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After which they sowed their corn, and kept for their own use only as much of their old stock of corn, as would serve them till their next crop was reaped. But as soon as the corn was almost ripe, Antigonus invaded Attica. The Athenians had nearly finished the stock they had in their granaries, and found themselves prevented from reaping the crop then on the ground; therefore they opened their gates to Antigonus, and complied with all his demands.

[7] Demetrius.

# Demetrius, though very short of money, doubled his army by new levies. And when some of his friends in surprise asked him, how he expected to pay them, when he found it difficult to support a smaller force; "the more powerful we are," he replied, "the weaker we shall find our enemies; and the more easily make ourselves masters of their county. From thence tribute and free gifts will come in, that will soon fill our coffers. "

2 # After Demetrius had determined on his expedition to Europe, he wished to conceal from his men the place of their destination; but in case any accidents during their voyage should make it necessary to disclose the destination, he delivered to the master of every ship a sealed tablet. He instructed them, so long as the fleet kept together, not to break the seal; but if they were separated from the others, they were directed to open the tablet; and there they would find the place to which they were to endeavour to proceed.

3 # In pursuance of a plan Demetrius had formed to surprise Sicyon, he retired to Cenchreae; and there gave himself up to luxury and pleasures. This threw the Sicyonians off their guard, because the expected no danger from a quarter, where nothing seemed to prevail but effeminacy and dissipation. Informed of the impression his conduct had made on them, he issued his orders for the mercenaries under Diodorus on a certain night to attack the gates, that faced Pellene, and the fleet at the same time to show themselves in the harbour; while he advanced up to the walls with the main body of his army. The city, thus vigorously attacked in various quarters at once, yielded to the sudden storm, and opened its gates.

4 # When Demetrius sailed on an expedition to Caria, he left Diodorus captain of his guards in charge of Ephesus: which Diodorus engaged to betray to Lysimachus for fifty talents. Demetrius gained intelligence of this compact; attended by a few small vessels he steered directly to Ephesus, ordering the rest of the fleet to disembark at the place of destination. When he approached Ephesus, he entered the harbour with Nicanor in one of the small vessels, and concealed himself in the body of the ship; while Nicanor sent for Diodorus to come on board to him, as if to receive some orders from him concerning the disbanding of a part of his forces. Diodorus, supposing Nicanor to be alone, immediately went out to him in a light vessel. But as soon as he reached the ship, Demetrius sprang from the place of his concealment. He sank Diodorus' boat, with the men on board; and anyone who tried to swim away was captured. Thus the execution of the plot was promptly prevented, and Ephesus was secured in his possession.

5 # After Demetrius had taken Aegina and Salamis in Attica, he asked the inhabitants of Peiraeus for weapons for a thousand men, jointly with him, to attack the tyrant Lachares. They readily agreed, and sent the arms; with which he armed his troops, and then attacked those who had furnished him with them.

6 # Demetrius made himself master of Peiraeus by the following stratagem. Without employing his whole fleet against it, he fitted out some galleys, with instructions to conceal themselves at Sunium. From those he selected twenty, and ordered them not to steer directly to Athens; but to shape their course with all speed, as if bound for Salamis. Demetrius of Phalerum, the Athenian general, belonged to the party of Cassander; and from the acropolis observed those ships, which he supposed to be some ships of Ptolemy, and to be steering to Corinth. But in the evening according to their secret instructions, they changed their course to sail directly to Peiraeus, and made themselves masters of it. As soon as this was known, the whole fleet sailed out from Sunium, and the forces on board took possession of the forts, as the fleet had done of the harbour. Demetrius then ordered liberty to be proclaimed to the Athenians; in gratitude of which, they gladly received him as their friend and benefactor

7 # With a hundred and eighty triremes Demetrius sailed against Salamis in Cyprus, which was possessed and defended by Menelaus, a general of Ptolemy, who lay by with sixty ships, in constant expectation of being joined by Ptolemy himself with a hundred and forty sail more. Not thinking himself able to engage two hundred ships at once, Demetrius directed his course round a neck of land above Salamis; where he concealed himself, and disembarking his land forces, planted an ambush. Ptolemy soon appeared; and having fixed upon an open, level, and convenient part of the shore for landing, disembarked his troops. The army of Demetrius immediately attacked them on the first confusion of landing; and, almost as soon as they engaged, secured the victory. Meanwhile Demetrius, unexpectedly bearing down upon the Egyptian fleet, obliged Ptolemy to turn to flight; in which Menelaus, who had sailed from Salamis to his assistance, was forced to follow him.

8 # When Corinth was betrayed to Demetrius, he entered it in the night at the topmost gate. But apprehensive lest an ambush should be formed against him by some party in the city, he advanced first against the gate towards Lechaeum, where his army set up a general shout, and drew the attention of the Corinthians to that quarter; then he wheeled round, and entered the topmost gate, which was thrown open by the conspirators. And while the Corinthians were engaged in the defence of the gate towards Lechaeum, Demetrius without danger made himself master of the city.

9 # Demetrius and the Lacedaemonians encamped against each other, with Lycaeum, a mountain of Arcadia, extending itself between the two camps. The Macedonians expressed some uneasiness at their situation, unacquainted as they were with the mountain. While the north wind blew full against the enemy, Demetrius resolved to take advantage of it; and setting fire to the gate of his camp, advanced to the attack. The sparks and smoke, carried by a sharp wind amongst the Lacedaemonians, so irritated them, that the Macedonians pushing forward obtained a complete and easy victory.

10 The Spartans took advantage of a narrow pass, through which Demetrius in his retreat was obliged to march, and fell upon his rear, causing him serious harm. In the narrowest part of the defile he heaped a number of carriages together, and set fire to them; which so effectively obstructed the enemy's pursuit, till the carriages were all consumed, that Demetrius, in the meantime continuing his march as quickly as he could, made good his retreat.

