For what was the quite wise and
moderate
Nerva?
Aurelius Victor - Caesars
While he punished with great fury innocent and guilty, members of his own family and outsiders alike, with the skills of the army enfeebled, Armenia was ravaged by the Parthians, Moesia by the Dacians, Pannonia by the Sarmatians, and Gallia by neighboring peoples.
10.
After his eighty-eighth year and fourth month, he was murdered in an intrigue of Caligula.
3
Caligula ruled four years. 2. He was the son of Germanicus, and, since he had been born in the camp, was given a cognomen of a military footwear (that is, caligula). 3. Before his principate he was accepted by and dear to all, but in his principate he was such that it was commonly said with justification that there had never been a dominus more terrible than he. 4. In fact, he stained his own three sisters with defilement. 5. He went about in the dress of his personal gods; he used to claim that he was Jove on account of his incest, and Liber, moreover, from his bacchanalian chorus. 6. I am uncertain whether it will have been proper to write about this for posterity, except perhaps since it helps to know everything about the principes, so that the unfit at least may shun such enormities through fear of their reputation. 7. In his palace, he subjected noble matrons to public wantonness. 8. He first, crowned with a diadem, ordered himself to be called dominus. 9. In the space of the three miles which lies between the moles in the Puteolan Gulf, he arranged ships in a double line and in a two-horse chariot drove down a roadway firmed up by an accumulation of sand to approximate earth [138] as if celebrating a triumph, dressed in a golden military cloak, with a horse ornamented in trappings of office and a bronze crown. 10. He perished afterward, struck down by the soldiers.
4
Claudius Titus, son of Tiberius' brother Drusus, paternal uncle of Caligula, ruled fourteen years. 2. When the senate had thought that the family of the Caesars had been exterminated, he was discovered by the soldiers in a hiding place that ill became him, and, since he was simpleminded, he seemed quite harmless to those ignorant men and was made imperator. 3. He was obedient to his stomach, wine, vile lust; simpleminded and almost doltish; lazy and tremulous; subject to the dictates of his freedmen and wife. 4. In his time, Scribonius Camillus was created imperator in Dalmatia and killed forthwith. The Mauri set the provinces ablaze; a force of Musulamii was cut to pieces. The Claudian Aqueduct was opened at Rome. 5. Messalina, his wife, was from the first indulging indiscriminately in extramarital affairs as if it were her legal prerogative: as a result of what she did, many men who abstained through fear were killed. Then, more violently aroused, she had certain of the more noble wives and maidens put up for sale with herself in the fashion of prostitutes, and males were compelled to attend. But if someone ever bristled at such enormities, he was savaged by means of a contrived charge against himself and his entire family, so that he seemed to be more in the power of the ruling man rather than the ruling wife. 6. In the same way, his freedmen, having attained the highest power, were defiling everything with debaucheries, exile, murder, and proscriptions. 7. From among these men, he made Felix prefect of the legions in Judaea. After the Britannic triumph, to Posidonius the eunuch, [139] along with the bravest of the soldiers, he gave arms and medals for a gift, as if to one who had taken part in the victory. He allowed Polybius to walk between the consuls. Narcissus, the secretary, used to surpass them all, deporting himself as dominus of the Dominus himself; and Pallas was exalted by the praetorian insignia. They were so rich that, with him debating about the bankruptcy of the fisc, it was most humorously noised about in a famous elegy that there would be wealth in great profusion for him, if, by the two freedmen, he were admitted into a partnership. 9. In his times, the Phoenix was seen in Egypt, a bird which they say flies every five hundred years from Arabia to remembered locations; and in the Aegean Sea an island suddenly sank. 10. He married Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus, his own brother, who, procuring the empire for her own son, first killed her stepchildren in multiform intrigues, then, by poison, her husband himself. 11. He lived sixty-four years; his death was kept secret a long while, as once before in the case of Tarquinius Priscus. 12. While his attendants simulated grief, Nero, his stepson, obtained the rights of imperium.
5
Domitius Nero, scion of Domitius Ahenobarbus, his father, and Agrippina, his mother, ruled thirteen years. 2. For five years he seemed bearable, whence some have reported that Trajan was accustomed to say that the principes as a group were far different than Nero -- for a five-year period. 3. In the city, he constructed an amphitheater and baths. 4. Pontus he reduced to the status of a province with the permission of King Polemo, from whom Pontus Polemoniacus is named, as likewise the Cottian Alps from the dead King Cottius. 5. For indeed he passed the remainder of his life shamelessly, so that it is embarrassing to commemorate any of this. He went so far that, sparing neither his own decency nor that of others, at last, veiled in the manner of a bride-to-be, [140] with dowry paid, with everyone crowding together in festive fashion, he was married in the presence of the senate. Covered with the skin of a wild animal, he used to forage the sexual organs of either sex with his face. He even contaminated with defilement his own mother, whom he afterward killed. After their husbands were slain, he married Octavia and the Sabina with the cognomen Poppaea. 6. Then Galba, proconsul of Hispania, and Gaius Julius usurped imperium. 7. When Nero learned that Galba approached and that the senate had resolved that, according to ancestral custom, when his neck had been thrust into a yoke, he was to be beaten to death with rods, he, completely deserted, left the city in the middle of the night with Phaon, Epaphroditus and Neophytus, and the eunuch Sporus, whom once, after he had been castrated, he had tried to transform into a woman; and he pierced himself with a blow of his sword, with the impure eunuch about whom we spoke aiding his trembling hand while, since no one had been found earlier by whom he might be struck, he soberly exclaimed: "So, do I have neither friend nor foe? I lived shamelessly, let me die shamefully. " 8. He perished in the thirty-second year of his life. The Persians had been so delighted with him that they sent legations furnishing materials for constructing a monument. 9. Otherwise the provinces as a whole and all Rome exulted in his death to such a degree that the urban masses donned the caps of freedmen and celebrated manumission, as if they had been delivered from a savage dominus.
6
Galba, scion of the noble clan of the Sulpicii, ruled seven months and an equal number of days. 2. He was disreputable toward young men, intemperate with regard to eating, and arranged everything in a council of his three friends, that is, Vinius, Cornelius, and Icelius, to such a degree that they were just as much residents of the Palatine mansion and used to be referred to commonly as "the tutors. " 3. Before dominatio was assumed, he administered many provinces with distinction, treating the soldiers most severely, so that, when he entered [141] the camps, the saying was quickly spread: "Learn to soldier, soldier; this is Galba, not Gaetilicus. " 4. When he was in the seventy-third year of his life, while he advanced in his armor to calm legions inflamed by the faction of Otho, he was killed near the Lake of Curtius.
