The first documented divorce occurred in 231, when a distin- guished man named Spurius Carvilius Ruga
separated
from his wife because she failed to bear children.
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome_nodrm
Baltimore, 1965.
4. A PREARRANGED MARRIAGE
INTRODUCTION
Roman marriages were sometimes prearranged, especially in the upper socioeconomic groups of citizens. Pliny the Younger wrote a letter to his friend Junius Mauricus, who was seeking a suitable husband for his niece. Pliny had the perfect candidate in mind!
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. This was not the only time in which Pliny had helped his friend Mauricus. He also offered to conduct a search for a tutor for the children of Mauricus's brother. Mauricus was exiled from Rome by the emperor Domitian in 93 CE, but was recalled five years later by the subsequent emperor, Nerva. It seems likely that Pliny wrote this letter early in the second century CE.
2. The document, about a marriage arrangement, gives us a window into the world of the wealthier Roman upper classes, and the manner in which they might go about the task of finding suitable spouses for their children. Did people of more modest means attempt to arrange marriages for their children in similar ways? Or at all? These questions are more difficult to answer.
Document: Pliny the Younger
as a Matchmaker
You request me to look for a husband for your niece, and it is fitting for you to give me this commission rather than anyone else. For you know how much I esteemed and loved that great man, her father, and with what encouragement he helped me in my youth, and how he caused me to appear to deserve the praises he used to bestow upon me. You could not give me a more important or more pleasant commission, nor could I undertake a more honorable task than to choose a young man worthy of begetting the grandchildren of Rusticus Arulenus [the brother of Mauricus].
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
Such a person would take a long time to find, were not Manicius Acilianus ready at hand, almost as if by pre- arrangement. While he loves me very warmly with the affection usual between young men (for he is just a few years younger), he reveres me as he would an old man. For he is as desirous of modeling himself on me and of being instructed by me as I was by you and your brother.
He is a native of Brixia, a city of that Italy of ours, the Italy which that still retains and preserves much of the modesty, the frugality, and even the rustic simplicity of the olden days. His father is Minicius Macrinus, one of the leading men of the equestrian order, who desired no higher status; for though elevated to praetorian rank by the deified Vespasian [emperor who reigned 69-79 CE], he very steadfastly preferred an honorable repose to this display--or shall I call it rank--of ours. His maternal grandmother is Serrana Procula, of the municipality of Padua. You are acquainted with the manners of the place; yet Serrana is even to the Paduans a model of strictness. He is fortunate in having also Publius Acilius as his uncle, a man of almost unequaled gravity, wisdom, and integrity. In short, there is nothing in his entire family which that would not please you as if it were in your own. As for Acilius himself, he has great energy as well as great application, joined with a high degree of modesty. He has already passed with the greatest credit through the offices of quaestor, tribune, and praetor [three political offices of the Republic, whose practical significance in Pliny's time had probably diminished], so that he has already spared you the necessity of canvassing for him. He has the look of a gentleman, fresh-colored and blooming, and a natural handsomeness in his whole build, together with a certain senatorial grace. I think that these factors should not be slighted in the least, for this is a kind of reward that should be given to the chastity of maidens.
I don't know whether to add that his father is very rich. For when I consider the kind of person you are, for whose niece I am seeking a husband, I feel it is unneces- sary to mention wealth. But when I look at the public morality and even the laws of the state, according to which a person's wealth claims paramount attention, it certainly merits some notice. And indeed, where children--in fact, a goodly number of them--are thought of, this consideration too is to be weighed in arranging matches. You may perhaps think that I have indulged my affection and exaggerated beyond the merits of the case. But I stake my integrity that you will find everything far greater than what I am telling you in advance . . .
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? application: This is the translation of the Latin word industria, which con- notes diligent, purposeful activity. So Acilius not only possessed abstract character traits like integrity and wisdom, but he also was focused and productive in his work habits.
Brixia: A city in northern Italy, modern Brescia. Brixia was located not far from Comum, Pliny's hometown.
equestrian order: The prosperous upper middle class in ancient Roman society, called "equestrian" because in the earliest days of Roman history, these were the peo- ple wealthy enough to buy and maintain a horse.
Manicius Acilianus: Although this young man is Pliny's candidate for the husband-to-be, there is no information about him elsewhere.
Minicius Macrinus: Six of Pliny's let- ters to this individual are extant, including one [8. 17] that describes a horrific storm and the flooding that resulted, and Pliny's hope that his friend survived with life and property intact.
Padua: Known as Patavium in Roman times, this town was the birthplace of the eminent Roman historian Livy (Titus Livius, 59 BCE-17 CE).
praetorian rank: Apparently because of his distinguished background and accomplishments, he was granted the privileges of an ex- magistrate (a praetor), even though he had never held that office.
rustic simplicity of the olden days:
The Latin rusticitas, here translated as "rustic simplicity," is a word with an interesting combination of posi- tive, neutral, and negative connota- tions. It can mean "rustic charm" or "country-born" or "lacking sophistication. " Pliny undoubtedly
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Farewell. [Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization: Sourcebook II, The Empire. Reprinted by Harper Torchbooks, 1966. 1. 14, page numbers: 252-253. ]
AFTERMATH
We have no follow-up to this letter, so it is not possible to know whether the proposed marriage ever took place. However, given Pliny's status in society and his sound judgment in such matters, it seems likely that the union occurred.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Why does Pliny claim that it was fitting for Mauricus to give him "this commission [to find a husband for his friend's niece] rather than anyone else"? What qualifica- tions does Pliny have that make him uniquely suited for this undertaking?