11 # Demetrius dispatched a herald to the Boeotians, with a proclamation of war. The letter, which announced it, was delivered at Orchomenus to the Boeotarchs; and the next day Demetrius encamped at Chaeroneia. The proclamation of war, so closely followed by the approach of the enemy, terrified the Boeotians into terms of submission.

12 # Demetrius had to cross the Lycus, which was a very rapid river, not fordable by the infantry, and only by such of the cavalry as were most able and strong. He drew up his cavalry in three lines across the river; by which the force of the waves was broken, and the infantry by that means were enabled to cross it.

[8] Eumenes.

# Eumenes was closely pursued by the Galatians, and at the same time he was so indisposed in health, as to be carried on a litter. When he found it impossible to escape their pursuit, and was near to being overtaken, he directed those that carried his litter, to stop at a hill which he saw near the road, and there to place it. The barbarians, who had closely pursued him, supposed that he would not have halted, unless in dependence of a body of troops in reserve he might have posted there in ambush; and so they gave up the pursuit.

2 # Eumenes had received information, that the Silver Shields were likely to rebel; the principals in the plot were Antigenes and Teutamus, who behaved with rudeness towards him, and seldom came to his pavilion. Eumenes convened the generals, and told them a dream, which had occurred twice; and in the dream it was threatened that their common safety depended on paying a proper regard to it. The dream was this: "Alexander the king sat in his pavilion in the midst of the camp, holding his sceptre in his hand, and distributing justice. He commanded his generals to transact no public business of any kind except in the royal pavilion; which he ordered to be called the pavilion of Alexander. " The Macedonians, who adored the memory of Alexander, out of the royal treasures erected a magnificent pavilion. A golden throne was raised in the pavilion, ornamented with the insignia of royalty, and on it was placed a crown of gold with the royal diadem. Beside the throne were arms, and in the midst of them a sceptre: before it a golden table, with frankincense and perfumes on it. There were also silver benches for the generals, that might attend in council on public affairs. Next to Alexander's pavilion, Eumenes pitched his own, and the other generals theirs in order. After all this was completed, Eumenes received the generals not in his own, but Alexander's pavilion: and among the rest Antigenes and Teutamus attended, in fact upon Eumenes; but in appearance, to do honour to Alexander.

3 # Eumenes, when he was in Persia, was afraid that his army would be won over to the interests of Peucestes by bribes and largesses, and that there was a plan to place him on the throne. Eumenes produced a letter in Syriac characters, as if written by Orontes, the satrap of Armenia, which contained this message: "Olympias, with a son of Alexander, has left Epirus, and advanced into Macedonia; of which she has taken possession by force, after slaying Cassander, who had usurped the throne. " When the Macedonians heard this, they thought no more of Peucestes; but with infinite joy proclaimed the mother and son of Alexander as his heirs to the throne.

4 # When Antigonus heard, that Eumenes, who was in Persia, had sent his troops into winter quarters, he immediately advanced against him. Eumenes, being informed by Peucestes of the enemy's march, directed his officers, with their children, in the night to take fire with them to the highest and most exposed places, and there ride about at the distance of seventy stades. Then leaving a gap of about twenty cubits between them, he ordered them to set a great quantity of wood on fire; making the outward fires very large, another range of fires less, and a third still smaller, in imitation of a real camp. Antigonus' army from this appearance suspected that Eumenes had gathered his forces together, and did not venture not to attack him. Instead, they left by another route, on purpose to avoid the supposed superiority of the enemy.

5 # Eumenes found he could not by any arguments divert his soldiers from their intention of plundering the enemy's baggage; but he contrived to provide his adversary with secret intelligence of their plan. As a result, the enemy placed a stronger guard upon their baggage. When the soldiers of Eumenes observed this, they abandoned their plan.

[9] Seleucus.

# In an engagement between Seleucus and Antigonus, the evening put an end to the undecided action; and both armies retreated to their respective camps, determined to renew the conflict the next day. The soldiers of Antigonus in the mean time put off their arms, and relaxed in their tents. But Seleucus ordered his men to eat, and sleep in their arms, and lie down in order of battle: that they might be ready for action, whenever the charge was sounded. At break of day the army of Seleucus rose up, already armed and in order. They immediately advanced against Antigonus, whose troops were unarmed and disordered, and therefore afforded an early victory to the enemy.

2 # Seleucus and Demetrius were encamped against each other: the former in high spirits, but the latter doubtful of success. Demetrius therefore determined to fall upon the enemy in the night, placing his hopes of victory on a vigorous attack. The army readily embraced his plan, and had high hopes of surprising Seleucus. At the time appointed they arose, and armed; but two Aetolian youths, who were peltasts in Demetrius' army, approached the advanced guard of Seleucus' camp, and demanded to be introduced to the king immediately. As soon as they informed him of the preparations for action in the enemy's camp, Seleucus, fearing lest he should be attacked before he was ready to fight, ordered the trumpets immediately to sound the charge. At the same time, he ordered his soldiers to raise a great shout, and each to light a fire by their tent with whatever wood they had available. Demetrius, when he saw the troops standing round the fires, and heard the trumpets sound the charge, supposed them ready for battle, and therefore declined the intended attack.

3 # Seleucus, learning that the soldiers of Demetrius were dispirited, selected a body of picked men from his guards. He posted them with eight elephants at his front, in a narrow pass, which flanked the enemy. Then he advanced before them, threw off his helmet, and called aloud: "How long will you be so mad, as to follow the fortunes of a bandit, who is almost starving, when your merits could find their reward with a king, who reigns in affluence? You could share with him in a kingdom, not depending on hope, but in actual possession. " Most of the soldiers were persuaded by this speech to throw aside their swords and spears; and, waving their hands, they went over to Seleucus.

