As a Confucian trained official he felt a duty to
exercise
his great talents on behalf of the State, and always returned to State service, though he never occupied the very highest offices.
Like-Water-or-Clouds-The-Tang-Dynasty
The perspective is calm, but the content is ceaselessly moving.
The landscape painting does not rest in a single focal point or in a definite moment, but draws the eye in to its windings and spaces, its valleys and bays, its heights and depths, allowing the mind
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? to wander over the fixed surface without exhausting the scene. The Tao is present in white cloud space, in green tree and river depths, in curving shorelines and falling water, in the shapes of mountains, the bones of the earth, cliffs and gorges, fissures and caverns, erosion and layering, cascades and torrents.
In the Tale of Genji there is an evocative scene. e? The emperor loved to paint which he did beautifully and to look at paintings. i? he encourages his ladies to paint and collect. Genji and Murasaki sort out a set of paintings that includes e? moving and interesting pictures of those tragic Chinese ladies Yang Kuei-fei and Wang Chao-ch ? n. i? There is a competition between the ladies where illustrations of stories are compared and the stories discussed. The chapter e? A picture contesti? culminates with the Emperor viewing selected paintings with Genji acting as umpire. The power, fluidity and gracefulness of the old masters are contrasted with the ingenuity and technical skill of the
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? moderns. Genjii? s scroll evoking his life at Suma beach wins with its delicacy and sureness of touch. The ability of art to recreate emotion in the audience is key. e? They had pitied him and had thought they had suffered with him, but now they felt how it had actually been. They saw the bleak unnamed shores and bays. i? e? He had depicted the mood of those years. i?
Wangi? s mother, who died when he was about fifty-one years old, in 750AD, had been a Buddhist, as were his brothers. At her death he resigned from office and performed a ritual three years of mourning to express his love for her, and acknowledge their Buddhist beliefs. Taoism was a component of Wangi? s creativity, but his spiritual feelings often seem to be pushing at the boundaries of Taoism. His poems on visiting temples and on meditation and reclusiveness, among the mountains and the white clouds, point to his Buddhist yearnings to e? pass the Gatei? and achieve a deeper state of being. The admixture of Buddhism with Taoism was a potent one
99
? within the personal temperaments of many poets and painters, and Wang Wei exemplifies the co- existence and contrast of two profound ways of thought. e? I have come herei? writes Genji with a degree of dissembling as he visits the Buddhist Temple, e? to find out whether I am capable of leaving this world. Tranquility is elusive and isolation grows. There are things I have still to learn. i?
100
? ? ://? ? 82
Buddhai? s story is of the young prince Gautama who horrified at the nature of life in the world searches for, and finds, enlightenment and the route to a higher and nobler existence. His sermon in the Deer Park, at Benares in northern India, laid out the core teaching. Buddhism was to be a Middle Path between ascetic self-torture and worldly indulgence. Enlightenment would lead to knowledge, knowledge to calm, calm and meditation to a higher enlightenment, and ultimately to Nirvana, extinction of the self and release from the Hindu Wheel of Rebirth. Buddhism would concentrate on addressing life in this world, and Buddha evaded as inappropriate and inessential the questions of the existence of the soul, or life after death, or the existence of eternal mind. There is an implied atheism and in the ,3,99, or e? no-souli? doctrine an implied rejection of the concept of the
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? ? permanent self, but the focus is on the reality of humankindi? s life in the world.
The young prince found it to be possessed by impermanence (,3? . . ,) and illusion (,3,99,), pain and grief (/:? ? ? ,), illness and death. From this world there was a need to escape through transcendence, through detachment, through a way of life that could bring peace. The Deer Park sermon articulated the Four Truths and set turning the Wheel of the Law (/? ,72,). Firstly the noble Truth of pain itself: that birth, life, death, sickness, sorrow and despair are pain, everything we grasp is pain. Secondly the noble Truth of the cause of pain: that pain is born out of our craving, our grasping, our desires, the craving for passion, existence, and non-existence that leads to imprisonment in the cycle of rebirths. Thirdly the noble Truth of the cessation of pain: that pain ceases through the abandonment of craving, the extinction of desires, through non-attachment and release from grasping. Fourthly the noble Truth of the
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? Way that leads to cessation: through the path of right behaviour, intention and awareness. These four truths are the essential teaching.