7
Salvius Otho, sprung from distinguished ancestors from the town Ferentanum, ruled three months -- shameless in his entire life, in his youth most of all. 2. Defeated by Vitellius first at Placentium, then at Betriacum, he transfixed himself with a sword in the thirty-seventh year of his life -- so beloved to his own troops that, when his body was seen, a great many died by their own hands.
8
Vitellius, sprung from noble stock (his father, Lucius Vitellius, a consul) ruled eight months. 2. He was violent, cruel, and avaricious with profusion. 3. In his time, Vespasian seized the principate in Oriens; conquered by his soldiers in a battle held under the walls of the city, Vitellius, with his hands bound behind him, was led from the palace to which he had removed himself and was paraded as a show before the mob. 4. And lest this man, at all events shameless to the last of the evils which he had done, lower a blushing face, with a sword placed under his chin, half-nude, while many assaulted his face with filth and excrement and, in speech, with other dirt more shameful, he was dragged down the Gemonian Steps where he had ordered Sabinius, Vespasian's brother, to be killed. 5. Transfixed by many blows, he perished. He lived fifty-seven years. 6. All these men whom I have briefly touched upon, especially the family of the Caesars, possessed learning, culture, and eloquence to such a degree that surely they would have covered their modest indiscretions, if they were not -- apart from Augustus -- excessive in all vices together.
9
Vespasian ruled ten years. 2. Among his good deeds, his disregard of animosities was singular [142] to the degree that he wed the daughter of his enemy Vitellius, who had been given a most lavish dowry, to a very eminent man. 3. He used to bear patiently the agitation of his friends, as he was very witty, responding to their jibes with jests. For he wittily softened Licinius Mucianus, with whom as an aide he had reached imperium, insolent by reason of his merits, saying, when another man, a common acquaintance, had been summoned, this alone: "I know that I am a man. " 4. But why is this a surprise with respect to his friends, since he even made light of the oblique pronouncements of advocates and the contumacy of philosophers? 5. Briefly put, he restored the orb of the earth, long faint and feeble. For, first of all, unless they had conducted themselves far too violently, he preferred to mollify followers of the tyrant rather than to destroy them after they had been tortured, having reckoned most prudently that nefarious works are carried out by the majority of the men through fear. 6. Moreover, by laws most equitable and by instruction, and what is stronger, by the example of his own life, he had abolished the majority of vices. 7. He was, nevertheless, weak, as some people wrongly think, with regard to money, since it is sufficiently agreed that through a shortage in the treasury and through the ruin of the cities he had sought new (nor afterward continued) payments of taxes. 8. If owners were lacking, he repaired, by means of resources granted to those willing, a Rome disfigured by fires and by aged ruins, the Capitol, the Temple of Peace, the monuments of the Claudii, and erected many new structures. 9. Through all lands, as is Roman custom, cities were renovated with surprising care; roads were fortified with the greatest labors. 10. Then the hills along the Flaminian Way were cut through for easy passage -- what is commonly called the "Punctured Peak. " 11. A thousand clans were composed, since he had with great difficulty found two hundred, the majority having been exterminated by the savageness of the tyrants. 12. By fear alone, Volgeses, King of Parthia, was compelled to peace. 13. The Syria for which Palestina is the name, [143] and Cilicia, and Trachia and Commagene, which today we call Augustophratensis, were added to the provinces. Judaea, too, was added. 14. When friends warned him to beware of Mettius Pomposianus, about whom a rumor had been spread that he would rule, he made him a consul, joking in the following cavil: "When will there ever be a memory of a gift so great? " 15. Indeed, he maintained a uniform mode of life during his whole reign. He stayed awake at night and, when public affairs were finished, he admitted his intimates, putting on his shoes and royal vesture while being saluted. Then, after whatever business that had come up was heard, he exercised with a ride, then rested; finally, when he had washed, he, in a quite convivial frame of mind, used to attend dinner. 16. Affection compels one to say more about a good imperator, whom, after fifty-six years from Augustus' death, the Roman state, bled by the savageness of the tyrants, chanced upon, as if by some divine destiny, lest it go completely to ruin. 17. And so, passing the sixty-ninth year of his life, he died, mingling with serious matters the jests in which he always took pleasure. 18. Indeed, first, when a comet had appeared, he said, "That concerns the King of Persia" (whose hair is rather long). Then, exhausted by an exudation of the bowels, he rose up and said, "It becomes an imperator to depart the earth standing. "
10
Titus, called also by his father's name Vespasian, the offspring of a freedwoman mother named Domitilla, ruled two years, two months, and twenty days. 2. Most earnestly devoted from boyhood to the admirable pursuits of probity, soldiery, and letters, he displayed gifts of mind and body in whatever he attempted. 3. When he accepted the care of the fatherland, it is incredible how much he surpassed the man whom he was replacing, especially in clemency, liberality, honor, and contempt of wealth, things which were quite dear to him because, as a result of some things done while he was yet a private citizen, he was believed to have been a particularly passionate lover of luxury [144] and of vice. 4. For, during his father's rule, he obtained the praetorian prefecture and, by means of agents who, spreading insidious things through the theaters and camps, demanded punishment, he oppressed as if convicted of a crime whoever was suspect or opposed to him. Among them, he ordered Caecena, a consular, who had been summoned to dinner and who had scarcely yet left his place at the table, to be slaughtered on account of suspicion of the debauched Bernice, his own wife. 5. Moreover, under his father, verdicts in legal disputes were put up for sale * him desirous of plunder, from which all in general, envisioning and invoking Nero, gravely accepted that he had reached the height of affairs. 6. But these things, having been turned to the better, brought him immortal glory to such a degree that he was called "Treasure" and "Lover of the Human Race. " 7. Then, as he submitted to regal constancy, he ordered Bernice, spurning her marriage with him, to return home, and the flocks of the effeminate to depart -- an act by which he offered, as it were, a sign of intemperance altered. Henceforth, while successors were accustomed to confirm awards and concessions from earlier principes, once he took control by means of an edict he spontaneously decreed such things for those who possessed them. 9. Also, on a certain day, recollecting in the evening that he had not awarded anything to anyone, he said in a laudable and lofty remark, "Friends, we have wasted a day" (because he was of great liberality). 10. Indeed, he carried clemency to the point that he first admonished two men of most distinguished rank because they had conspired against him and were unable to deny that a crime had been contemplated, and afterward he ordered the men, who had been led to the arena, to sit on either side of him, and, when a sword of the mirmillons whose combats were being viewed was intentionally requested, as if for the purpose of examining its edge, he gave it to one and then to the other; to those men, shocked and awed at his courage, he said, "Do you not see that powers are bestowed by Fate, [145] and that action prompted by the hope of gaining or fear of losing them is expended in vain? " 11. In tears he often supplicated his brother Domitian, too, who was hatching plots and agitating friends among the soldiers, not to desire to attain by parricide what by his own volition was going to fall to him and what, since he was a co-holder of potestas, he now possessed. 12. In his time, Mount Vesuvius in Campania began to flame, and at Rome there was a fire for three days and three nights without an evening's respite. 13. Pestilence, too, there was, as much as scarcely ever before. 14. These evils, nevertheless, he relieved with no one being burdened, by means of all sorts of remedies, now renewing the sick through his very own person, now consoling the afflicted with the deaths of his own family members. 15. He lived forty-one years and died among the Sabines, on the same estate as his father. 16. His death was scarcely able to be believed, so much lamentation excited the city and provinces that, calling him a "Public Treasure," as we have said, they mourned the orb of the earth as if it had been deprived of a perpetual guardian.