4 # The command of the fortress of Sardis, with the royal treasures, was entrusted by Lysimachus to Theodotus. Such was the strength of its fortification, that Seleucus despaired of capturing it by storm. He ordered a proclamation to be made, that he would give an hundred talents to any one who would kill Theodotus. As the lure of such a sum might be supposed to tempt some or other of the soldiers, Theodotus became suspicious and afraid of them; and for that reason seldom showed himself in public. The army on the other hand resented his suspicions of them. In this unpleasant situation, when one party was alarmed by suspicion, and the other stirred up by resentment, Theodotus determined to preempt his troops. Therefore he himself opened the gates in the night; he let in Seleucus, and delivered up to him the treasures.

5 # Demetrius had encamped under mount Taurus. Seleucus, who was afraid that he would secretly make his escape into Syria, detached Lysias with a body of Macedonians to secure the pass over the Amanides mountains, through which Demetrius would be obliged to march; and he ordered them to kindle a number of fires there. By this timely movement Demetrius saw his intended route cut off, and his escape blocked.

6 # Seleucus, after an unsuccessful battle with the barbarians, fled towards Cilicia. To conceal himself, in those circumstances, even from his own troops, he was attended only by a few friends, and took on the appearance of the armour-bearer of Amaction, the general of the royal forces. But as soon as a sufficient number of cavalry and infantry, the shattered remains of his army, had assembled, he put his royal clothes back on, revealed himself to his army, and again put himself at their head.

[10] Perdiccas.

In a war between the Illyrians and Macedonians, many of the Macedonians were taken prisoners, and others fought timidly in the expectation of being ransomed if they were captured. Perdiccas ordered the deputation, that was sent to negotiate the ransom of the prisoners, to declare on their return, that the Illyrians had refused to receive a ransom, and had decided to put the prisoners to death. When all hope of a ransom had been removed in this way, the Macedonians in future fought with more resolution, because their only hopes of safety were placed in victory.

2 When Perdiccas was short of money, in his war against Chalcis, he struck a coin of brass mixed with tin; with which he paid his army. The merchants accepted the money as currency, because it bore the royal stamp; and, as it had no value beyond the king's dominions, he took it off them again in payment for corn and the produce of the country.

[11] Cassander.

# At the same time that Cassander was besieging Salamis, he also fought the Athenians by sea, and defeated them. He set free all of the Salaminians, whom he had captured in the action with the Athenians, and sent them to Salamis without ransom. In consequence of such an act of favour and humanity, the people of Salamis voluntarily surrendered themselves to Cassander.

2 # Cassander, knowing that Nicanor, governor of Munychia, was ill-affected to him, outwitted and got rid of him in the following way. He pretended that he was going to sail away from Attica. When he was about to embark, a messenger, according to his own instructions, arrived with letters from his friends in Macedonia to this effect: that the Macedonians invited him to assume the throne, universally dissatisfied as they were with the government of Polysperchon. On reading those letters, Cassander appeared in high spirits. He embraced Nicanor, who was accompanying him, and congratulated him as a friend on sharing in his own greatness: "And, now," said he, "other business requires our attention; the settling of an empire's concerns demands our common cares. " After saying this, he took him aside to a neighbouring house; as if to confer in private with him on business of importance. But Nicanor was immediately seized by a party of guards, who had been previously posted there for that purpose. Cassander then convened an assembly of the people; and gave leave to anyone, to present an accusation against Nicanor. While accusations from different quarters were being laid against him, Cassander secured Munychia. And Nicanor, who was convicted of many acts of injustice, was sentenced to death.

3 # While Cassander besieged Pydna, a city in Macedonia, in which Olympias was shut up; Polysperchon dispatched a sloop with orders to land close by the town in the night. Polysperchon sent a letter to inform Olympias, and to urge her to embark on board the ship. The courier was intercepted, and carried before Cassander; to whom he confessed his errand. As soon as he had read the letter, he closed it and again affixed on it Polysperchon's seal; he ordered the courier to deliver the letter, but not to inform her that Cassander had seen it. The letter was accordingly delivered; and Cassander took care to intercept the sloop. Olympias, in accordance with instructions in the letter, came out of the city in the night, expecting to find the vessel at the appointed place. In her annoyance at not finding it, and thinking herself deceived by Polysperchon, she surrendered both herself and the city to Cassander.

4 # When Cassander returned from Illyria, he planted in ambush a body of cavalry and infantry, at the distance of a day's march from Epidamnus. After that, he set on fire the villages which were in the most exposed situations on the edge of the territories of Illyria and Atintanis. Supposing that Cassander had entirely evacuated the country, the Illyrians ventured out of the city, and went out to various places, as their different business required their attention. Then the soldiers sallied out of their ambush, and captured no less than a thousand men. Cassander came up to the city while the gates were still open, and made himself master of Epidamnus.

[12] Lysimachus.

# Lysimachus was apprehensive lest the Autariatae, who had been plundered of their baggage in an engagement with Demetrius near Lampsacus, should start a mutiny or revolt - barbarians as they were, and stripped of their property. He summoned them outside the trenches, on pretence of giving them a handout of corn; and on a given signal, he ordered every man to be cut to pieces. Their number amounted to five thousand.

2 # After Lysimachus had taken Amphipolis by the treachery of Andragathus, he loaded him with presents, and promised him still greater, if he would accompany him into Asia. But as soon as they arrived at the straits of Thrace, he not only stripped Andragathus of all he possessed; but, after exposing him to torture, put him to death.