2. What personal and family attributes does Minicius Acilianus possess that would make him a suitable match for Junius Mauricus's niece?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e How common was it for Roman marriages to be arranged in the manner that Pliny describes in this letter?
e Whatcanyoufindoutaboutthehistory,culture,andsignificanceofsome of the northern Italian towns that Pliny mentions in the letter? Were there any other famous names in Roman history (in addition to Pliny and Livy) who came from this region?
e Does it seem a bit odd that Pliny devotes the biggest portion of the letter not to the intended groom, Minicius Acilianus, but to Acilianus's family, and especially his uncle and his father? Why do you suppose he placed the emphasis on these two family members?
e Plinywritesthat"he[theuncle,Acilius]hasalreadypassed. . . through the offices of quaestor, tribune, and praetor, so that he has already spared you the necessity of canvassing for him. " The noted commentator John H. Westcott suggests that "there was only one more office to obtain, the consulship, and that was in the [form of a] gift of the emperor. " What do you think Pliny was implying by his statement? Is there an implicit expectation that Minicius Acilianus would somehow have assisted his uncle in his political career, but that since the uncle had already held all the important offices, "the necessity of canvassing for him" would not be an issue?
Further Information
Radice, Betty. The Letters of Pliny the Younger. London, 1963.
Sherwin-White, A. N. The Letters of Pliny: A Social and Historical Commentary. Oxford,
1966.
A Prearranged Marriage
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? intends to convey here the positive connotation. By "olden days," he probably refers to the bygone times of the Roman Republic, an era to which many Romans nostalgically hearkened back as a sort of golden age of deportment, respect, and hard work.
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 19
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20
Websites
Marriage in Ancient Rome. http://victorian. fortunecity. com/lion/373/roman/romarriage . html
Pliny the Younger (3). http://www. livius. org/pi-pm/pliny/pliny_y3. html
Bibliography for Document
Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization. Sourcebook II: The Empire. New York, 1955.
Westcott, John H. (ed. ) Selected Letters of Pliny. Norman, OK, new edition 1965.
5. AN EXTREMELY DEVOTED WIFE
INTRODUCTION
Certainly one of our best sources of information about the role of a wife in a Roman house- hold comes from a lengthy eulogy, preserved in the form of an inscription. The honoree was a first-century BCE lady by the name of Turia; the document is generally known as the Laudatio Turiae (In Praise of Turia). The speaker was her husband, Quintus Lucretius Vespillo.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Turia and her husband lived through some of the most tumultuous years in Roman history: the unsettled times after the assassination of Julius Caesar (44 BCE). Vespillo's name was placed on a proscription list in 43, but he was later exonerated, and even served a term as consul in 19.
2. Although Roman law and custom placed the husband above the wife as the absolute ruler of the household, it seems clear from the document that Turia exercised a good deal of her own judgment and engaged in actions independent of her husband's approval or permission.
3. There is some scholarly skepticism as to whether this lengthy inscription actually does refer to Turia, since the inscription is fragmentary and pieces are missing in places, and the name "Turia" does not appear on the extant sections. However, the document does contain detailed information that is consistent with information about Vespillo from other ancient sources, and so it seems very likely that the wife in question is Turia. The first-century CE Roman historian Valerius Maximus [6. 7] writes: "When Quintus Lucretius [Vespillo] was proscribed by the triumvirs [Octavian, Lepidus, Mark Antony] his wife Turia hid him in her bedroom above the rafters. A single maidservant knew the secret. At great risk to herself, she kept him safe from imminent death. So rare was her loyalty that, while the other men who had been proscribed found themselves in foreign, hostile places, barely manag- ing to escape the worst tortures of body and soul, Lucretius was safe in that bed- room in the arms of his wife. " [Valerius Maximus. Memorable Doings and Sayings 6. 7; tr. Bailey. ]
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
? Document: Turia's Devotion
Marriages of such long duration, not dissolved by divorce, but terminated by death alone, are indeed rare. For our union was prolonged in unclouded happiness for forty-one years. Would that our long marriage had come to its final end by my death, and that I as the older--which was more just--had yielded to fate.
Why recall your natural qualities, your modesty, deference, affability, your amiable disposition, your faithful attendance to household duties, your enlight- ened religion, your unassuming elegance, the modest simplicity of your attire? Need I speak of your attach- ment to your kindred, your affection for your family-- when you cherished my mother as you did your own parents--you who share countless other virtues with Roman matrons who cherish their fair name? These qualities which I claim for you are your own; few have possessed the like and been able to hold on to and main- tain them; the experience of men teaches us how rare they are.
With joint zeal we have preserved all the patrimony which you received from your parents. Entrusting it all to me, you were not troubled with the care of increasing it; thus did we share the task of administering it, that I undertook to protect your fortune, and you to guard mine. On this point I pass by many things in silence, for fear of attributing to myself a portion of your deserts. Suffice it for me to have indicated my sentiments.
You gave proof of your generosity not only towards very many of your kin, but especially in your filial devo- tion. . . You brought up in our home. . . some worthy young girls of your kinship. And that these might attain to a station in life worthy of your family, you provided them with dowries. Gaius Cluvius [Turia's brother-in- law] and myself, by common accord, executed your intention, and approving of your generosity, in order that your patrimony might suffer no diminution, offered our own family possessions instead, and gave up our own estates to provide the dowries settled upon by you. This I have related not to sing my own praises,
but to show that we held ourselves in honor bound to execute from our property those obligations incurred by you out of the fullness of your heart . . .
[Vespillo next devotes several lengthy passages to Turia's role in saving his life during the proscriptions which were issued following the assassination of Julius Caesar. ]
When all the world was again at peace and the Republic reestablished, peaceful and happy days followed for us. We longed for children, which an
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? divorce: The essayist Aulus Gellius reports (4. 3) that for the first 500+ years after the founding of Rome in 753 BCE, divorce was unknown.