11
Domitian, son of Vespasian and Domitilla, the freedwoman, brother of Titus, ruled fifteen years. 2. At first, he feigned clemency nor did he seem at this point too inactive at home or in war; on which account he conquered the Chatti and Germans. 3. Law he pronounced most equitably. At Rome he constructed many buildings, whether already begun or from the foundations. 4. With exemplars sought from everywhere, especially Alexandria, he restored libraries consumed by fire. 5. He was so skilled at archery that his arrows flew between the spread fingers of the extended hand of a man positioned far away. 6. Then, cruel as a result of killings, he began to conduct executions of good men and, in the fashion of C. Caligula, forced himself to be called dominus and deus; and slothful, he, with everything laughingly set aside, used to pursue swarms of flies. 7. He was mad with lust, the foul exercise of which, in the language of the Greeks, he used to call ["bed-wrestling"]. 8. Hence, to someone inquiring [146] if anyone was in the palace, the response: "Not even a fly. " 9. Inflamed by these depravities of his and most of all by an injury of words, as a result of which he used to suffer to be called a male prostitute, Antonius, supervisor of Germania Superior, seized imperium. 10. With him brought low in battle through Norbanus Lappius, Domitian, more abominable by far toward the entire family of mankind, even toward his own family members, began raging in the fashion of wild animals. 11. Therefore, in fear of his cruelty and of their own conscience, many formed a plot, with the head chamberlain Parthenius and Stephanus the instigators, and then Clodianus, who expected punishment on account of fraud involving intercepted funds, with Domitia, the tyrant's wife, who dreaded torture by the princeps on account of her love of the actor Paris, also were received into the plot. 12. They pierced Domitian with many wounds after the forty-fifth year of his life. 13. And the senate decreed that his funeral be carried out in the fashion of a gladiator and that his name must be obliterated. 14. In his time, the Secular Games were celebrated.
15. Until this time, men born in Rome or through Italy controlled imperium; henceforth foreigners. For this reason, it is ascertainable that the city Rome has been increased by the virtue of outsiders.
For what was the quite wise and moderate Nerva? What the quite divine Trajan? What the quite eminent Hadrian?
12
Cocceius Nerva, born at the town Narnia, ruled sixteen months, ten days. 2. When he had accepted imperium and a rumor quickly arose that Domitian lived and would soon be at hand, he was sufficiently terrified so that, pale and unable to speak, he barely held firm. But, bolstered by assurances received from Parthenius, he was turned to festive blandishments. 3. When he had been joyfully received by the senate in the senate house, , alone from all Arrius Antoninus - a shrewd man and a very close friend of his -, wisely describing the lot of rulers, [147] embraced him and said that he congratulated the senate, people, and provinces, however, in no way Nerva himself, for whom to escape ever-evil principes had been better than, enduring the force of so great a burden, subjections not only to troubles and risks, but also to the assessment of enemies and, equally, of friends, who, since they presume they deserve everything, are bitterer than even enemies themselves, if they do not obtain something. 4. He exempted whatever had previously accrued to the taxes (called the "burdens"); he relieved afflicted cities; girls and boys born to indigent parents he ordered fed at public expense through the towns of Italy. 5. Lest he be alarmed by the approach of the malevolent, he was admonished in the following fashion in a comment of Junius Mauricus, a steadfast man: invited to a social gathering, when he had observed that Veiento, who had, indeed, enjoyed consular honor under Domitian, yet who had persecuted many with secret accusations, was present, when among the conversations mention was made of Catullus, a principle calumniator, and Nerva was saying, "What would he be doing now, if he had survived Domitian? ", Mauricus said, "He would be dining with us. " He was a most learned man and a frequent arbitrator of disputes. 6. Calpurnius Crassus, who was tempting the minds of the troops with grand promises, having been discovered and having confessed, he removed, along with his wife, to Tarentum, while the senate chided his leniency. 7. And when Domitian's murderers were being called to execution, he was so consternated that he was unable to keep from vomiting or from a paroxysm of the bowels, but nevertheless he vehemently objected, saying that it was more fitting to die than to befoul the authority of imperium as a result of the authors of the power that he was to acquire having been betrayed. 8. But the soldiers, with the princeps ignored, slaughtered those they sought, Petronius with a single blow, but Parthenius after his genitals had been torn out and shoved into his mouth †, with Casperius bought off by means of huge payoffs, who, more insolent than the savage crime, compelled Nerva to give thanks among the people to the soldiers, since they had killed the most base and wicked of all [148] mortals. 9. He admitted Trajan to the position of son and to a share of imperium; with him he lived three months. 10. It was he who, with his voice rising in anger as he shouted out very many things against someone by the name Regulus, was seized by a sweat. 11. When it abated, the excessive shivering of his body revealed the beginnings of a fever, nor much later did he end his life in his sixty-third year of age. 12. His body, as formerly that of Augustus, was conveyed with honor by the senate and buried in the tomb of Augustus. On the day on which he died, there was an eclipse of the sun.