3 # Lysimachus conducted Ariston, son of Autoleon, to his father's kingdom in Paeonia; under pretence that the royal youth might be acknowledged by his subjects, and treated with due respect. But as soon as he had bathed in the royal baths in the river Arisbus, and they had set before him an elegant banquet, according to the custom of his country, Lysimachus ordered his guards to arm. Ariston instantly mounted his horse and escaped to the land of the Dardani; and Lysimachus was left in possession of Paeonia.

[13] Craterus.

When the Tyrians attacked and overpowered the Macedonians, who were employed on their siege works, Craterus ordered a retreat. But after the Tyrians, who had continued eagerly to pursue them, had worn themselves out, he gave the signal to face about, and charge. The nature of the battle was immediately changed: they who had pursued, now fled away; and the fugitives became the pursuers.

[14] Polysperchon.

# Polysperchon, to encourage his men against the Peloponnesians, who were in possession of a pass between the mountains, put on an Arcadian cap, and double cloak; and taking a staff in his hand, he said, "Such are the men, against whom we are now engaged. " Then, throwing his Arcadian garments aside, and taking up his own weapons, he added, "And such, my fellow soldiers, are the men, who engage them; men, who in great and various battles have won glorious victories. " This short harangue so animated his troops, that they unanimously requested him to lead them instantly against the enemy.

[15] Antiochus, son of Seleucus.

# Dion, a general of Ptolemy, with a strong garrison defended Damascus against Antiochus so ably, that Antiochus despaired of capturing it by a regular siege, and therefore had recourse to a stratagem. He directed his army, and the whole country around, to celebrate a Persian festival with the utmost profusion of luxury; and he ordered all persons of consequence to contribute their share to supply it. While Antiochus and his army were thus engaged, Dion hearing of the voluptuous celebrations remitted a little of his attention to his duty. Antiochus was no sooner informed of this, than he ordered his troops to take four days' provision of raw flour, and after marching them through a desert, by rough and unfrequented ways, arrived before Damascus, while the citizens supposed he was revelling in his camp; and by vigorous attack he surprised and captured the city.

[16] Antiochus, son of Antiochus.

# When Antiochus besieged Cypsela, a city in Thrace, he had in his army many Thracians of good rank and family, who were commanded by Tiris and Dromichaetes. To those he gave gold chains, and arms studded with silver; ornamented with which, they marched out to battle. The men of Cypsela, seeing their friends and acquaintances so richly equipped, concluded that they had chosen the better side; so they threw down their arms, and went over to Antiochus, becoming allies instead of enemies.

[17] Antiochus Hierax.

# Antiochus, having revolted from his brother Seleucus, made his escape into Mesopotamia; and in his march over the Armenian mountains he was joined by Arsabes. The two generals of Seleucus, Achaeus and Andromachus, pursued him in great force; and an obstinate battle was fought, in which Antiochus was wounded, and fled to the upper parts of the mountain, leaving the main body of the army to encamp on the sides of it. He then directed that a report of his death should be propagated, and ordered his army in the night to advance to the heights of the mountain. The next day the army of Antiochus sent envoys, Philetaerus the Cretan and Dionysius of Lysimacheia, to ask for the body of Antiochus in order to bury it; and on condition of receiving it, to engage to surrender themselves as prisoners of war. Andromachus agreed to these conditions; he informed them that the body of Antiochus was not yet found, and proposed to send an escort for the prisoners and arms. A detachment of four thousand men was accordingly dispatched, not prepared for action, but as a deputation to receive the prisoners. As soon as they advanced to the sides of the mountains, those who were posted on the heights attacked them, and made great havoc amongst them. Then Antiochus, appearing in his royal robes, presented himself to them, both alive, and victorious.

[18] Philippus, son of Demetrius.

# When Philippus besieged Prinassus, a Rhodian city, in the Peraea, he found the walls so exceedingly strong, that he saw no other way to succeed against it, than by undermining them. But when the sappers began to dig, they found nothing but hard rock; which so blunted their tools, that they could make no progress in the undertaking. To conceal from the enemy the difficulties he had to encounter, he contrived a kind of awning to cover the workmen; notwithstanding which, the enemy plainly perceived how little progress he was able to make. He therefore directed the soldiers to bring in the night a quantity of earth from eight or ten stades distance, and lay it at the mouth of their mine. The garrison on the walls saw the quantity of earth, thrown up at the mouth of the mine, increasing greatly every day, and concluded that the walls must be undermined. Intimidated by this, they surrendered the city to Philippus. He then revealed to them the stratagem which he had practiced, and left them to lament their credulity.

2 # Philippus son of Demetrius, when engaged in a war with Attalus and the Rhodians, found himself inferior to the enemy, and considered how to effect a secure retreat by sea. He sent an Egyptian deserter, to give intelligence to the enemy, that he was making preparations for a naval engagement, intending next day to have his fleet ready for action. And in the night he kindled a number of fires, to induce them to think the army remained in camp. Attalus, according to this intelligence, made preparations also on his side to confront him. And to strengthen his fleet, he drew off the guards who were posted at the place of Philippus' intended embarkation; which gave Philippus an opportunity to embark his army, and thereby effect his escape.

[19] Ptolemy.

When Perdiccas had marched down to the river opposite Memphis, with intention to cross it, Ptolemy tied his baggage to a number of goats, swine, and oxen, and left the herdsmen with some of his horse to drive them. The baggage thus dragged along the ground by those animals raised a prodigious dust; and exhibited in appearance the march of a numerous army. With the rest of his cavalry Ptolemy pursued the enemy, and came up with them as they were crossing the river, part having already passed it; who, from the dust, suspecting a numerous army in their rear, some fled, others perished in the river, and a great number were taken prisoners. [see also: Frontinus, Str. 4. 7. 20]

[20] Attalus.