The follower is bound to avoid violence, crime and indulgence. e? Having set aside violence against any creature the follower is ashamed to cause hurt, imbued with kindness, compassionate and benevolent towards all living things. Having set aside what is not given the follower expects only what is given, the Self being pure. Having put away all deceit, the follower lives for truth and reason. i? Without caste or discrimination, Buddhism is a way of equality for anyone who wishes to achieve enlightenment. The ultimate end of the Way is Nirvana, the blowing out of the flame of self, the waning away of all suffering. As in Patanjali Yoga its aim is e? the deliberate cessation of the random activity of the mindi? . Nirvana is the state that like the Tao cannot be described. It is neither existence nor non-existence in any normal meaning. It is a silence, an illumination,
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? beyond the Wheel of Rebirths. It is a personal route to bliss. e? Decay is a process inherent in all compound things. i? said the dying Gautama to his disciple Ananda, e? Seek out your own salvation with diligence. i?
One of the early Buddhist psalms says e? I have put aside all desire, for this or for another life, being one who has reached out to truth, whoi? s hearti? s at peace, whoi? s self is tamed and pure, seeing the worldi? s unending flow. i? This is a perception of the Vortex. The mind has e? gone beyondi? . Nirvana is like the quenching of a blazing fire, in which the flames of suffering, being, existence, rebirth, and craving are extinguished.
The stream of Buddhism, Theravada (The Way of the elders), which attempted to stay close to the pure teachings flourished in Burma, Thailand and Shri Lanka. Its hymn is e? Gata, gata, paragata, parasangata, bodhi, swahai? , e? Gone, gone, gone beyond, gone altogether beyond, Oh, what an awakening, all hail. i?
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? Theravada is the Way of the single one, of renunciation and ultimate extinction of the self in the Void. In its pure form it creates and satisfies a longing for stillness and release, and Nirvana is interpreted as a state of mind empty of all content, ideas, sensations and feelings. It can be achieved through intense concentration causing all craving and attachment to cease. Mindful of Buddhai? s own teaching there is an inherent paradox in trying to use striving to end striving, and in eliminating the mental world that is the flux and vortex of the only reality. Theravada can be seen as a world-denying doctrine.
The Buddhism that dominated in China and Japan was the Mayahana (Greater Vehicle) school which stressed the incompleteness of that salvation for the self that excluded others, and whose key concept is the Bodhisattva, that is the Buddha who from the verge of Nirvana turns back to save humankind. Mahayana in China, particularly in the form of the Pure Land School
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? with its Bodhisattva, Amitabha (Amida in Japan), taught a casteless doctrine of non- violence, compassion and loving concern. Alongside it the Chi? an (Zen) or Meditation school developed out of the convergence of Taoism and Buddhism and remained closer to the Theravada doctrine relying on personal enlightenment and illuminating insight. These three strands of Theravada world-denial, Mahayana compassion, and Chi? an illumination of the Vortex as the Void, all contributed to the complexity of Chinese practice.
The ceaseless flow of the Vortex, that is the Tao, is for Chi? an Buddhism the Void whose perception and naming by the mind generates the illusion (2,? ,) of a reality, a sea, of discrete entities and events (8,28,7,)? Reality is beyond concept, and beyond words, and available truly only by a direct pointing, or a moment of illumination. The world in Taoism and Buddhism is essentially ungraspable, elusive, and shadowy. The attempt to grasp, to realise
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? self, is self-defeating. Both ways of thought see morality in terms of equality, compassion, non- violence, and integrity, arising from the innate understanding of the enlightened human being. Though Buddhism codifies its practices in a way that Taoism rejects as unnatural, both discard the inessential that includes all forms of grasping and excessive attachment. They thereby discard what a moral code would regard as crime, immorality, sin, and evil action, as not conducive to achieving the goal.
The Taoisti? s aim is to relinquish analysis and classification in achieving harmony, spontaneity, tranquility, simplicity, and elimination of inessential action and thereby realise the Tao. The Buddhisti? s goal of meditation is to realise a similar non-analytic state that defeats 2,? ,? ? the illusion of the myriad creatures, and rests in the Void. It is achieved by the relinquishment of craving, thereby eliminating the self from the cycles of existence.
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? There is a world-rejection in Theravada Buddhism that is alien to Taoism. Buddhism goes beyond the natural world. Taoism seeks to be in harmony with it. Buddhism sees suffering and the Wheel of Rebirth. Taoism sees a natural path without suffering within the world, and never anticipates rebirth. Both ways of thought have however played many variations on the theme generating a popular Taoism intoxicated with the search for immortality, often through sexual practices or sympathetic magic, and a popular Buddhism of worship of the Bodhisattvas. But the pure forms of Buddhism and Taoism that search for individual enlightenment overlap in their concept of the unnameability of reality, an approach to it through the rejection of analysis and naming, and a realised state of mind, or attitude, that results, before death, in inner harmony.
