxuries, that is its replacement by plated goods, aluminium, etc. One may thus gauge the utopianism of the bimetallist idea that compulsory international quotation will raise silver again to the old value ratio of 1:15-1/2. It is more likely that silver will forfeit its money function more and more in the markets of the world. -- F E. ]
60 The opponents, themselves, of the mercantile system, a system which considered the settlement of surplus trade balances in gold and silver as the aim of international trade, entirely misconceived the functions of money of the world. I have shown by the example of Ricardo in what way their false conception of the laws that regulate the quantity of the circulating medium, is reflected in their equally false conception of the international movement of the precious metals (l. c. , pp. 150 sq. ). His erroneous dogma: --An unfavourable balance of trade never arises but from a redundant currency. . . . The exportation of the coin is caused by its cheapness, and is not the effect, but the cause of an unfavourable balance,? already occurs in Barbon: --The Balance of Trade, if there be one, is not the cause of sending away the money out of a nation; but that proceeds from the difference of the value of bullion in every country. ? (N. Barbon; l. c. , pp. 59, 60. ) MacCulloch in --The Literature of Political Economy, a classified catalogue, Lond. 1845,? praises Barbon for this anticipation, but prudently passes over the naive forms, in which Barbon clothes the absurd supposition on which the --currency principle? is based. The absence of real criticism and even of honesty, in that catalogue culminates in the sections devoted to the history of the theory of money; the reason is that MacCulloch in this part of the work is flattering Lord Overstone whom he calls --facile princeps argentanorum. ?
61 For instance, in subsidies, money loans for carrying on wars or for enabling banks to resume cash payments, &c. , it is the money-form, and no other, of value that may be wanted.
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