# Attalus, previous to an engagement with the Gauls, to whom he was very inferior in force, in order to encourage his men against the superiority of the enemy, offered a sacrifice; Sudinus a Chaldaean priest performed the ceremony. Upon his hand, in the black juice of the oak apple, the king inscribed, "The king's victory," in inverted letters, not from the left to the right, but from the right to the left. And when he disembowelled the victim, he placed his hand under a warm and spongy part; which took from it the impression. The priest, after turning over the rest of the parts, the gall, the lungs, and the stomach, and observing the omens to be drawn from them, turned to the part which contained the inscription of the king's victory; which exulting with joy he showed to all the soldiers. This they eagerly read; and assuming confidence, as if the gods had assured them of victory, they unanimously requested to be immediately led against the barbarians, whom they charged with such extraordinary vigour, that they obtained the victory they had been taught to expect.

[21] Perseus, son of Philippus.

# Perseus was at war with the Romans, who made use of elephants in their army, which they procured partly from Africa, and partly from India, through Antiochus king of Syria. To accustom his horses to the formidable appearance of those animals, he directed some elephants to be made in wood, in size and colours as nearly as possible resembling the real ones. And to imitate the terrible noise the beast sometimes made, he ordered a trumpeter to enter his body, and directing his trumpet through the mouth to sound the loudest, harshest notes he was able.
And by this means the Macedonian horses were trained to bear the noise and sight of the elephants without fear.

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Polyaenus: Stratagems
- BOOK 5, Chapters 1-15
Adapted from the translation by R. Shepherd (1793). See key to translations for an explanation of the format.

The Greek text of Book 5 is available in archive. org.

CONTENTS: 1 Phalaris ; 2 Dionysius ; 3 Agathocles ; 4 Hipparinus ; 5 Theocles ; 6 Hippocrates ; 7 Daphnaeus ; 8 Leptines ; 9 Hanno ; 10 Himilco ; 11 Gesco ; 12 Timoleon ; 13 Ariston ; 14 Thrasymedes ; 15 Megacles ; → Following Chapters (16-48)

[Preface]

This fifth book of stratagems I offer to your most sacred majesties, Antoninus and Verus. I do not myself assume so much praise in composing this work, as I attribute to you in the diligent attention you have been pleased to employ upon it, when I consider the high authority with which you are invested, and this critical time, when you are so particularly engaged in matters of peace and war. But indeed generals cannot form themselves to victory by any surer means, than by studying the skills by which ancient generals obtained it. A treatise on warlike operations cannot fail to be useful to a prince who is engaged in war. Eloquence is learned by studying the works of celebrated orators; and leaders are taught, by observing the actions of illustrious generals, to form their own conduct, in the various similar instances that may occur. And so I trust that these stratagems may be of service to you, as they will place before your eyes the best models that you may imitate in the field of military glory.

[1] Phalaris.

The people of Acragas decided to build a temple to Zeus Polieus within their citadel; both because the ground there was the firmest and hardest, and therefore most suitable for foundations, and also because the site was the most elevated, and therefore most suitable for the temple of the god. Phalaris undertook to superintend the work, and to finish it for a fixed price, employing the most skilful workmen, and supplying the best materials. The people supposed him to be a proper person to conduct the work, because of his occupation, which was collecting public debts. They therefore contracted the work out to him, and put into his hands the necessary money. With this money he hired a number of strangers, bought many slaves, and gathered a quantity of stones, timber and iron. As soon as he had laid the foundations, he pretended that his materials had been stolen; and he ordered a proclamation to be made, that if anyone disclosed, who had stolen the stones and iron from the citadel, they would receive a sum of money in reward. The people expressed great indignation at the theft; and gave him permission as he requested, to do what was necessary to prevent such thefts in future; in other words, to strengthen the fortress, and dig a trench around it. He then struck off the slaves' shackles, and armed them with battle-axes, hatchets, and stones. While the citizens were intent on celebrating the Thesmophoria, he suddenly fell upon them, slew many of the men, and seized the women and children. In this way he established himself as tyrant of the city of Acragas.

2 Phalaris, when he wished to disarm the inhabitants of Acragas, pretended to entertain them with some very magnificent games outside the city. As soon as a great crowd of the citizens had gone out of the city to watch the games, the gates were shut. The guards, following his orders, searched every house in the city, and carried off whatever weapons they found.

3 When the men of Acragas attacked the Sicanians, Phalaris found it impossible to capture their city by siege, because they had laid aside a great quantity of corn, and therefore he entered into a treaty of peace with them. He had in his camp some corn, which he agreed to leave for them, on condition that he received from them an equal quantity after their harvest. The Sicanians readily complied with these terms, and received the provisions. Phalaris then contrived to bribe the superintendents of the granaries, secretly to remove their roofs in some places; as a result, the rain came in through the holes, and rotted the corn. As soon as the harvest was over, Phalaris received his quantity of new corn, according to their agreement; but when the old corn was found to be rotten, the Sicanians were reduced by hunger, and after giving up their provisions to him, were forced to surrender their liberty as well. [see also: Frontinus, Str. 3. 4. 6]

4 Phalaris dispatched an embassy to Teutus, the ruler of Vessa, which was one of the most flourishing and powerful cities of the Sicanians; and asked for his daughter in marriage. When Teutus gave his consent, Phalaris sent a number of soldiers in chariots, without beards, and in women's clothes, in the guise of servants, who were bringing presents to the bride. As soon as they were let into the house, they drew their swords and secured the place. Phalaris arrived immediately afterwards, and made himself master of Vessa.

[2] Dionysius.