Wang Wei often seems to be yearning for a peace and stillness offered by Buddhism that is beyond the harmony with Nature. If the Peach
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? Blossom Spring is his expression of the hearti? s desire for the Taoist paradisial state of spontaneity and simplicity, the White Clouds that appear as a motif in many of his poems are the Buddhist Gateway to the extinction of the hearti? s pain. The deaths of his wife and beloved mother lead to long periods of mourning and retreat from the world. Wang may have known of that Chi? an doctrine that identifies the Wheel of Rebirth with the moment to moment existence of the body and mind, so that rebirth continues as long as there is the identity of a Self that renews in every instant. Nirvana is then the cessation of the circling of the mind, the turning about of the spirit, the moving waves of analytical thought, and the disturbances of the body. Nirvana has then the same goal as Yoga.
Wang Weii? s yearning was for the realisation of this state, the cessation from all forms of pain, through the abandonment of craving. He would try to e? reign in the dragoni? of desire as in his poem e? Visiting the Templei? . His poem e? Going to
109
? ? ? the Templei? describes the ten stages of perception, the progression towards Nirvana. His poems e? Meditationi? , e? The Reclusei? and e? From the Mountaini? clearly show his affiliation to the Chi? an School of meditation rather than to the Pure Land School of the Bodhisattvas but both aspects probably claimed his allegiance. The poem e? How Finei? blends both Taoist and Buddhist perception. Taoism is the harmonious beauty of nature and spontaneous art, outside worldly commitment. Buddhism is the e? emptyi? Refuge beyond the visible world.
It is clear that Wang Weii? s spiritually serious temperament struggled in attempting to relinquish those deep feelings that are obvious in his poems, and that overwhelmed him at the time of his wifei? s and motheri? s deaths.
As a Confucian trained official he felt a duty to exercise his great talents on behalf of the State, and always returned to State service, though he never occupied the very highest offices. As a Taoist artist he used his Wang River retreat to
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? ? ? ? ? ? ? reconcile himself to Nature, and his poetry, painting and music as a means of cultivating the spirit of concordance with the Vortex. But as he grew older his deepest yearnings may have been for release from the pain and burden of existence. If being in the world is like a hand grasping, and craving like a fist formed by desire and greed, then Nirvana is the opening of the hand, the vanishing of the fist, the disappearance of e? names and formsi? .
Chi? an and Taoist thinking merged. In the late Ti? ang Chinese commentators on the Dharmadatu, the culmination of Indian Mahayana thinking, expressed the view that harmony is achieved when everything is left to be freely and spontaneously itself. There is no conflict or obstruction (? :? ,? ) between things and events (8? ? ? ), or between them and their underlying reality(? ? ). This Buddhist concept is clearly a restatement of the Tao and the Myriad Creatures, the Vortex, and the continuity of flow. The Vortex is thus also the Void, and Samsara
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? and Nirvana, reality and its extinction, are one when naming and analysis ceases. Again the Six Precepts of Tilopa declare: e? Without mind, without meditation, without analysis, without practice, without the will, let it all be so. i? This is the Taoist 9? :? ? ,3, the e? naturali? or e? spontaneousi? inner meaning of things and events.
Chi? an Buddhism is e? Beyond any doctrine: apart from all tradition: not based on words or scriptures: a direct pointing at the human mind - seeing into our nature, achieving Nirvana. i? Hui- neng (637-713AD) the Sixth and greatest Patriarch of the Chi? an School expressed that sudden pointing that is the awakening (8,947? ? ? of Zen. A humble man he became the successor to Hung-jan the Fifth Patriarch through answering a poem written on the wall by Shen-hsiu.
e? The body is the Bodhi Tree, the mind is a bright mirror. i? Shen-hsiui? s poem ran, e? Clean the mirror, and allow no dust to cling. i? Hui-nengi? s reply pointed instead to the illusion of 2,? , and the error of seeing the world as e? names and
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? formsi? . e? There is no Bodhi Tree. There is no shining mirror. At root no things exist. How can the dust cling? i?
His attitude was to abandon useless meditation, to remove the barriers, to avoid stirring the thoughts. e? Carry water, chop woodi? . That was all that e? sitting in meditationi? required, involving neither sitting nor meditation. And the Great Void for Hui-neng is the Taoist nameless space-time of sun, moon, earth and stars. The mind is this Void where thoughts and feelings pass like the birds in the sky without leaving a trace.
Energies, particles, within their probability waves, leap, randomly, out of the seething ocean of quantum reality only when they are observed. The Void shines. The Vortex pours. Unobserved reality allows only the potentiality of discrete entities at the quantum level. Particles are neither here nor there. They are everywhere, with some probability or possibility of being. The torrent of energies is also the cloud of particles. ? :3? 8? :? ,
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? cloud and water, is a common term for the student of Zen Buddhism, who must wander like a cloud, and flow like water. e? What is the Tao? i? asked the Governor of Lang, of Yao-shan. Yao- shan pointed up to the sky, and then down at a dish of water. Asked what he meant, he replied e? Cloud in the sky, water in the dish. i?