13
Ulpius Trajan, from the city Tudertina, called Ulpius from his grandfather, Trajan from Traius, the founder of his paternal line, or named thus from his father Trajan, ruled twenty years. 2. He showed himself to be the sort of man of state that the awestruck abilities of consummate writers have scarcely and with difficulty been able to express. 3. He accepted imperium at Agrippina, the noble colony in Gallia, possessing diligence in military matters, mildness in civil, and largess in supporting citizens. 4. And since there are two things expected of egregious principes -- integrity at home, bravery in arms, and prudence in both -- so great was the quantity of what is best in him that, as if in some due proportion, he seemed to have combined the virtues, except that he was somewhat given to food and drink. 5. He was liberal toward friends and, as much as befit his style of life, thoroughly enjoyed associations. 6. He established baths in honor of Sura, with whose zeal he had secured imperium. 7. With regard to this, he appeared over and above what was necessary to wish to dedicate everything in his name, when it was enough to have said that he improved or repaired. 8. He was certainly tolerant of labor, a devotee of whatever was best and [149] warlike. He highly esteemed very straightforward characters or men most erudite, although he himself was of slight theoretical knowledge and moderately eloquent. 9. But of justice and human and divine law he was as much a deviser of the new as a guardian of the traditional. 10. All of these things were viewed the greater, because, with the Roman state destroyed and prostrated through many and fearsome tyrants, a divinity was thought to have been opportunely bestowed toward the remedy of evils so great to the extent that quite numerous and wondrous things proclaimed his coming. Among these, the main cornice proclaimed in Attic speech from the pediment of the Capitol: ["It will be well"]. 11. The ashes of his cremated body were borne back to Rome and interred in the Forum of Trajan under his column, and an image was placed above it, just as triumphators are accustomed to do, entering the city, with the senate preceding and the army. 12. At that time, more destructively by far than under Nerva, the Tiber flooded with great devastation of close-by buildings; and there occurred a serious earthquake through many provinces and a dreadful plague and famines and fires. 13. To all these things Trajan brought relief through remedies usually excellent, decreeing that the height of houses not exceed sixty feet on account of proneness to collapse and deadly expenses if ever things such as this should come to pass. 14. From this he was deservedly called "Father of his Country. " He lived sixty-four years.
14
Aelius Hadrian, a scion of Itala, born to Aelius Adrianus, a cousin of princeps Trajan, who came from Adria, the town in the Picenum area which also gave the name to the Adriatic Sea, ruled twenty-two years. 2. He was quite considerably learned in literature and was called by many "Greekling. " He devoured the pursuits and customs of the Athenians, having mastered not merely rhetoric, but other disciplines, too, the science of singing, of playing the harp, and of medicine, a musician, geometrician, painter, [150] and a sculptor from bronze or marble who approximated Polycletus and Euphranoras. Indeed, like those things in a way, he, too, was refined, so that human affairs hardly ever seem to have experienced anything finer. 3. With a power of memory beyond that which is believable for anyone, he was able to review by their names places, affairs, troops, and even those absent. 4. He was of immense industry, inasmuch as he made a circuit of all the provinces on foot, outstripping the accompanying retinue, while he revived all towns and increased the orders. 5. For indeed, on the example of the military legions, he had mustered into cohorts workmen, stone-masons, architects, and, of men for the building and beautifying of walls, every sort. 6. He was diverse, manifold, and multiform; as if a born arbiter with respect to vices and virtues, by some artifice he controlled intellectual impulse. He adroitly concealed a mind envious, melancholy, hedonistic, and excessive with respect to his own ostentation; he simulated restraint, affability, clemency, and conversely disguised the ardor for fame with which he burned. 7. With respect to questioning and likewise to answering in earnest, in jest, or in invective, he was very skillful; he returned verse to verse, speech to the speaker, so you might actually believe that he had given advance thought to everything. 8. His wife, Sabina, while she was nearly being incapacitated by servile affronts, was driven to a voluntary death. She used to say openly that, because she had judged his character inhuman, she had taken pains lest, to the bane of the human race, she become pregnant by him. 9. Overcome by a subcutaneous disease which he had long endured placidly, burning and impatient with pain, he destroyed many from the senate. 10. Since peace was procured from many kings by means of tributes, he used to say that he had obtained more by leisure than others had by arms. 11. Certainly he organized the public and palatine offices, though not those of the military, in the [151] form which, with a few things changed by Constantine, persists today. 12. He lived sixty-two years; then he was consumed by a miserable death, weakened by the torment of nearly all his limbs to such a degree that, beseeching his most faithful ministers, he frequently averred that he must be killed and, lest he vent his madness on himself, that a guard of those dearest to him be maintained.
15
The Antonius called Fulvius or Boionius, afterward also given the cognomen Pius, ruled twenty-three years. 2. Adopted as a son by Hadrian, whose son-in-law he had been, he was of such great goodness in the principate that he doubtless lived without a model, although his own age will have compared him to Numa, since by his authority alone, with no war, he ruled the orb of the earth for twenty-three years, with all legions, nations, and peoples together fearing and loving him so much that they regarded him as a parent or patron more than a dominus or imperator, and all, wishing in the fashion of the propitious heavenly ones judgment about controversies among themselves, called upon him. 4. Indeed, even Indians, Bactrians, and Hyrcanians sent legations when the justness of so great an imperator became known, a justness which he adorned with a serious, handsome countenance, long of limb, suitably robust. 5. Before he emerged to be saluted, he partook of a little bread, lest, with his strength consumed as a result of the blood around his heart being cold, he be interrupted and too little meet the needs of the business of state, which he used to pursue with, to outward appearance, the unbelievable diligence of the best paterfamilias. 6. He lacked an appetite for glory and ostentation, and was so mild that he commented to the senate, which was pursuing men who had plotted against him, that men desirous of evil must not be [152] investigated in his actual presence, lest, if many should be discovered, the extent to which he was in odium become apparent. 7. Accordingly, it was at Lorii, his country-estate, twelve thousand paces from the city, that he was consumed by a fever a few days after twenty-three years of imperium. 8. In his honor were decreed temples, priests, and countless other things. 9. Moreover, he was so gentle that when, through suspicion of a shortage of grain, he was being pelted with stones by the Roman commons, after the supply had been exposed to view, he preferred to placate rather than punish the sedition.