The mercenaries attacked the house of Dionysius, tyrant of Sicily, and forced their way in, with the intention of murdering him. He came out to them in mean clothes, with dust on his head, and the told the soldiers, that he gave himself up to them, to treat him as they please. His appearance, being so altered and humiliated, made them abandon their plan; they left him safe, and uninjured. Dionysius not long afterwards surrounded these same men with his troops at Leontini, and cut them all to pieces. [see also: Diodorus, 14. 78]

2 Dionysius, son of Hermocrates, was in the service of the Syracusans, and acted as secretary to their generals. When the Syracusans complained of the generals' conduct in the course of an unsuccessful war with the Carthaginians, Dionysius ventured so far as to accuse them of treachery. In consequence of his accusation, some of them were executed, and others were banished. Then he pretended that he was in danger from the intrigues of their supporters, and from their resentment over the active part which he had taken against those who had already been convicted. Therefore, while the Carthaginian war was still continuing, he received from the people a bodyguard for his person. By means of that, he seized control of Syracuse, and became the greatest tyrant that the Syracusans ever knew; he died at an advanced age, and handed the sovereignty on to his son.

3 Dionysius always guarded against conspiracies with great care. When he was informed that a foreigner who was then in the city had claimed that he possessed an infallible secret for revealing conspiracies and treason, Dionysius ordered him to be summoned. As soon as he came to the tyrant's fortress, he asked all those present to withdraw; because he did not want to make the secret widely known, but he was ready to reveal it to Dionysius alone. When the company had accordingly left them, he said;" Only claim, as I have done, that you possess the secret which I am pretending to reveal; and no-one will venture into any conspiracy against you. " Dionysius was pleased with this advice, and rewarded the man liberally. He told his guards, that the man had revealed to him the most astonishing means of detecting conspirators; which intimidated them so much, that they never ventured in future to form any plots against him. [see also: Plutarch, Mor. 176]

4 When Dionysius left on a foreign expedition, he left Andron in charge of the fortress and the treasury. Hermocrates advised Andron to seize both of these, while Dionysius was absent. A few days later, Dionysius returned from this expedition; he had heard nothing of such a proposition, but he was suspicious, as tyrants always are. He told Andron that he had been informed of a proposal that had been made to him to betray his trust, and he wished to hear the particulars of it from himself. Andron believed what he said, and confessed every detail of what had happened. Dionysius then ordered him to be executed, because he had not revealed the proposal that had been made to him, immediately upon the tyrant's return. Dionysius confined Hermocrates, who had married his sister, in prison; but afterwards, to oblige her, he banished him to the Peloponnese.

5 Dionysius, having persuaded some men in Naxos to betray the city to him, advanced to the walls late in the evening, attended by seven soldiers. The conspirators on the towers suggested to him, that he should attack the city with all his force. But he wished to make himself master of it without any loss, and demanded the surrender of the garrison on the walls. If they refused, he threatened to put every man to the sword. At the same time, on his orders one of his ships entered the port of Naxos, with trumpets on board, and boatswains, who informed the Naxians, that they all belonged to separate ships, which they would soon see in their harbour. The terror of so great a naval force, and the threats of Dionysius, prevailed upon the Naxians to surrender their city, without a blow being struck.

6 When Himilco blocked up the harbour of Motye, Dionysius led his forces out of the town, and encamped on the shore opposite to the enemy, who stretched along the mouth of the harbour. He told his men to take courage, and both soldiers and sailors to exert themselves, in running the ships ashore. In one day, he drew out about eighty ships upon a flat muddy piece of land, about twenty stades wide, that lay under the promontory which formed one side of the harbour; and he protected the ground there with wooden stakes. Himilco was afraid that Dionysius, after securing his own ships, would take an opportunity of attacking the Carthaginians in the rear, and shutting them up in the harbour. He therefore withdrew his fleet with the first suitable wind; and he left Dionysius in possession of the harbour, with his ships in safety, and the town in peace. [see also: Diodorus, 14. 49]

7 Dionysius, who was in possession of the citadel, held out against the forces of Dion, and sent an embassy to the Syracusans with proposals of peace. As a preliminary to any such negotiations, they insisted that he should abdicate from the sovereignty. If he complied with this, they were ready to treat with him; but if not, they were determined upon an unremitting war. Dionysius again dispatched a herald, asking them to send ambassadors, into whose hands he would resign the sovereignty, and conclude a peace with them. When the ambassadors had been dispatched to him, the citizens gave themselves up to intemperate joy at the recovery of their liberty, and took less care of their defence. In the meantime, Dionysius detained the ambassadors, and advanced with his forces against the walls, which he captured by a vigorous attack; he recovered the city, and retained possession of the citadel. [see also: Diodorus, 16. 11]

8 The next day, Dionysius freed the Syracusan ambassadors, whom he had detained. They were followed by women, carrying letters to Dion and Megacles, from the sister of the one, and the wife of the other; as well as letters to other Syracusans, whose wives had been shut in during the siege. These letters were produced before an assembly of the people, and read. Their general purport was an earnest request to their husbands and relations, not to suffer them to languish in the hands of Dionysius. The address of one particular letter was "Hipparion to his father" (Hipparion was the name of Dion's son). But when the secretary opened the letter, it appeared to be a familiar letter from Dionysius to Dion, written in the most friendly terms, and seeking his support by great promises. This letter put Dion under suspicion by the Syracusans for ever afterwards, and entirely deprived him of his importance in the state, which was the objective which Dionysius most hoped to achieve.