The first documented divorce occurred in 231, when a distin- guished man named Spurius Carvilius Ruga separated from his wife because she failed to bear children. According to Gellius, Carvilius loved his wife very much, but he divorced her because of a legally binding oath he had taken, in which he publicly professed that he had married in order to father children.
dowries: Unfortunately, Vespillo does not specify how many "worthy young girls" received dowries from Turia and/or Vespillo, but it is probable that the total value of these dowries was considerable, since the family seems to have been fairly wealthy.
the Republic reestablished: This is most likely something of an over- statement. Although the future emperor Augustus claimed to have restored the Roman Republic after the civil war following Caesar's assassination, the reality of the sit- uation was that the Republic remained in name only, and that Augustus had become the sole ruler--for life.
? ? ? 22
envious fate denied us for some time. Had Fortune permitted herself to smile on us in the ordinary fashion, what had been lacking to complete our happiness? But advancing age put an end to our hopes. . . . Despairing of your fertility and dis- consolate to see me without children . . . you spoke of divorce because of my unhappiness on this account, offering to yield our home to another spouse more fertile, with no other intention than that of yourself searching for and providing for me a spouse worthy of our well-known mutual affection, whose children you assured me you would have treated as though your own . . . Nothing would have changed, only that you would have rendered to me henceforth the services and devotion of a sister or mother-in-law.
I must admit that I was so angry that I was deprived of my mind, and that I was so horrified at your proposal that I scarcely regained control of myself. That you should have spoken of divorce between us before the decree of fate had been given; that you should have conceived of any reason why you, while you were still alive, should cease to be my wife, you who when I was almost an exile from life remained most faithful . . .
Would that our time of life had permitted our union to endure until I, the older, had passed away--which was more just--and that you might perform for me the last rites, and that I might have departed, leaving you behind, with a daughter to replace me in your widowhood.
By fate's decree your course was run before mine. You left me the grief, the longing for you, the sad fate to live alone . . . [Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization: Sourcebook I, The Republic. Harper Torchbooks, 1951. Page numbers: 485, 487. ]
AFTERMATH
Vespillo concludes his eulogy by proclaiming that his wife deserved more in her life, and that he regretted not having the time to repay everything he owed to her. Finally, he prays to the Manes (spirits of the dead) to give peace and protection to Turia
ASK YOURSELF
1. What were the ways in which Vespillo said that his wife helped him, or made his life more secure?
2. What was Vespillo's reaction to Turia's suggestion that they divorce? Why did she make such a suggestion in the first place?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e HowdidtheRomansviewtheroleofwomen,especiallywives,atthistime in their history? Vespillo makes some very complimentary statements about his wife in this eulogy, especially in the second paragraph, where he specifi- cally enumerates her many outstanding "natural qualities. " How typical-- or nontypical--do you think that Turia was as a wife and a Roman woman?
e Inthethirdparagraph,Vespillosays,"Onthispoint[thematterofthepat- rimony], I pass by many things in silence . . . " He never specifies what he means by "many things. " What might some of those unnamed things be?
An Extremely Devoted Wife
? ? ? ? ? ? 23
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
24
e Note again Vespillo's statement that "the Republic [had been] reestab- lished. " What were the true facts of the situation? In what ways did Augustus cleverly claim to be restoring the Republic, when in actuality he was doing something quite different?
e There are a number of instances recorded in Roman history where hus- bands divorced their wives because the wives were incapable of bearing children. Research some of these instances. Were the circumstances similar in all cases? If not, what differences do you notice?
e VespillomentionsthathismarriagetoTurialasted41years. Canyoufind other examples of Roman marriages that endured for an exceptionally long time? (A good starting point: Pliny the Younger's letter [8. 5] referencing his friend Macrinus, who had lived without quarreling for 39 years with his recently deceased wife Acilia. )
Further Information
Fantham, Elaine et al. Women in the Classical World. Oxford, 1994.
Gardner, J. Women in Roman Law and Society. Bloomington, IN, 1986.
Lefkowitz, Mary R. and Maureen B. Fant. Women's Life in Greece & Rome. A Sourcebook in
Translation. Baltimore, 1992.
Treggiari, Susan. Roman Marriage. Oxford, 1991.
Website
On the Laudatio Turiae: http://www. dl. ket. org/latin2/mores/women/womenful. htm Bibliography for Document
Lefkowitz, Mary R. and Maureen B. Fant. Women's Life in Greece & Rome. Online at: http:// www. stoa. org/diotima/anthology/wlgr/wlgr-mensopinions53. shtml [This is the source for the Valerius Maximus quotation in "Keep in Mind as You Read. "]
Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization: Sourcebook I, The Republic. (Adapted from D. C. Munro, A Source Book of Roman History, Boston, 1904. ) New York, 1951.
Rolfe, John C. (tr. ). The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius. [LCL. ] Cambridge and London, 1927.
EDUCATION
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6. PLUTARCH'S PRESCRIPTION FOR A CHILD'S EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Although Plutarch (d. ca. 120 CE) is best remembered as a biographer, he also wrote a collec- tion of short essays usually entitled Moralia, or Moral Essays. Nearly 80 of these essays still survive; the variety of topics indicates the breadth of Plutarch's interests. Some of the titles: How a Young Person Ought to Study Poetry; On Listening to Lectures; How to Distinguish a Flatterer from a Friend; How to Profit from Your Enemies; Instructions for Maintaining Health; The Bravery of Women; Which Is Worse: the Ills of the Mind or the Ills of the Body? ; Should Old Men Take Part in Politics? ; Are Land or Sea Animals More Clever? ; On the Face in the Moon.