In Wang Wei, Buddhist and Taoist quietism and the deep love of nature converge. His poems exist in the Void and the Vortex. They point at human life within Nature but without analysis. Their luminous stillness refrains from describing. It declares and evokes. They require a slow attention from the reader. They avoid the demonstrative. They have neither the mature worldly engagement of Tu Fu, nor the brightly lit flickering movement of Li Po. They are Yin to Lii? s Yang. They are inwardness to match Tui? s outwardness. There is a gentle sadness perceptible in his work, so delicately poised that it never becomes negativity. He is the darkness (hs ? an) of the Tao, as he portrays himself in a
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? poem e? From the Wang River Scrolli? , playing his music in the bamboo grove hidden from all except the Moon. e? There is a thing that holds up the heavens and supports the earth. i? says Ti? ung- shan, e? It is black like lacquer, and it moves continually. i?
As the poem e? White Hairsi? says, Wang Wei knew what it was to be e? hurt by lifei? . He was a man of profound feelings who was able to enter into and use solitude, as he would have used the unpainted silk of the empty background in his paintings. e? Understanding the depths of landscapei? , he says in e? Pa Passi? e? even here I am never lonely. i? Cold, cloud, thin rain, shadows, water, evening, soft breezes, deep woods, pale light, cool air, peach blossoms and moonlight. This is Wang Wei.
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? ? 250747? ? 8Q,3? 98:3?
Emperor Hs ? an-tsung came to the Imperial Ti? ang throne in 712 AD, the year of Tu Fui? s birth, and his Court was soon the focal point for a high culture. The early years of his reign saw him exercise a tight grip on government. The power of his imperial relatives who had gained from the influence of the Empress Wu was curbed. He ordered a new census, and reformed the equal field system designed to share out the land, a State resource, between families, in order to increase the tax revenues. The aim, when the system had been initiated by the Northern Wei government in 486AD, was to bring all land into cultivation, to provide stability, to prevent monopoly ownership by the rich and powerful, and to ensure that as many families as possible were brought into the taxation system. Taxes were levied in grain and cloth.
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? ? The Emperor set up an outer ring of military provinces along the western and northern borders with substantial devolved authority being given to the commanders. Within the strengthened frontiers economic development was rapid, particularly in the south. River transport enabled the tea trade for example to spread throughout the country, turning tea from a medicinal herb to an everyday drink. The southern ports grew to support the extensive sea trade across South-East Asia and along the coastlines. By the middle of the eighth century the previously lightly populated south had as many people living in it as the north.
The Emperor encouraged the codification of State ritual and had a broad-minded interest in philosophy and religion. Teachers of various systems including Buddhism, Taoism, and even the esoteric Tantric Buddhism were welcome at his Court. Elite families still dominated Court circles but leavened with officials who had entered service through the examination system.
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? Educated men understood Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism, were drawn to the arts and scholarship, and had the leisure to practice them. Ancient texts were collected and treasured. Poetry was an accomplishment of a gentleman, and every civilised man could turn out a suitable poem on a friendi? s departure for a journey. While travel was still time-consuming and arduous, and communications difficult, the improved road and canal system, with its established post stations, and the massive volume of river traffic, allowed movement in relative safety. Leisure trips and official duties encouraged a criss-crossing of the vast country.
The political stability of the first thirty years of the reign with war limited to the northern and western borders, peace within the inner Empire, a strengthened code of laws, and rapid economic growth stimulated a brief golden age.
It was a Renaissance in the sense of re- creating the unified vigorous Empire of the Han Dynasty, though a great deal of cultural
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? development had continued in the fragmented Period of Division. Buddhism, Taoism, poetry and painting had all flourished since the Han, and the Ti? ang was a recipient of this. The Ti? ang Renaissance could look back towards an earlier Classic civilisation and its great men, and could blend together the three streams of moral and spiritual thought represented by Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. There is a flavour of the Florentine Renaissancei? s stimulus at the re- awakening knowledge of Greece and Rome, and its parallel blending of Christianity, and Classicism with Secular and Pagan cultural streams.
As in the West an emphasis on the golden age can lead to a wrong belief that other periods were times of total cultural darkness. Decentralised fragmentation gave a freedom and variety that was a stimulus to complex development. Just as the intellectual life of the Middle Ages already presaged the Italian, French and English Renaissances, so the periods
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? either side of the Ti? ang were fruitful in less spectacular ways. Nevertheless Ti? ang China was a high point. Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese culture benefited from the contact with China. Heian Japan modelled parts of its Court culture on the Chinese example. Chinese poetry, paintings and history were admired and studied. There is a parallel with the adoption of French culture within nineteenth century Russian aristocratic circles.