16
Marcus Aurelius Antonius ruled eighteen years. 2. He showed himself to be of all virtues and of celestial character, and was thrust before public calamities like a defender. For indeed, if he had not been born to those times, surely, as if with one fall, all of the Roman state would have collapsed. 3. Since there was never rest from arms, and wars were raging through all Oriens, Illyricum, Italy, and Gallia, and there were earthquakes not without the destruction of cities, inundations of rivers, numerous plagues, species of locusts which infested fields, there is almost nothing by which mortals are accustomed to be vexed with the most serious difficulties that is able to be described which did not rage while he was ruling. 4. I believe that it has been bestowed by divine providence that, when the law of the universe or nature produces † or something else unknown to men, they are appeased by the counsels of honest men as by the remedies of medicine. 5. With a new kind of benevolence, he admitted his own kinsmen, Lucius Annius Verus, to a share of imperium. This is the Verus who, while journeying between Altinum and Concordia, died, in the eleventh year of imperium, as a result of a surge of blood, a disorder which the Greeks call [apoplexy]. 6. He was a poet, mostly of tragedies, studious, of a rugged and lascivious character. [153] 7. After his demise, Marcus Antoninus controlled the state alone. From the beginning of his life, he was extremely placid, so much so that from infancy he changed his expression neither from joy nor sorrow. Of philosophy and Greek literature he was a student <most expert>. 8. He allowed more illustrious men and his ministers alike to host banquets in the same splendor as did he himself. 9. When, with the treasury exhausted, he did not have the funds which he applied to the soldiers and did not wish to inflict anything on the provincials or senate, he removed by a confiscation made in the Forum of Trajan material of regal splendor, golden vases, crystalline and murrine goblets, and his own wife's silken and golden apparel, numerous ornaments of gems, and through two continuous months an auction was held and much gold was collected. 10. After a victory, however, he refunded the purchase prices to buyers who wished to return what had been bought. 11. In his time, Cassius, seizing a tyranny, was killed. 12. He himself was consumed by disease at Bendobona in the fifty-ninth year of his life. 13. When the announcement about his death reached Rome, with the city convulsed with public lamentation, the senate gathered in the senate house, wrapped in mourning garb, weeping. 14. And what is scarcely believable about Romulus, all in common consent presumed that Marcus had been received into heaven. In his honor temples, columns, and many other things were decreed.
17
Aurelius Commodus, son of Antoninus, and himself called Antoninus, ruled thirteen years. 2. What he was going to become, in the very beginning, he revealed. For when [154] he was being advised by his father in his will not to allow the barbarians, who were now exhausted, to regain strength, he had responded that, although negotiations could be completed over a period of time by a live man, nothing could to be completed by a dead man. 3. He was quite fierce with sexual desire and greed, with cruelty, faithful to no one, and more savage toward those whom he had exalted with most splendid honors and enormous gifts. 4. So depraved was he that he often battled with gladiatorial weapons in the amphitheater. 5. Nevertheless, Marcia, of freedman stock, prevailed on this man by her beauty and meretricious arts, and, when she had thoroughly gained control of his mind, offered a drink of poison to him when he was emerging from the bath. Finally, his throat crushed by a very strong wrestling instructor who had been let loose on him, he expired in the thirty-second year of his life.
18
Helvius Pertinax ruled eighty-five days. Compelled to imperium, he drew "Resister and Submitter" as a sort of cognomen. 2. Having risen from a humble origin, he advanced to the urban prefecture, was made imperator, and, by the viciousness of Julianus, was cut down with many wounds at the age of sixty-seven. His head was carried about the entire city. 3. By this death, there perished a man who is an example of human vicissitude, who, through all types of labor, reached the heights, to such a degree that he was called the "Pillar of Fortune. " 4. For he was the product of a freedman father among the Ligurians on a humble estate of Lollius Getianus, in whose prefecture it was most happily fated that he become a client, and he became a teacher of the letters which are taught by grammarians. He was more pleasing than beneficial, hence men called him by the Greek name ["Smooth-talk"]. 5. Never was he drawn to vengeance by injuries he had received. He was a lover of simplicity, he presented himself as a common man by means of his speech, his dining, and his demeanor. 6. To him [155]in death was decreed the name "Divine;" for his praise, there was acclaimed with repeated ovations until voices failed: "With Pertinax in control, we lived secure, we feared no one. To a dutiful father! To the father of the senate! To the father of all good men! "
19
Didius Julianus, by birth of Mediolanum, ruled seven months. He was a man of the nobility, very skilled in law, factious, reckless, eager to rule. 2. At this time, near Antioch, Niger Pescennius and, at Sabaria in Pannonia, Septimius Severus were made Augusti. 3. By this Severus, Julianus was led to the secret baths of the palace and, with his neck stretched out in the fashion of the condemned, was decapitated and his head placed on the rostra.
20
Septimius Severus ruled eighteen years. 2. He eliminated Pescennius, a man of utter baseness. Under him Albinus, too, who in Gallia had made himself Caesar, was slain near Lugdunum. 3. Severus left as successors his own sons, Bassianus and Geta. 4. In Britannia he extended a wall over a distance of thirty-two thousand paces, from sea to sea. 5. Of all the men who had lived before him, he was the most warlike. He was relentless in character, persevering to the end toward everything to which he had turned his attention. To whom he was well disposed, he exhibited a goodwill singular and abiding. He was thrifty when it came to his needs, lavish in largess. 6. Toward friends and enemies he was equally passionate, inasmuch as he enriched Lateranus, Cilo, Anullinus, Bassus, and several others -- and with buildings worthy of note, particular examples of which we see which are called the "House of the Parthians" and the "House of Lateranus. " 7. To no one, in his reign, did he permit offices to be sold. 8. He was sufficiently educated in Latin literature, erudite in the Greek language, more at ease with Punic eloquence, [156] inasmuch as he was born near Leptis in the province Africa. 9. When he was unable to endure the pain of all his limbs, especially of his feet, in place of a drug, which was being denied him, he too avidly fell upon a meal large and of very much meat; since he was unable to digest this, he was overcome by the indisposition and breathed his last. 10. He lived sixty-five years.