Some scholars claim that Plutarch did not author the essay that appears as the first docu- ment, even though it is traditionally grouped with the many other essays that he wrote. Regardless of authorship, however, the essay offers some interesting insights into ancient Greek attitudes about education.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Plutarch's moral essay entitled The Education of Children usually appears first in the ordering of the surviving essays, and under this general rubric, Plutarch addresses many details; examples: the role of good nutrition; the importance of devoted and conscientious parents, and in particular, that parents should not set unattainable goals for their children or impose unreasonable demands on them; parents should not "be utterly harsh and austere in their nature, but they should in many cases con- cede some shortcomings to the younger person [i. e. , their child], and remind them- selves that they once were young"; choosing proper nursemaids and servants for a child and choosing competent teachers; teaching children to be truthful at all times; shielding children from inappropriate speech and behavior.
2. As mentioned in the general introduction, there were no formal elementary "schools" in ancient Greece, at least not of the sort that we are familiar with in modern times. So Greek parents would either teach their children themselves-- roughly equivalent to the homeschooling movement today--or else hire knowl- edgeable tutors to do the job. Parents who chose the latter option needed to exercise
? ? ? ? 27
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
great care in selecting tutors, and Plutarch (and other authors) often emphasized to parents the critical importance of making wise choices.
Document: Educating Free-Born Children
The free-born child should not be allowed to go without some knowledge, both through hearing and observation, of every branch also of what is called general education; yet these he should learn only incidentally, just to get a taste of them, as it were (for perfection in everything is impossible), but philosophy he should honor above all else. I can perhaps make my opinion clear by means of a figure: for example, it is a fine thing to voyage about and view many cities, but profitable to dwell only in the best one. And it was a clever saying of Bion, the philosopher, that, just as the suitors, not being able to approach Penelope, consorted with her maid-servants, so also do those who are not able to attain philosophy wear themselves to a shadow over the other kinds of education which have no value. Wherefore it is necessary to make philosophy . . . the head and front of all education. For as regards the care of the body, men have discovered two sciences, the medical and the gymnastic, of which the one implants health, the other sturdiness, in the body; but for illnesses and affec- tions of the mind, philosophy alone is the remedy . . . [I]t is necessary not to be indifferent about acquiring the works of earlier writers, but to make a collection of these, like a set of tools in farming. For the corresponding tool of educa- tion is the use of books, and by their means it has come to pass that we are able to study knowledge at its source. It is not proper, either, to overlook the exercise of the body, but we should send the children to the trainers and culti- vate adequately this side of education with all diligence, not merely for the sake of gracefulness of body but also with an eye for strength; for sturdiness of body in child- hood is the foundation of a hale old age. Just as in fair weather, then, one ought to prepare for storm, so also in youth one should store up discipline and self-restraint as a provision for old age. But the amount of bodily exercise should be so limited as not to be a drain on the children and make them too tired to study; for, according to Plato, sleep and weariness are the enemies of learning . . . This also I assert, that children ought to be led to honor- able practices by means of encouragement and reasoning, and not by blows or ill-treatment, for it surely is agreed that these are fitting rather for slaves than for the free-born. For so they grow numb and shudder at their tasks, partly from
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? according to Plato: The reference to Plato is taken from his Republic (Book 7), where he is discussing the proper and effective ways to educate children. Plato, like Plutarch, shuns the idea that physi- cal force, corporal punishment, or harsh discipline have appropriate roles to play in a child's education. Rather, he suggests that a child's lessons should incorporate play and enjoyment if the child is to learn well and thoroughly.
Bion, the philosopher: Bion (ca. 325- ca. 255 BCE) had an interesting life. Because of his father's criminal activity, the entire family was sold into slavery. Fortunately for Bion, however, he wound up serving a rhetorician, and apparently serving him well: his master eventually freed him and left him a fortune in his will. Bion made his way to Athens, and studied with many noted philosophers of the time. Eventually, he became a wandering philosopher, traveling from place to place and earning his living by offering lectures, for a fee.
every branch . . . general education: Here Plutarch seems to be articu- lating the idea, still current, of the importance of a liberal arts educa- tion, wherein students are exposed to all the branches of knowledge and learning.
suitors . . . Penelope: A reference to Homer's Odyssey, in which the 100+ young men, all vying for Penelope's hand in marriage,
? ? ? 28
the pain of the blows, partly from the degradation. [Tr. Frank Cole Babbitt. Plutarch's Moralia. (7 C-D; 8 B, C, D, F. ). Volume I. LCL, 1927. Page numbers: 33, 35, 37, 39, 41. ]
AFTERMATH
Plutarch's influence on later writers has been profound. Shakespearean plays set in ancient Rome--Coriolanus, Julius Caesar, and Antony and Cleopatra--borrow heavily on information drawn from Plutarch's works. The French essayist Michel de Montaigne was also greatly influenced by Plutarch; his writings contain over 400 references to Plutarchian works. Ralph Waldo Emerson and other transcendentalists also came under Plutarch's spell.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Plutarch has a very high opinion of the importance of studying philosophy. Does he provide sound arguments for his point of view? Do you agree or disagree with his line of reasoning?
2. For educated Romans, the principle of mens sana in sano corpore (sound mind in a sound body, the body-mind con- nection) was centrally important. Do you get a sense from Plutarch's essay that the Greeks had the same attitude?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Plutarch's recommendations for the education of
children are clearly directed at families who have
the financial wherewithal to hire tutors and train-
ers, and to buy books and other materials for their
children. But what about children born into less fortunate circumstances? Plutarch does address that issue, in a sort of roundabout way, by acknowl- edging the reality of it, but then deflecting any blame for it away from him- self. He also says that the poor must do the best that they can for their children, and should that be impossible, they must do at least as much as they can.