To promote and sponsor new poetry and calligraphy and provide the Court with a Ti? ang literature, Hs ? an-tsung set up the Han-lin Academy, the e? Forest of Writing Brushesi? . The Academy was responsible for example for drafting significant State documents. Distinguished poets joined the Court and celebrated Imperial life in their verses.
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? to wander over the fixed surface without exhausting the scene. The Tao is present in white cloud space, in green tree and river depths, in curving shorelines and falling water, in the shapes of mountains, the bones of the earth, cliffs and gorges, fissures and caverns, erosion and layering, cascades and torrents.
In the Tale of Genji there is an evocative scene. e? The emperor loved to paint which he did beautifully and to look at paintings. i? he encourages his ladies to paint and collect. Genji and Murasaki sort out a set of paintings that includes e? moving and interesting pictures of those tragic Chinese ladies Yang Kuei-fei and Wang Chao-ch ? n. i? There is a competition between the ladies where illustrations of stories are compared and the stories discussed. The chapter e? A picture contesti? culminates with the Emperor viewing selected paintings with Genji acting as umpire. The power, fluidity and gracefulness of the old masters are contrasted with the ingenuity and technical skill of the
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? moderns. Genjii? s scroll evoking his life at Suma beach wins with its delicacy and sureness of touch. The ability of art to recreate emotion in the audience is key. e? They had pitied him and had thought they had suffered with him, but now they felt how it had actually been. They saw the bleak unnamed shores and bays. i? e? He had depicted the mood of those years. i?
Wangi? s mother, who died when he was about fifty-one years old, in 750AD, had been a Buddhist, as were his brothers. At her death he resigned from office and performed a ritual three years of mourning to express his love for her, and acknowledge their Buddhist beliefs. Taoism was a component of Wangi? s creativity, but his spiritual feelings often seem to be pushing at the boundaries of Taoism. His poems on visiting temples and on meditation and reclusiveness, among the mountains and the white clouds, point to his Buddhist yearnings to e? pass the Gatei? and achieve a deeper state of being. The admixture of Buddhism with Taoism was a potent one
99
? within the personal temperaments of many poets and painters, and Wang Wei exemplifies the co- existence and contrast of two profound ways of thought. e? I have come herei? writes Genji with a degree of dissembling as he visits the Buddhist Temple, e? to find out whether I am capable of leaving this world. Tranquility is elusive and isolation grows. There are things I have still to learn. i?
100
? ? ://? ? 82
Buddhai? s story is of the young prince Gautama who horrified at the nature of life in the world searches for, and finds, enlightenment and the route to a higher and nobler existence. His sermon in the Deer Park, at Benares in northern India, laid out the core teaching. Buddhism was to be a Middle Path between ascetic self-torture and worldly indulgence. Enlightenment would lead to knowledge, knowledge to calm, calm and meditation to a higher enlightenment, and ultimately to Nirvana, extinction of the self and release from the Hindu Wheel of Rebirth. Buddhism would concentrate on addressing life in this world, and Buddha evaded as inappropriate and inessential the questions of the existence of the soul, or life after death, or the existence of eternal mind. There is an implied atheism and in the ,3,99, or e? no-souli? doctrine an implied rejection of the concept of the
101
? ? permanent self, but the focus is on the reality of humankindi? s life in the world.
The young prince found it to be possessed by impermanence (,3? . . ,) and illusion (,3,99,), pain and grief (/:? ? ? ,), illness and death. From this world there was a need to escape through transcendence, through detachment, through a way of life that could bring peace. The Deer Park sermon articulated the Four Truths and set turning the Wheel of the Law (/? ,72,). Firstly the noble Truth of pain itself: that birth, life, death, sickness, sorrow and despair are pain, everything we grasp is pain. Secondly the noble Truth of the cause of pain: that pain is born out of our craving, our grasping, our desires, the craving for passion, existence, and non-existence that leads to imprisonment in the cycle of rebirths. Thirdly the noble Truth of the cessation of pain: that pain ceases through the abandonment of craving, the extinction of desires, through non-attachment and release from grasping. Fourthly the noble Truth of the
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? Way that leads to cessation: through the path of right behaviour, intention and awareness. These four truths are the essential teaching.
The follower is bound to avoid violence, crime and indulgence. e? Having set aside violence against any creature the follower is ashamed to cause hurt, imbued with kindness, compassionate and benevolent towards all living things. Having set aside what is not given the follower expects only what is given, the Self being pure. Having put away all deceit, the follower lives for truth and reason. i? Without caste or discrimination, Buddhism is a way of equality for anyone who wishes to achieve enlightenment. The ultimate end of the Way is Nirvana, the blowing out of the flame of self, the waning away of all suffering. As in Patanjali Yoga its aim is e? the deliberate cessation of the random activity of the mindi? . Nirvana is the state that like the Tao cannot be described. It is neither existence nor non-existence in any normal meaning. It is a silence, an illumination,
103
? beyond the Wheel of Rebirths. It is a personal route to bliss. e? Decay is a process inherent in all compound things. i? said the dying Gautama to his disciple Ananda, e? Seek out your own salvation with diligence. i?