9 When the Carthaginians invaded the territory of Syracuse with an army of three hundred thousand men, Dionysius, who had taken care to erect various strongholds and forts in different parts, send ambassadors to conclude a peace with them, on condition of delivering up to them all the strongholds and forts. The terms were readily accepted by the Carthaginians, who were very well satisfied with receiving possession of the forts, without the hazard of a battle; and they left considerable garrisons in each of them. But Dionysius afterwards successfully attacked, and entirely routed, their main army, which was considerably reduced by the detachments, which had been dispersed in the various places. [see also: Frontinus, Str. 1. 8. 11]

10 Although Dionysius wished to capture Himera, he entered into an alliance with the inhabitants of the place. He then made war upon some of the neighbouring cities, and encamped near Himera. He frequently sent deputations to the city, because the people were in alliance with him, and the inhabitants of Himera supplied his army with provisions for some time. But when this great army still continued in their vicinity, without attempting anything of consequence, it raised in the citizens a suspicion of some secret plot; and they refused to supply him in the same generous manner that they had done before. Dionysius therefore made his lack of provisions a pretext for breaking with the men of Himera; he advanced against their city with all his forces, and took it by storm. [see also: Frontinus, Str. 3. 4. 4]

11 Dionysius wished to deprive the old soldiers of their pay; but the young men expressed their indignation, saying it was an act of extreme cruelty, to starve those in their old age, who had spent their youth in the service of their country. When he realised that his plan was likely to meet with much opposition, he convened an assembly, and addressed them as follows: "I expect the young men to withstand the shock of battle; but I intend to garrison my forts with the old men; and I will give equal pay to them both. For they, whose loyalty has been proved, are the proper persons to be entrusted with the defence of the fortifications; and this service causes less fatigue. " Everyone was pleased with these pronouncements, and departed in good humour. But as soon as the troops were dispersed, and placed in different positions and garrisons, he deprived the veterans of their pay, when they no longer had the body of the army to support them.

12 Dionysius, in an expedition he had undertaken, wanted to test the loyalty of his naval captains. He wished to keep the object of his expedition secret, and therefore mentioned it to none of them. To every captain he gave a tablet which was sealed up, but entirely blank inside. He ordered them, as soon as they were under sail, to open their tablets, upon receiving a certain signal; and then to steer their course, according to the directions which they found inside. As soon as they were under sail, but before the signal was given, he hurried around the fleet in a swift-sailing vessel, and ordered every captain to return his tablet. Those, who had broken their seals, he ordered to be executed for breach of orders; to the rest he gave tablets, in which was written the real name of the city, which was the object of their expedition. In this way the expedition was kept secret, and successfully concluded. He attacked (? ) Amphipolis, which was unprepared to resist an enemy, and ungarrisoned; and he easily made himself master of the city.

13 In order to discover the opinions of his subjects about him, and to know who were his enemies, Dionysius demanded to know the names of several female musicians and prostitutes. Instead of receiving presents from him, as they expected, they were made to confess under torture, what were the opinions which they had heard their lovers express about the tyranny. In this way he found out about all, who were opposed to his government; some of them he executed, and others he banished.

14 After Dionysius had disarmed the citizens, he used to march a hundred stades from the city, whenever he had occasion to fight against an army, and then he handed every man his weapons. When the war was finished, before they re-entered the city, and the gates were thrown open, the men were ordered to ground their weapons, which were carried away and kept under guard.

15 Another stratagem which Dionysius employed, to discover who were opposed to his government, was as follows. He secretly set sail for Italy, and ordered a report to be spread about, that he had been killed by his own soldiers. Those who were hostile to the tyranny joyfully met together, and congratulated each other on the happy event. As soon as he was informed of their names, Dionysius ordered them to be seized, and put them to death.

16 At another time Dionysius pretended to be ill, and ordered a report to be spread about, that he was at the point of death. While many were expressing their joy at this occurrence, the tyrant suddenly appeared in public with his guards, and ordered everyone, who had rejoiced at the news, to be taken off to execution.

17 Dionysius obliged the Carthaginians to pay a very high ransom for their prisoners; but he released the Greeks, who had been captured while in the service of Carthage, without any ransom at all. The partiality shown by the tyrant caused the Carthaginians to become suspicious of the Greeks, and they discharged all the Greek mercenaries from their service. Thus Dionysius rid himself of these Greeks, who were a formidable foe.

18 When Dionysius was at war with the Messenians, a rumour prevailed, that he had a group in their city who were co-operating with him. In order to encourage this suspicion, when he ravaged the enemy's country, he ordered his men scrupulously to avoid causing any damage to the estates of particular persons. This is a stratagem which, as I remember, was practiced by other generals. But Dionysius carried it further; in pretended secrecy, he dispatched a soldier into the city, with a talent of gold for the suspected persons. The Messenians seized the messenger, with the gold upon him; and when he informed them of those to whom the present was being taken, the persons whom he indicated were ordered to be tried for treason. These men, being persons of importance, had a powerful party to support them, and escaped the tyrant's snare. However dissensions arose as a result, and by this means, Dionysius was able to gain control of Messene.

19 When his treasury was low, Dionysius imposed a tax on the people. They were unwilling to pay, saying that they often been forced to make contributions, and Dionysius did not think it wise to compel the payment of it. A few days later, he ordered the magistrates to take all the offerings from the temple of Asclepius (and there were many of them, both silver and gold), to carry them to the marketplace, and there to put them up for sale. The Syracusans eagerly purchased them at high prices; and a very considerable amount of money was raised. As soon as Dionysius had obtained the money, he passed an edict, that whoever had sacrilegiously bought any of the offerings from the temple of Asclepius, should on pain of death immediately return them to the temple, and restore them to the god. The edict was obeyed; the offerings were returned to the god, and Dionysius kept the money.