4. A PREARRANGED MARRIAGE
INTRODUCTION
Roman marriages were sometimes prearranged, especially in the upper socioeconomic groups of citizens. Pliny the Younger wrote a letter to his friend Junius Mauricus, who was seeking a suitable husband for his niece. Pliny had the perfect candidate in mind!
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. This was not the only time in which Pliny had helped his friend Mauricus. He also offered to conduct a search for a tutor for the children of Mauricus's brother. Mauricus was exiled from Rome by the emperor Domitian in 93 CE, but was recalled five years later by the subsequent emperor, Nerva. It seems likely that Pliny wrote this letter early in the second century CE.
2. The document, about a marriage arrangement, gives us a window into the world of the wealthier Roman upper classes, and the manner in which they might go about the task of finding suitable spouses for their children. Did people of more modest means attempt to arrange marriages for their children in similar ways? Or at all? These questions are more difficult to answer.
Document: Pliny the Younger
as a Matchmaker
You request me to look for a husband for your niece, and it is fitting for you to give me this commission rather than anyone else. For you know how much I esteemed and loved that great man, her father, and with what encouragement he helped me in my youth, and how he caused me to appear to deserve the praises he used to bestow upon me. You could not give me a more important or more pleasant commission, nor could I undertake a more honorable task than to choose a young man worthy of begetting the grandchildren of Rusticus Arulenus [the brother of Mauricus].
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
Such a person would take a long time to find, were not Manicius Acilianus ready at hand, almost as if by pre- arrangement. While he loves me very warmly with the affection usual between young men (for he is just a few years younger), he reveres me as he would an old man. For he is as desirous of modeling himself on me and of being instructed by me as I was by you and your brother.
He is a native of Brixia, a city of that Italy of ours, the Italy which that still retains and preserves much of the modesty, the frugality, and even the rustic simplicity of the olden days. His father is Minicius Macrinus, one of the leading men of the equestrian order, who desired no higher status; for though elevated to praetorian rank by the deified Vespasian [emperor who reigned 69-79 CE], he very steadfastly preferred an honorable repose to this display--or shall I call it rank--of ours. His maternal grandmother is Serrana Procula, of the municipality of Padua. You are acquainted with the manners of the place; yet Serrana is even to the Paduans a model of strictness. He is fortunate in having also Publius Acilius as his uncle, a man of almost unequaled gravity, wisdom, and integrity. In short, there is nothing in his entire family which that would not please you as if it were in your own. As for Acilius himself, he has great energy as well as great application, joined with a high degree of modesty. He has already passed with the greatest credit through the offices of quaestor, tribune, and praetor [three political offices of the Republic, whose practical significance in Pliny's time had probably diminished], so that he has already spared you the necessity of canvassing for him. He has the look of a gentleman, fresh-colored and blooming, and a natural handsomeness in his whole build, together with a certain senatorial grace. I think that these factors should not be slighted in the least, for this is a kind of reward that should be given to the chastity of maidens.
I don't know whether to add that his father is very rich. For when I consider the kind of person you are, for whose niece I am seeking a husband, I feel it is unneces- sary to mention wealth. But when I look at the public morality and even the laws of the state, according to which a person's wealth claims paramount attention, it certainly merits some notice. And indeed, where children--in fact, a goodly number of them--are thought of, this consideration too is to be weighed in arranging matches. You may perhaps think that I have indulged my affection and exaggerated beyond the merits of the case. But I stake my integrity that you will find everything far greater than what I am telling you in advance . . .
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? application: This is the translation of the Latin word industria, which con- notes diligent, purposeful activity. So Acilius not only possessed abstract character traits like integrity and wisdom, but he also was focused and productive in his work habits.
Brixia: A city in northern Italy, modern Brescia. Brixia was located not far from Comum, Pliny's hometown.
equestrian order: The prosperous upper middle class in ancient Roman society, called "equestrian" because in the earliest days of Roman history, these were the peo- ple wealthy enough to buy and maintain a horse.
Manicius Acilianus: Although this young man is Pliny's candidate for the husband-to-be, there is no information about him elsewhere.
Minicius Macrinus: Six of Pliny's let- ters to this individual are extant, including one [8. 17] that describes a horrific storm and the flooding that resulted, and Pliny's hope that his friend survived with life and property intact.
Padua: Known as Patavium in Roman times, this town was the birthplace of the eminent Roman historian Livy (Titus Livius, 59 BCE-17 CE).
praetorian rank: Apparently because of his distinguished background and accomplishments, he was granted the privileges of an ex- magistrate (a praetor), even though he had never held that office.
rustic simplicity of the olden days:
The Latin rusticitas, here translated as "rustic simplicity," is a word with an interesting combination of posi- tive, neutral, and negative connota- tions. It can mean "rustic charm" or "country-born" or "lacking sophistication. " Pliny undoubtedly
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Farewell. [Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization: Sourcebook II, The Empire. Reprinted by Harper Torchbooks, 1966. 1. 14, page numbers: 252-253. ]
AFTERMATH
We have no follow-up to this letter, so it is not possible to know whether the proposed marriage ever took place. However, given Pliny's status in society and his sound judgment in such matters, it seems likely that the union occurred.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Why does Pliny claim that it was fitting for Mauricus to give him "this commission [to find a husband for his friend's niece] rather than anyone else"? What qualifica- tions does Pliny have that make him uniquely suited for this undertaking?