One of the early Buddhist psalms says e? I have put aside all desire, for this or for another life, being one who has reached out to truth, whoi? s hearti? s at peace, whoi? s self is tamed and pure, seeing the worldi? s unending flow. i? This is a perception of the Vortex. The mind has e? gone beyondi? . Nirvana is like the quenching of a blazing fire, in which the flames of suffering, being, existence, rebirth, and craving are extinguished.
The stream of Buddhism, Theravada (The Way of the elders), which attempted to stay close to the pure teachings flourished in Burma, Thailand and Shri Lanka. Its hymn is e? Gata, gata, paragata, parasangata, bodhi, swahai? , e? Gone, gone, gone beyond, gone altogether beyond, Oh, what an awakening, all hail. i?
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? Theravada is the Way of the single one, of renunciation and ultimate extinction of the self in the Void. In its pure form it creates and satisfies a longing for stillness and release, and Nirvana is interpreted as a state of mind empty of all content, ideas, sensations and feelings. It can be achieved through intense concentration causing all craving and attachment to cease. Mindful of Buddhai? s own teaching there is an inherent paradox in trying to use striving to end striving, and in eliminating the mental world that is the flux and vortex of the only reality. Theravada can be seen as a world-denying doctrine.
The Buddhism that dominated in China and Japan was the Mayahana (Greater Vehicle) school which stressed the incompleteness of that salvation for the self that excluded others, and whose key concept is the Bodhisattva, that is the Buddha who from the verge of Nirvana turns back to save humankind. Mahayana in China, particularly in the form of the Pure Land School
105
? with its Bodhisattva, Amitabha (Amida in Japan), taught a casteless doctrine of non- violence, compassion and loving concern. Alongside it the Chi? an (Zen) or Meditation school developed out of the convergence of Taoism and Buddhism and remained closer to the Theravada doctrine relying on personal enlightenment and illuminating insight. These three strands of Theravada world-denial, Mahayana compassion, and Chi? an illumination of the Vortex as the Void, all contributed to the complexity of Chinese practice.
The ceaseless flow of the Vortex, that is the Tao, is for Chi? an Buddhism the Void whose perception and naming by the mind generates the illusion (2,? ,) of a reality, a sea, of discrete entities and events (8,28,7,)? Reality is beyond concept, and beyond words, and available truly only by a direct pointing, or a moment of illumination. The world in Taoism and Buddhism is essentially ungraspable, elusive, and shadowy. The attempt to grasp, to realise
106
? self, is self-defeating. Both ways of thought see morality in terms of equality, compassion, non- violence, and integrity, arising from the innate understanding of the enlightened human being. Though Buddhism codifies its practices in a way that Taoism rejects as unnatural, both discard the inessential that includes all forms of grasping and excessive attachment. They thereby discard what a moral code would regard as crime, immorality, sin, and evil action, as not conducive to achieving the goal.
The Taoisti? s aim is to relinquish analysis and classification in achieving harmony, spontaneity, tranquility, simplicity, and elimination of inessential action and thereby realise the Tao. The Buddhisti? s goal of meditation is to realise a similar non-analytic state that defeats 2,? ,? ? the illusion of the myriad creatures, and rests in the Void. It is achieved by the relinquishment of craving, thereby eliminating the self from the cycles of existence.
107
? There is a world-rejection in Theravada Buddhism that is alien to Taoism. Buddhism goes beyond the natural world. Taoism seeks to be in harmony with it. Buddhism sees suffering and the Wheel of Rebirth. Taoism sees a natural path without suffering within the world, and never anticipates rebirth. Both ways of thought have however played many variations on the theme generating a popular Taoism intoxicated with the search for immortality, often through sexual practices or sympathetic magic, and a popular Buddhism of worship of the Bodhisattvas. But the pure forms of Buddhism and Taoism that search for individual enlightenment overlap in their concept of the unnameability of reality, an approach to it through the rejection of analysis and naming, and a realised state of mind, or attitude, that results, before death, in inner harmony.
Wang Wei often seems to be yearning for a peace and stillness offered by Buddhism that is beyond the harmony with Nature. If the Peach
108
? Blossom Spring is his expression of the hearti? s desire for the Taoist paradisial state of spontaneity and simplicity, the White Clouds that appear as a motif in many of his poems are the Buddhist Gateway to the extinction of the hearti? s pain. The deaths of his wife and beloved mother lead to long periods of mourning and retreat from the world. Wang may have known of that Chi? an doctrine that identifies the Wheel of Rebirth with the moment to moment existence of the body and mind, so that rebirth continues as long as there is the identity of a Self that renews in every instant. Nirvana is then the cessation of the circling of the mind, the turning about of the spirit, the moving waves of analytical thought, and the disturbances of the body. Nirvana has then the same goal as Yoga.