20 When Dionysius captured a city, some of the inhabitants died in the siege, and others were banished by him. He left a small garrison in it, but the town was a large one, and to big to be held by the few men he was able to spare. Therefore he married the captive slaves to the daughters of their masters. This not only strengthened the garrison, but, because of the natural abhorrence of each other, which must exist between them and their masters, he made the people loyal to himself.

21 Dionysius, when he was sailing to Etruria with a hundred warships and transport ships, landed at the temple of Leucothea. There he received five hundred talents, and then continued his voyage. But he was informed that the soldiers and sailors had stolen a thousand talents of gold, and many more of silver. Therefore, before he disembarked, he made a proclamation, that everyone should take to him half of what he had got, and should keep the other half for himself. He threatened immediate death for anyone who failed to comply with his orders. After he had exacted half of the plunder they had acquired in this way, he extorted the other half from them as well; and instead of it he gave them a month's subsistence of corn.

22 Many of the Parians followed the Pythagorean philosophy, and they were dispersed throughout different parts of Italy. When Dionysius, tyrant of Sicily, sent ambassadors to Metapontum and other Italian states, to propose conditions of peace, Euephenus advised the youths, who studied under him, and their fathers, to pay no attention to the tyrant's words. Dionysius was informed of Euehenus' conduct, and decided, if he could get the philosopher into his power, to move him from Metapontum to Rhegium. It afterwards happened, that Euephenus did fall into his hands; and Dionysius put him on trial for the great wrongs that he had done him. To the accusations that were urged against him, Euephenus replied that he had acted conscientiously and justly. "Those," he said, "whom I advised were my friends and acquaintances; but the tyrant, against whom I advised them, I knew not even by sight. " He was however condemned to die. Undaunted by this verdict, he addressed Dionysius, and told him that he had a unmarried sister in Parium, and he wished to settle her before he died; therefore, he requested leave to visit his homeland, and assured the tyrant, that he would return in a short time, and face his sentence. Everybody laughed at the apparent folly of the man; but Dionysius was struck by the firmness of his demeanour, and asked him, who would be bail for his return. "I will find a bail," he replied, "who will answer for it with his life. " Immediately he called Eucritus, who readily agreed, at the risk of his life, to answer for his friend's return. Euephenus was allowed six months for the transaction of his business at Parium. He immediate set out there, while in his absence Eucritus remained a prisoner at Rhegium. The fact was extraordinary, but the conclusion of it even more so. After the six months had expired, Euephenus returned to Sicily, having settled his sister. He surrendered himself up for his sentence, and requested that his bail might be discharged. Dionysius, in admiration of the virtue, which they both had displayed, forgave Euephenus, and released Eucritus from confinement. Taking them both by the hand, he asked them to admit him as a third into their friendship; and to remain with him, and to share in his prosperity. They thanked the tyrant for his kindness, but asked him, if he granted them their life, to permit them to return to their former manner of enjoying it, and to their beloved studies. By this act of generosity, Dionysius won the favour of many Italian states.

[3] Agathocles.

# Agathocles,the tyrant of Sicily, broke the oath he pledged to his enemies, and slew his prisoners. He told his friends with a laugh, "After supper we will throw up our oaths. "

2 # After Agathocles had defeated Leontini, he sent his general Deinocrates to the city; to inform the inhabitants, that it was his intention, in the preservation of his prisoners, to rival the glory of Dionysius, who after the battle at the river Eleporus preserved the lives of all the Italian prisoners he had taken. The inhabitants of Leontini trusted in his promise, and sent him magnificent presents. Agathocles then ordered all the prisoners to meet him unarmed. When the general, as directed, asked every man, who thought as Agathocles did, to hold up his hand; "My thoughts," said Agathocles, "are to slay every man of you;" and they were ten thousand in number. The soldiers, who surrounded them, according to the tyrant's orders immediately cut them to pieces.

3 # Agathocles, having received information that some of the Syracusan leaders intended to attempt a revolution, offered a solemn sacrifice to the gods for a victory he had gained over the Carthaginians. And he invited to the banquet, which he made on that occasion, five hundred persons, whom he supposed most hostile to his government. The banquet was most sumptuous and magnificent. And after the company had all drunk pretty freely, he himself, with a scarlet robe in the Tarentine fashion thrown loosely around him, advanced into the midst of them, and sang, and played on the harp, and danced; while mirth and revelry prevailed around. When they all were in the height of enjoyment, Agathocles withdrew, as being tired, and wanting to change his clothes. A number of armed men immediately rushed in, and falling upon the company with their drawn swords, allowed no-one to escape.

4 # Ophellas of Cyrene was advancing with a numerous army against Agathocles. Hearing that Ophellas was notoriously addicted to the love of boys, Agathocles sent an embassy to him, and his son Heracleides, who was a boy of extraordinary beauty, went as a hostage, with orders to hold out for a few days against his solicitations. Ophellas, charmed with the beauty of the boy, conceived a violent passion for him, and strongly solicited him to comply with his desires. While he was thus engaged, Agathocles suddenly attacked and slew him; and entirely defeated his army. His son also he recovered safely, and without any injury having been offered to him.

5 # When Agathocles had embarked on an expedition against Carthage, to test the resolution of his men, he ordered a proclamation to be made, that whoever wished to be excused from the expedition might go ashore, and take with him whatever property he had on board. All those who took advantage of the proclamation, he ordered to be executed, as traitors and cowards; and praising those who stayed on board, for their courage and attachment to him, he directed his course with sixty ships to Africa. As soon as he had disembarked his troops, he set fire to his ships; so that his men might fight with greater resolution, when they saw themselves deprived of every resource which the ships might have provided them, if they fled. By these stratagems, Agathocles defeated the Carthaginians in various battles; and made himself master of many cities in Africa.