2. What personal and family attributes does Minicius Acilianus possess that would make him a suitable match for Junius Mauricus's niece?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e How common was it for Roman marriages to be arranged in the manner that Pliny describes in this letter?
e Whatcanyoufindoutaboutthehistory,culture,andsignificanceofsome of the northern Italian towns that Pliny mentions in the letter? Were there any other famous names in Roman history (in addition to Pliny and Livy) who came from this region?
e Does it seem a bit odd that Pliny devotes the biggest portion of the letter not to the intended groom, Minicius Acilianus, but to Acilianus's family, and especially his uncle and his father? Why do you suppose he placed the emphasis on these two family members?
e Plinywritesthat"he[theuncle,Acilius]hasalreadypassed. . . through the offices of quaestor, tribune, and praetor, so that he has already spared you the necessity of canvassing for him. " The noted commentator John H. Westcott suggests that "there was only one more office to obtain, the consulship, and that was in the [form of a] gift of the emperor. " What do you think Pliny was implying by his statement? Is there an implicit expectation that Minicius Acilianus would somehow have assisted his uncle in his political career, but that since the uncle had already held all the important offices, "the necessity of canvassing for him" would not be an issue?
Further Information
Radice, Betty. The Letters of Pliny the Younger. London, 1963.
Sherwin-White, A. N. The Letters of Pliny: A Social and Historical Commentary. Oxford,
1966.
A Prearranged Marriage
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? intends to convey here the positive connotation. By "olden days," he probably refers to the bygone times of the Roman Republic, an era to which many Romans nostalgically hearkened back as a sort of golden age of deportment, respect, and hard work.
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
20
Websites
Marriage in Ancient Rome. http://victorian. fortunecity. com/lion/373/roman/romarriage . html
Pliny the Younger (3). http://www. livius. org/pi-pm/pliny/pliny_y3. html
Bibliography for Document
Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization. Sourcebook II: The Empire. New York, 1955.
Westcott, John H. (ed. ) Selected Letters of Pliny. Norman, OK, new edition 1965.
5. AN EXTREMELY DEVOTED WIFE
INTRODUCTION
Certainly one of our best sources of information about the role of a wife in a Roman house- hold comes from a lengthy eulogy, preserved in the form of an inscription. The honoree was a first-century BCE lady by the name of Turia; the document is generally known as the Laudatio Turiae (In Praise of Turia). The speaker was her husband, Quintus Lucretius Vespillo.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Turia and her husband lived through some of the most tumultuous years in Roman history: the unsettled times after the assassination of Julius Caesar (44 BCE). Vespillo's name was placed on a proscription list in 43, but he was later exonerated, and even served a term as consul in 19.
2. Although Roman law and custom placed the husband above the wife as the absolute ruler of the household, it seems clear from the document that Turia exercised a good deal of her own judgment and engaged in actions independent of her husband's approval or permission.
3. There is some scholarly skepticism as to whether this lengthy inscription actually does refer to Turia, since the inscription is fragmentary and pieces are missing in places, and the name "Turia" does not appear on the extant sections. However, the document does contain detailed information that is consistent with information about Vespillo from other ancient sources, and so it seems very likely that the wife in question is Turia. The first-century CE Roman historian Valerius Maximus [6. 7] writes: "When Quintus Lucretius [Vespillo] was proscribed by the triumvirs [Octavian, Lepidus, Mark Antony] his wife Turia hid him in her bedroom above the rafters. A single maidservant knew the secret. At great risk to herself, she kept him safe from imminent death. So rare was her loyalty that, while the other men who had been proscribed found themselves in foreign, hostile places, barely manag- ing to escape the worst tortures of body and soul, Lucretius was safe in that bed- room in the arms of his wife. " [Valerius Maximus. Memorable Doings and Sayings 6. 7; tr. Bailey. ]
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
? Document: Turia's Devotion
Marriages of such long duration, not dissolved by divorce, but terminated by death alone, are indeed rare. For our union was prolonged in unclouded happiness for forty-one years. Would that our long marriage had come to its final end by my death, and that I as the older--which was more just--had yielded to fate.
Why recall your natural qualities, your modesty, deference, affability, your amiable disposition, your faithful attendance to household duties, your enlight- ened religion, your unassuming elegance, the modest simplicity of your attire? Need I speak of your attach- ment to your kindred, your affection for your family-- when you cherished my mother as you did your own parents--you who share countless other virtues with Roman matrons who cherish their fair name? These qualities which I claim for you are your own; few have possessed the like and been able to hold on to and main- tain them; the experience of men teaches us how rare they are.
With joint zeal we have preserved all the patrimony which you received from your parents. Entrusting it all to me, you were not troubled with the care of increasing it; thus did we share the task of administering it, that I undertook to protect your fortune, and you to guard mine. On this point I pass by many things in silence, for fear of attributing to myself a portion of your deserts. Suffice it for me to have indicated my sentiments.
You gave proof of your generosity not only towards very many of your kin, but especially in your filial devo- tion. . . You brought up in our home. . . some worthy young girls of your kinship. And that these might attain to a station in life worthy of your family, you provided them with dowries. Gaius Cluvius [Turia's brother-in- law] and myself, by common accord, executed your intention, and approving of your generosity, in order that your patrimony might suffer no diminution, offered our own family possessions instead, and gave up our own estates to provide the dowries settled upon by you. This I have related not to sing my own praises,
but to show that we held ourselves in honor bound to execute from our property those obligations incurred by you out of the fullness of your heart . . .
[Vespillo next devotes several lengthy passages to Turia's role in saving his life during the proscriptions which were issued following the assassination of Julius Caesar. ]
When all the world was again at peace and the Republic reestablished, peaceful and happy days followed for us. We longed for children, which an
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? divorce: The essayist Aulus Gellius reports (4. 3) that for the first 500+ years after the founding of Rome in 753 BCE, divorce was unknown.