21
Aurelius Antonius Bassianus Caracalla, Severus' son, was born at Lugdunum and ruled alone six years. 2. He was called by the name Bassianus from his maternal grandfather. But since he had brought very many garments from Gallia and had made ankle-length tunics and forced the urban population to enter dressed in such clothing for the purpose of saluting him, he was from this garment given the cognomen Caracalla. 3. His own brother Geta he destroyed, on account of which he was punished with madness by the railing of the Dirae, who, not without merit, are called Furies. From this madness he later recovered. 4. After he viewed the body of Alexander of Macedon, he ordered himself to be called "the Great" and "Alexander," having been drawn by the intrigues of flatterers to the point that, with fierce expression and neck turned toward his left shoulder (which he had noted in Alexander's face), he reached the point of conviction and persuaded himself that he was of very similar countenance.
3
Caligula ruled four years. 2. He was the son of Germanicus, and, since he had been born in the camp, was given a cognomen of a military footwear (that is, caligula). 3. Before his principate he was accepted by and dear to all, but in his principate he was such that it was commonly said with justification that there had never been a dominus more terrible than he. 4. In fact, he stained his own three sisters with defilement. 5. He went about in the dress of his personal gods; he used to claim that he was Jove on account of his incest, and Liber, moreover, from his bacchanalian chorus. 6. I am uncertain whether it will have been proper to write about this for posterity, except perhaps since it helps to know everything about the principes, so that the unfit at least may shun such enormities through fear of their reputation. 7. In his palace, he subjected noble matrons to public wantonness. 8. He first, crowned with a diadem, ordered himself to be called dominus. 9. In the space of the three miles which lies between the moles in the Puteolan Gulf, he arranged ships in a double line and in a two-horse chariot drove down a roadway firmed up by an accumulation of sand to approximate earth [138] as if celebrating a triumph, dressed in a golden military cloak, with a horse ornamented in trappings of office and a bronze crown. 10. He perished afterward, struck down by the soldiers.
4
Claudius Titus, son of Tiberius' brother Drusus, paternal uncle of Caligula, ruled fourteen years. 2. When the senate had thought that the family of the Caesars had been exterminated, he was discovered by the soldiers in a hiding place that ill became him, and, since he was simpleminded, he seemed quite harmless to those ignorant men and was made imperator. 3. He was obedient to his stomach, wine, vile lust; simpleminded and almost doltish; lazy and tremulous; subject to the dictates of his freedmen and wife. 4. In his time, Scribonius Camillus was created imperator in Dalmatia and killed forthwith. The Mauri set the provinces ablaze; a force of Musulamii was cut to pieces. The Claudian Aqueduct was opened at Rome. 5. Messalina, his wife, was from the first indulging indiscriminately in extramarital affairs as if it were her legal prerogative: as a result of what she did, many men who abstained through fear were killed. Then, more violently aroused, she had certain of the more noble wives and maidens put up for sale with herself in the fashion of prostitutes, and males were compelled to attend. But if someone ever bristled at such enormities, he was savaged by means of a contrived charge against himself and his entire family, so that he seemed to be more in the power of the ruling man rather than the ruling wife. 6. In the same way, his freedmen, having attained the highest power, were defiling everything with debaucheries, exile, murder, and proscriptions. 7. From among these men, he made Felix prefect of the legions in Judaea. After the Britannic triumph, to Posidonius the eunuch, [139] along with the bravest of the soldiers, he gave arms and medals for a gift, as if to one who had taken part in the victory. He allowed Polybius to walk between the consuls. Narcissus, the secretary, used to surpass them all, deporting himself as dominus of the Dominus himself; and Pallas was exalted by the praetorian insignia. They were so rich that, with him debating about the bankruptcy of the fisc, it was most humorously noised about in a famous elegy that there would be wealth in great profusion for him, if, by the two freedmen, he were admitted into a partnership. 9. In his times, the Phoenix was seen in Egypt, a bird which they say flies every five hundred years from Arabia to remembered locations; and in the Aegean Sea an island suddenly sank. 10. He married Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus, his own brother, who, procuring the empire for her own son, first killed her stepchildren in multiform intrigues, then, by poison, her husband himself. 11. He lived sixty-four years; his death was kept secret a long while, as once before in the case of Tarquinius Priscus. 12. While his attendants simulated grief, Nero, his stepson, obtained the rights of imperium.
5
Domitius Nero, scion of Domitius Ahenobarbus, his father, and Agrippina, his mother, ruled thirteen years. 2. For five years he seemed bearable, whence some have reported that Trajan was accustomed to say that the principes as a group were far different than Nero -- for a five-year period. 3. In the city, he constructed an amphitheater and baths. 4. Pontus he reduced to the status of a province with the permission of King Polemo, from whom Pontus Polemoniacus is named, as likewise the Cottian Alps from the dead King Cottius. 5. For indeed he passed the remainder of his life shamelessly, so that it is embarrassing to commemorate any of this. He went so far that, sparing neither his own decency nor that of others, at last, veiled in the manner of a bride-to-be, [140] with dowry paid, with everyone crowding together in festive fashion, he was married in the presence of the senate. Covered with the skin of a wild animal, he used to forage the sexual organs of either sex with his face. He even contaminated with defilement his own mother, whom he afterward killed. After their husbands were slain, he married Octavia and the Sabina with the cognomen Poppaea. 6. Then Galba, proconsul of Hispania, and Gaius Julius usurped imperium. 7. When Nero learned that Galba approached and that the senate had resolved that, according to ancestral custom, when his neck had been thrust into a yoke, he was to be beaten to death with rods, he, completely deserted, left the city in the middle of the night with Phaon, Epaphroditus and Neophytus, and the eunuch Sporus, whom once, after he had been castrated, he had tried to transform into a woman; and he pierced himself with a blow of his sword, with the impure eunuch about whom we spoke aiding his trembling hand while, since no one had been found earlier by whom he might be struck, he soberly exclaimed: "So, do I have neither friend nor foe? I lived shamelessly, let me die shamefully. " 8. He perished in the thirty-second year of his life. The Persians had been so delighted with him that they sent legations furnishing materials for constructing a monument. 9. Otherwise the provinces as a whole and all Rome exulted in his death to such a degree that the urban masses donned the caps of freedmen and celebrated manumission, as if they had been delivered from a savage dominus.