Wang Weii? s yearning was for the realisation of this state, the cessation from all forms of pain, through the abandonment of craving. He would try to e? reign in the dragoni? of desire as in his poem e? Visiting the Templei? . His poem e? Going to
109
? ? ? the Templei? describes the ten stages of perception, the progression towards Nirvana. His poems e? Meditationi? , e? The Reclusei? and e? From the Mountaini? clearly show his affiliation to the Chi? an School of meditation rather than to the Pure Land School of the Bodhisattvas but both aspects probably claimed his allegiance. The poem e? How Finei? blends both Taoist and Buddhist perception. Taoism is the harmonious beauty of nature and spontaneous art, outside worldly commitment. Buddhism is the e? emptyi? Refuge beyond the visible world.
It is clear that Wang Weii? s spiritually serious temperament struggled in attempting to relinquish those deep feelings that are obvious in his poems, and that overwhelmed him at the time of his wifei? s and motheri? s deaths.
As a Confucian trained official he felt a duty to exercise his great talents on behalf of the State, and always returned to State service, though he never occupied the very highest offices. As a Taoist artist he used his Wang River retreat to
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? ? ? ? ? ? ? reconcile himself to Nature, and his poetry, painting and music as a means of cultivating the spirit of concordance with the Vortex. But as he grew older his deepest yearnings may have been for release from the pain and burden of existence. If being in the world is like a hand grasping, and craving like a fist formed by desire and greed, then Nirvana is the opening of the hand, the vanishing of the fist, the disappearance of e? names and formsi? .
Chi? an and Taoist thinking merged. In the late Ti? ang Chinese commentators on the Dharmadatu, the culmination of Indian Mahayana thinking, expressed the view that harmony is achieved when everything is left to be freely and spontaneously itself. There is no conflict or obstruction (? :? ,? ) between things and events (8? ? ? ), or between them and their underlying reality(? ? ). This Buddhist concept is clearly a restatement of the Tao and the Myriad Creatures, the Vortex, and the continuity of flow. The Vortex is thus also the Void, and Samsara
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? and Nirvana, reality and its extinction, are one when naming and analysis ceases. Again the Six Precepts of Tilopa declare: e? Without mind, without meditation, without analysis, without practice, without the will, let it all be so. i? This is the Taoist 9? :? ? ,3, the e? naturali? or e? spontaneousi? inner meaning of things and events.
Chi? an Buddhism is e? Beyond any doctrine: apart from all tradition: not based on words or scriptures: a direct pointing at the human mind - seeing into our nature, achieving Nirvana. i? Hui- neng (637-713AD) the Sixth and greatest Patriarch of the Chi? an School expressed that sudden pointing that is the awakening (8,947? ? ? of Zen. A humble man he became the successor to Hung-jan the Fifth Patriarch through answering a poem written on the wall by Shen-hsiu.
e? The body is the Bodhi Tree, the mind is a bright mirror. i? Shen-hsiui? s poem ran, e? Clean the mirror, and allow no dust to cling. i? Hui-nengi? s reply pointed instead to the illusion of 2,? , and the error of seeing the world as e? names and
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? formsi? . e? There is no Bodhi Tree. There is no shining mirror. At root no things exist. How can the dust cling? i?
His attitude was to abandon useless meditation, to remove the barriers, to avoid stirring the thoughts. e? Carry water, chop woodi? . That was all that e? sitting in meditationi? required, involving neither sitting nor meditation. And the Great Void for Hui-neng is the Taoist nameless space-time of sun, moon, earth and stars. The mind is this Void where thoughts and feelings pass like the birds in the sky without leaving a trace.
Energies, particles, within their probability waves, leap, randomly, out of the seething ocean of quantum reality only when they are observed. The Void shines. The Vortex pours. Unobserved reality allows only the potentiality of discrete entities at the quantum level. Particles are neither here nor there. They are everywhere, with some probability or possibility of being. The torrent of energies is also the cloud of particles. ? :3? 8? :? ,
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? cloud and water, is a common term for the student of Zen Buddhism, who must wander like a cloud, and flow like water. e? What is the Tao? i? asked the Governor of Lang, of Yao-shan. Yao- shan pointed up to the sky, and then down at a dish of water. Asked what he meant, he replied e? Cloud in the sky, water in the dish. i?