The first documented divorce occurred in 231, when a distin- guished man named Spurius Carvilius Ruga separated from his wife because she failed to bear children. According to Gellius, Carvilius loved his wife very much, but he divorced her because of a legally binding oath he had taken, in which he publicly professed that he had married in order to father children.
dowries: Unfortunately, Vespillo does not specify how many "worthy young girls" received dowries from Turia and/or Vespillo, but it is probable that the total value of these dowries was considerable, since the family seems to have been fairly wealthy.
the Republic reestablished: This is most likely something of an over- statement. Although the future emperor Augustus claimed to have restored the Roman Republic after the civil war following Caesar's assassination, the reality of the sit- uation was that the Republic remained in name only, and that Augustus had become the sole ruler--for life.
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envious fate denied us for some time. Had Fortune permitted herself to smile on us in the ordinary fashion, what had been lacking to complete our happiness? But advancing age put an end to our hopes. . . . Despairing of your fertility and dis- consolate to see me without children . . . you spoke of divorce because of my unhappiness on this account, offering to yield our home to another spouse more fertile, with no other intention than that of yourself searching for and providing for me a spouse worthy of our well-known mutual affection, whose children you assured me you would have treated as though your own . . . Nothing would have changed, only that you would have rendered to me henceforth the services and devotion of a sister or mother-in-law.
I must admit that I was so angry that I was deprived of my mind, and that I was so horrified at your proposal that I scarcely regained control of myself. That you should have spoken of divorce between us before the decree of fate had been given; that you should have conceived of any reason why you, while you were still alive, should cease to be my wife, you who when I was almost an exile from life remained most faithful . . .
Would that our time of life had permitted our union to endure until I, the older, had passed away--which was more just--and that you might perform for me the last rites, and that I might have departed, leaving you behind, with a daughter to replace me in your widowhood.
By fate's decree your course was run before mine. You left me the grief, the longing for you, the sad fate to live alone . . . [Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization: Sourcebook I, The Republic. Harper Torchbooks, 1951. Page numbers: 485, 487. ]
AFTERMATH
Vespillo concludes his eulogy by proclaiming that his wife deserved more in her life, and that he regretted not having the time to repay everything he owed to her. Finally, he prays to the Manes (spirits of the dead) to give peace and protection to Turia
ASK YOURSELF
1. What were the ways in which Vespillo said that his wife helped him, or made his life more secure?
2. What was Vespillo's reaction to Turia's suggestion that they divorce? Why did she make such a suggestion in the first place?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e HowdidtheRomansviewtheroleofwomen,especiallywives,atthistime in their history? Vespillo makes some very complimentary statements about his wife in this eulogy, especially in the second paragraph, where he specifi- cally enumerates her many outstanding "natural qualities. " How typical-- or nontypical--do you think that Turia was as a wife and a Roman woman?
e Inthethirdparagraph,Vespillosays,"Onthispoint[thematterofthepat- rimony], I pass by many things in silence . . . " He never specifies what he means by "many things. " What might some of those unnamed things be?
An Extremely Devoted Wife
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
24
e Note again Vespillo's statement that "the Republic [had been] reestab- lished. " What were the true facts of the situation? In what ways did Augustus cleverly claim to be restoring the Republic, when in actuality he was doing something quite different?
e There are a number of instances recorded in Roman history where hus- bands divorced their wives because the wives were incapable of bearing children. Research some of these instances. Were the circumstances similar in all cases? If not, what differences do you notice?
e VespillomentionsthathismarriagetoTurialasted41years. Canyoufind other examples of Roman marriages that endured for an exceptionally long time? (A good starting point: Pliny the Younger's letter [8. 5] referencing his friend Macrinus, who had lived without quarreling for 39 years with his recently deceased wife Acilia. )
Further Information
Fantham, Elaine et al. Women in the Classical World. Oxford, 1994.
Gardner, J. Women in Roman Law and Society. Bloomington, IN, 1986.
Lefkowitz, Mary R. and Maureen B. Fant. Women's Life in Greece & Rome. A Sourcebook in
Translation. Baltimore, 1992.
Treggiari, Susan. Roman Marriage. Oxford, 1991.
Website
On the Laudatio Turiae: http://www. dl. ket. org/latin2/mores/women/womenful. htm Bibliography for Document
Lefkowitz, Mary R. and Maureen B. Fant. Women's Life in Greece & Rome. Online at: http:// www. stoa. org/diotima/anthology/wlgr/wlgr-mensopinions53. shtml [This is the source for the Valerius Maximus quotation in "Keep in Mind as You Read. "]
Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization: Sourcebook I, The Republic. (Adapted from D. C. Munro, A Source Book of Roman History, Boston, 1904. ) New York, 1951.
Rolfe, John C. (tr. ). The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius. [LCL. ] Cambridge and London, 1927.
EDUCATION
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6. PLUTARCH'S PRESCRIPTION FOR A CHILD'S EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Although Plutarch (d. ca. 120 CE) is best remembered as a biographer, he also wrote a collec- tion of short essays usually entitled Moralia, or Moral Essays. Nearly 80 of these essays still survive; the variety of topics indicates the breadth of Plutarch's interests. Some of the titles: How a Young Person Ought to Study Poetry; On Listening to Lectures; How to Distinguish a Flatterer from a Friend; How to Profit from Your Enemies; Instructions for Maintaining Health; The Bravery of Women; Which Is Worse: the Ills of the Mind or the Ills of the Body? ; Should Old Men Take Part in Politics? ; Are Land or Sea Animals More Clever? ; On the Face in the Moon.