6
Galba, scion of the noble clan of the Sulpicii, ruled seven months and an equal number of days. 2. He was disreputable toward young men, intemperate with regard to eating, and arranged everything in a council of his three friends, that is, Vinius, Cornelius, and Icelius, to such a degree that they were just as much residents of the Palatine mansion and used to be referred to commonly as "the tutors. " 3. Before dominatio was assumed, he administered many provinces with distinction, treating the soldiers most severely, so that, when he entered [141] the camps, the saying was quickly spread: "Learn to soldier, soldier; this is Galba, not Gaetilicus. " 4. When he was in the seventy-third year of his life, while he advanced in his armor to calm legions inflamed by the faction of Otho, he was killed near the Lake of Curtius.
7
Salvius Otho, sprung from distinguished ancestors from the town Ferentanum, ruled three months -- shameless in his entire life, in his youth most of all. 2. Defeated by Vitellius first at Placentium, then at Betriacum, he transfixed himself with a sword in the thirty-seventh year of his life -- so beloved to his own troops that, when his body was seen, a great many died by their own hands.
8
Vitellius, sprung from noble stock (his father, Lucius Vitellius, a consul) ruled eight months. 2. He was violent, cruel, and avaricious with profusion. 3. In his time, Vespasian seized the principate in Oriens; conquered by his soldiers in a battle held under the walls of the city, Vitellius, with his hands bound behind him, was led from the palace to which he had removed himself and was paraded as a show before the mob. 4. And lest this man, at all events shameless to the last of the evils which he had done, lower a blushing face, with a sword placed under his chin, half-nude, while many assaulted his face with filth and excrement and, in speech, with other dirt more shameful, he was dragged down the Gemonian Steps where he had ordered Sabinius, Vespasian's brother, to be killed. 5. Transfixed by many blows, he perished. He lived fifty-seven years. 6. All these men whom I have briefly touched upon, especially the family of the Caesars, possessed learning, culture, and eloquence to such a degree that surely they would have covered their modest indiscretions, if they were not -- apart from Augustus -- excessive in all vices together.
9
Vespasian ruled ten years. 2. Among his good deeds, his disregard of animosities was singular [142] to the degree that he wed the daughter of his enemy Vitellius, who had been given a most lavish dowry, to a very eminent man. 3. He used to bear patiently the agitation of his friends, as he was very witty, responding to their jibes with jests. For he wittily softened Licinius Mucianus, with whom as an aide he had reached imperium, insolent by reason of his merits, saying, when another man, a common acquaintance, had been summoned, this alone: "I know that I am a man. " 4. But why is this a surprise with respect to his friends, since he even made light of the oblique pronouncements of advocates and the contumacy of philosophers? 5. Briefly put, he restored the orb of the earth, long faint and feeble. For, first of all, unless they had conducted themselves far too violently, he preferred to mollify followers of the tyrant rather than to destroy them after they had been tortured, having reckoned most prudently that nefarious works are carried out by the majority of the men through fear. 6. Moreover, by laws most equitable and by instruction, and what is stronger, by the example of his own life, he had abolished the majority of vices. 7. He was, nevertheless, weak, as some people wrongly think, with regard to money, since it is sufficiently agreed that through a shortage in the treasury and through the ruin of the cities he had sought new (nor afterward continued) payments of taxes. 8. If owners were lacking, he repaired, by means of resources granted to those willing, a Rome disfigured by fires and by aged ruins, the Capitol, the Temple of Peace, the monuments of the Claudii, and erected many new structures. 9. Through all lands, as is Roman custom, cities were renovated with surprising care; roads were fortified with the greatest labors. 10. Then the hills along the Flaminian Way were cut through for easy passage -- what is commonly called the "Punctured Peak. " 11. A thousand clans were composed, since he had with great difficulty found two hundred, the majority having been exterminated by the savageness of the tyrants. 12. By fear alone, Volgeses, King of Parthia, was compelled to peace. 13. The Syria for which Palestina is the name, [143] and Cilicia, and Trachia and Commagene, which today we call Augustophratensis, were added to the provinces. Judaea, too, was added. 14. When friends warned him to beware of Mettius Pomposianus, about whom a rumor had been spread that he would rule, he made him a consul, joking in the following cavil: "When will there ever be a memory of a gift so great? " 15. Indeed, he maintained a uniform mode of life during his whole reign. He stayed awake at night and, when public affairs were finished, he admitted his intimates, putting on his shoes and royal vesture while being saluted. Then, after whatever business that had come up was heard, he exercised with a ride, then rested; finally, when he had washed, he, in a quite convivial frame of mind, used to attend dinner. 16. Affection compels one to say more about a good imperator, whom, after fifty-six years from Augustus' death, the Roman state, bled by the savageness of the tyrants, chanced upon, as if by some divine destiny, lest it go completely to ruin. 17. And so, passing the sixty-ninth year of his life, he died, mingling with serious matters the jests in which he always took pleasure. 18. Indeed, first, when a comet had appeared, he said, "That concerns the King of Persia" (whose hair is rather long). Then, exhausted by an exudation of the bowels, he rose up and said, "It becomes an imperator to depart the earth standing. "
10
Titus, called also by his father's name Vespasian, the offspring of a freedwoman mother named Domitilla, ruled two years, two months, and twenty days. 2. Most earnestly devoted from boyhood to the admirable pursuits of probity, soldiery, and letters, he displayed gifts of mind and body in whatever he attempted. 3. When he accepted the care of the fatherland, it is incredible how much he surpassed the man whom he was replacing, especially in clemency, liberality, honor, and contempt of wealth, things which were quite dear to him because, as a result of some things done while he was yet a private citizen, he was believed to have been a particularly passionate lover of luxury [144] and of vice. 4. For, during his father's rule, he obtained the praetorian prefecture and, by means of agents who, spreading insidious things through the theaters and camps, demanded punishment, he oppressed as if convicted of a crime whoever was suspect or opposed to him. Among them, he ordered Caecena, a consular, who had been summoned to dinner and who had scarcely yet left his place at the table, to be slaughtered on account of suspicion of the debauched Bernice, his own wife. 5. Moreover, under his father, verdicts in legal disputes were put up for sale * him desirous of plunder, from which all in general, envisioning and invoking Nero, gravely accepted that he had reached the height of affairs. 