In Wang Wei, Buddhist and Taoist quietism and the deep love of nature converge. His poems exist in the Void and the Vortex. They point at human life within Nature but without analysis. Their luminous stillness refrains from describing. It declares and evokes. They require a slow attention from the reader. They avoid the demonstrative. They have neither the mature worldly engagement of Tu Fu, nor the brightly lit flickering movement of Li Po. They are Yin to Lii? s Yang. They are inwardness to match Tui? s outwardness. There is a gentle sadness perceptible in his work, so delicately poised that it never becomes negativity. He is the darkness (hs ? an) of the Tao, as he portrays himself in a
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? poem e? From the Wang River Scrolli? , playing his music in the bamboo grove hidden from all except the Moon. e? There is a thing that holds up the heavens and supports the earth. i? says Ti? ung- shan, e? It is black like lacquer, and it moves continually. i?
As the poem e? White Hairsi? says, Wang Wei knew what it was to be e? hurt by lifei? . He was a man of profound feelings who was able to enter into and use solitude, as he would have used the unpainted silk of the empty background in his paintings. e? Understanding the depths of landscapei? , he says in e? Pa Passi? e? even here I am never lonely. i? Cold, cloud, thin rain, shadows, water, evening, soft breezes, deep woods, pale light, cool air, peach blossoms and moonlight. This is Wang Wei.
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? ? 250747? ? 8Q,3? 98:3?
Emperor Hs ? an-tsung came to the Imperial Ti? ang throne in 712 AD, the year of Tu Fui? s birth, and his Court was soon the focal point for a high culture. The early years of his reign saw him exercise a tight grip on government. The power of his imperial relatives who had gained from the influence of the Empress Wu was curbed. He ordered a new census, and reformed the equal field system designed to share out the land, a State resource, between families, in order to increase the tax revenues. The aim, when the system had been initiated by the Northern Wei government in 486AD, was to bring all land into cultivation, to provide stability, to prevent monopoly ownership by the rich and powerful, and to ensure that as many families as possible were brought into the taxation system. Taxes were levied in grain and cloth.
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? ? The Emperor set up an outer ring of military provinces along the western and northern borders with substantial devolved authority being given to the commanders. Within the strengthened frontiers economic development was rapid, particularly in the south. River transport enabled the tea trade for example to spread throughout the country, turning tea from a medicinal herb to an everyday drink. The southern ports grew to support the extensive sea trade across South-East Asia and along the coastlines. By the middle of the eighth century the previously lightly populated south had as many people living in it as the north.
The Emperor encouraged the codification of State ritual and had a broad-minded interest in philosophy and religion. Teachers of various systems including Buddhism, Taoism, and even the esoteric Tantric Buddhism were welcome at his Court. Elite families still dominated Court circles but leavened with officials who had entered service through the examination system.
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? Educated men understood Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism, were drawn to the arts and scholarship, and had the leisure to practice them. Ancient texts were collected and treasured. Poetry was an accomplishment of a gentleman, and every civilised man could turn out a suitable poem on a friendi? s departure for a journey. While travel was still time-consuming and arduous, and communications difficult, the improved road and canal system, with its established post stations, and the massive volume of river traffic, allowed movement in relative safety. Leisure trips and official duties encouraged a criss-crossing of the vast country.
The political stability of the first thirty years of the reign with war limited to the northern and western borders, peace within the inner Empire, a strengthened code of laws, and rapid economic growth stimulated a brief golden age.
It was a Renaissance in the sense of re- creating the unified vigorous Empire of the Han Dynasty, though a great deal of cultural
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? development had continued in the fragmented Period of Division. Buddhism, Taoism, poetry and painting had all flourished since the Han, and the Ti? ang was a recipient of this. The Ti? ang Renaissance could look back towards an earlier Classic civilisation and its great men, and could blend together the three streams of moral and spiritual thought represented by Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. There is a flavour of the Florentine Renaissancei? s stimulus at the re- awakening knowledge of Greece and Rome, and its parallel blending of Christianity, and Classicism with Secular and Pagan cultural streams.
As in the West an emphasis on the golden age can lead to a wrong belief that other periods were times of total cultural darkness. Decentralised fragmentation gave a freedom and variety that was a stimulus to complex development. Just as the intellectual life of the Middle Ages already presaged the Italian, French and English Renaissances, so the periods
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? either side of the Ti? ang were fruitful in less spectacular ways. Nevertheless Ti? ang China was a high point. Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese culture benefited from the contact with China. Heian Japan modelled parts of its Court culture on the Chinese example. Chinese poetry, paintings and history were admired and studied. There is a parallel with the adoption of French culture within nineteenth century Russian aristocratic circles.
To promote and sponsor new poetry and calligraphy and provide the Court with a Ti? ang literature, Hs ? an-tsung set up the Han-lin Academy, the e? Forest of Writing Brushesi? . The Academy was responsible for example for drafting significant State documents. Distinguished poets joined the Court and celebrated Imperial life in their verses.