Some scholars claim that Plutarch did not author the essay that appears as the first docu- ment, even though it is traditionally grouped with the many other essays that he wrote. Regardless of authorship, however, the essay offers some interesting insights into ancient Greek attitudes about education.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Plutarch's moral essay entitled The Education of Children usually appears first in the ordering of the surviving essays, and under this general rubric, Plutarch addresses many details; examples: the role of good nutrition; the importance of devoted and conscientious parents, and in particular, that parents should not set unattainable goals for their children or impose unreasonable demands on them; parents should not "be utterly harsh and austere in their nature, but they should in many cases con- cede some shortcomings to the younger person [i. e. , their child], and remind them- selves that they once were young"; choosing proper nursemaids and servants for a child and choosing competent teachers; teaching children to be truthful at all times; shielding children from inappropriate speech and behavior.
2. As mentioned in the general introduction, there were no formal elementary "schools" in ancient Greece, at least not of the sort that we are familiar with in modern times. So Greek parents would either teach their children themselves-- roughly equivalent to the homeschooling movement today--or else hire knowl- edgeable tutors to do the job. Parents who chose the latter option needed to exercise
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
great care in selecting tutors, and Plutarch (and other authors) often emphasized to parents the critical importance of making wise choices.
Document: Educating Free-Born Children
The free-born child should not be allowed to go without some knowledge, both through hearing and observation, of every branch also of what is called general education; yet these he should learn only incidentally, just to get a taste of them, as it were (for perfection in everything is impossible), but philosophy he should honor above all else. I can perhaps make my opinion clear by means of a figure: for example, it is a fine thing to voyage about and view many cities, but profitable to dwell only in the best one. And it was a clever saying of Bion, the philosopher, that, just as the suitors, not being able to approach Penelope, consorted with her maid-servants, so also do those who are not able to attain philosophy wear themselves to a shadow over the other kinds of education which have no value. Wherefore it is necessary to make philosophy . . . the head and front of all education. For as regards the care of the body, men have discovered two sciences, the medical and the gymnastic, of which the one implants health, the other sturdiness, in the body; but for illnesses and affec- tions of the mind, philosophy alone is the remedy . . . [I]t is necessary not to be indifferent about acquiring the works of earlier writers, but to make a collection of these, like a set of tools in farming. For the corresponding tool of educa- tion is the use of books, and by their means it has come to pass that we are able to study knowledge at its source. It is not proper, either, to overlook the exercise of the body, but we should send the children to the trainers and culti- vate adequately this side of education with all diligence, not merely for the sake of gracefulness of body but also with an eye for strength; for sturdiness of body in child- hood is the foundation of a hale old age. Just as in fair weather, then, one ought to prepare for storm, so also in youth one should store up discipline and self-restraint as a provision for old age. But the amount of bodily exercise should be so limited as not to be a drain on the children and make them too tired to study; for, according to Plato, sleep and weariness are the enemies of learning . . . This also I assert, that children ought to be led to honor- able practices by means of encouragement and reasoning, and not by blows or ill-treatment, for it surely is agreed that these are fitting rather for slaves than for the free-born. For so they grow numb and shudder at their tasks, partly from
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? according to Plato: The reference to Plato is taken from his Republic (Book 7), where he is discussing the proper and effective ways to educate children. Plato, like Plutarch, shuns the idea that physi- cal force, corporal punishment, or harsh discipline have appropriate roles to play in a child's education. Rather, he suggests that a child's lessons should incorporate play and enjoyment if the child is to learn well and thoroughly.
Bion, the philosopher: Bion (ca. 325- ca. 255 BCE) had an interesting life. Because of his father's criminal activity, the entire family was sold into slavery. Fortunately for Bion, however, he wound up serving a rhetorician, and apparently serving him well: his master eventually freed him and left him a fortune in his will. Bion made his way to Athens, and studied with many noted philosophers of the time. Eventually, he became a wandering philosopher, traveling from place to place and earning his living by offering lectures, for a fee.
every branch . . . general education: Here Plutarch seems to be articu- lating the idea, still current, of the importance of a liberal arts educa- tion, wherein students are exposed to all the branches of knowledge and learning.
suitors . . . Penelope: A reference to Homer's Odyssey, in which the 100+ young men, all vying for Penelope's hand in marriage,
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the pain of the blows, partly from the degradation. [Tr. Frank Cole Babbitt. Plutarch's Moralia. (7 C-D; 8 B, C, D, F. ). Volume I. LCL, 1927. Page numbers: 33, 35, 37, 39, 41. ]
AFTERMATH
Plutarch's influence on later writers has been profound. Shakespearean plays set in ancient Rome--Coriolanus, Julius Caesar, and Antony and Cleopatra--borrow heavily on information drawn from Plutarch's works. The French essayist Michel de Montaigne was also greatly influenced by Plutarch; his writings contain over 400 references to Plutarchian works. Ralph Waldo Emerson and other transcendentalists also came under Plutarch's spell.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Plutarch has a very high opinion of the importance of studying philosophy. Does he provide sound arguments for his point of view? Do you agree or disagree with his line of reasoning?
2. For educated Romans, the principle of mens sana in sano corpore (sound mind in a sound body, the body-mind con- nection) was centrally important. Do you get a sense from Plutarch's essay that the Greeks had the same attitude?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Plutarch's recommendations for the education of
children are clearly directed at families who have
the financial wherewithal to hire tutors and train-
ers, and to buy books and other materials for their
children. But what about children born into less fortunate circumstances? Plutarch does address that issue, in a sort of roundabout way, by acknowl- edging the reality of it, but then deflecting any blame for it away from him- self. He also says that the poor must do the best that they can for their children, and should that be impossible, they must do at least as much as they can.