6. But these things, having been turned to the better, brought him immortal glory to such a degree that he was called "Treasure" and "Lover of the Human Race. " 7. Then, as he submitted to regal constancy, he ordered Bernice, spurning her marriage with him, to return home, and the flocks of the effeminate to depart -- an act by which he offered, as it were, a sign of intemperance altered. Henceforth, while successors were accustomed to confirm awards and concessions from earlier principes, once he took control by means of an edict he spontaneously decreed such things for those who possessed them. 9. Also, on a certain day, recollecting in the evening that he had not awarded anything to anyone, he said in a laudable and lofty remark, "Friends, we have wasted a day" (because he was of great liberality). 10. Indeed, he carried clemency to the point that he first admonished two men of most distinguished rank because they had conspired against him and were unable to deny that a crime had been contemplated, and afterward he ordered the men, who had been led to the arena, to sit on either side of him, and, when a sword of the mirmillons whose combats were being viewed was intentionally requested, as if for the purpose of examining its edge, he gave it to one and then to the other; to those men, shocked and awed at his courage, he said, "Do you not see that powers are bestowed by Fate, [145] and that action prompted by the hope of gaining or fear of losing them is expended in vain? " 11. In tears he often supplicated his brother Domitian, too, who was hatching plots and agitating friends among the soldiers, not to desire to attain by parricide what by his own volition was going to fall to him and what, since he was a co-holder of potestas, he now possessed. 12. In his time, Mount Vesuvius in Campania began to flame, and at Rome there was a fire for three days and three nights without an evening's respite. 13. Pestilence, too, there was, as much as scarcely ever before. 14. These evils, nevertheless, he relieved with no one being burdened, by means of all sorts of remedies, now renewing the sick through his very own person, now consoling the afflicted with the deaths of his own family members. 15. He lived forty-one years and died among the Sabines, on the same estate as his father. 16. His death was scarcely able to be believed, so much lamentation excited the city and provinces that, calling him a "Public Treasure," as we have said, they mourned the orb of the earth as if it had been deprived of a perpetual guardian.
11
Domitian, son of Vespasian and Domitilla, the freedwoman, brother of Titus, ruled fifteen years. 2. At first, he feigned clemency nor did he seem at this point too inactive at home or in war; on which account he conquered the Chatti and Germans. 3. Law he pronounced most equitably. At Rome he constructed many buildings, whether already begun or from the foundations. 4. With exemplars sought from everywhere, especially Alexandria, he restored libraries consumed by fire. 5. He was so skilled at archery that his arrows flew between the spread fingers of the extended hand of a man positioned far away. 6. Then, cruel as a result of killings, he began to conduct executions of good men and, in the fashion of C. Caligula, forced himself to be called dominus and deus; and slothful, he, with everything laughingly set aside, used to pursue swarms of flies. 7. He was mad with lust, the foul exercise of which, in the language of the Greeks, he used to call ["bed-wrestling"]. 8. Hence, to someone inquiring [146] if anyone was in the palace, the response: "Not even a fly. " 9. Inflamed by these depravities of his and most of all by an injury of words, as a result of which he used to suffer to be called a male prostitute, Antonius, supervisor of Germania Superior, seized imperium. 10. With him brought low in battle through Norbanus Lappius, Domitian, more abominable by far toward the entire family of mankind, even toward his own family members, began raging in the fashion of wild animals. 11. Therefore, in fear of his cruelty and of their own conscience, many formed a plot, with the head chamberlain Parthenius and Stephanus the instigators, and then Clodianus, who expected punishment on account of fraud involving intercepted funds, with Domitia, the tyrant's wife, who dreaded torture by the princeps on account of her love of the actor Paris, also were received into the plot. 12. They pierced Domitian with many wounds after the forty-fifth year of his life. 13. And the senate decreed that his funeral be carried out in the fashion of a gladiator and that his name must be obliterated. 14. In his time, the Secular Games were celebrated.
15. Until this time, men born in Rome or through Italy controlled imperium; henceforth foreigners. For this reason, it is ascertainable that the city Rome has been increased by the virtue of outsiders.
For what was the quite wise and moderate Nerva? What the quite divine Trajan? What the quite eminent Hadrian?
12
Cocceius Nerva, born at the town Narnia, ruled sixteen months, ten days. 2. When he had accepted imperium and a rumor quickly arose that Domitian lived and would soon be at hand, he was sufficiently terrified so that, pale and unable to speak, he barely held firm. But, bolstered by assurances received from Parthenius, he was turned to festive blandishments. 3. When he had been joyfully received by the senate in the senate house, , alone from all Arrius Antoninus - a shrewd man and a very close friend of his -, wisely describing the lot of rulers, [147] embraced him and said that he congratulated the senate, people, and provinces, however, in no way Nerva himself, for whom to escape ever-evil principes had been better than, enduring the force of so great a burden, subjections not only to troubles and risks, but also to the assessment of enemies and, equally, of friends, who, since they presume they deserve everything, are bitterer than even enemies themselves, if they do not obtain something. 4. He exempted whatever had previously accrued to the taxes (called the "burdens"); he relieved afflicted cities; girls and boys born to indigent parents he ordered fed at public expense through the towns of Italy. 5. Lest he be alarmed by the approach of the malevolent, he was admonished in the following fashion in a comment of Junius Mauricus, a steadfast man: invited to a social gathering, when he had observed that Veiento, who had, indeed, enjoyed consular honor under Domitian, yet who had persecuted many with secret accusations, was present, when among the conversations mention was made of Catullus, a principle calumniator, and Nerva was saying, "What would he be doing now, if he had survived Domitian? ", Mauricus said, "He would be dining with us. " He was a most learned man and a frequent arbitrator of disputes. 6. Calpurnius Crassus, who was tempting the minds of the troops with grand promises, having been discovered and having confessed, he removed, along with his wife, to Tarentum, while the senate chided his leniency. 7. And when Domitian's murderers were being called to execution, he was so consternated that he was unable to keep from vomiting or from a paroxysm of the bowels, but nevertheless he vehemently objected, saying that it was more fitting to die than to befoul the authority of imperium as a result of the authors of the power that he was to acquire having been betrayed. 8. But the soldiers, with the princeps ignored, slaughtered those they sought, Petronius with a single blow, but Parthenius after his genitals had been torn out and shoved into his mouth †, with Casperius bought off by means of huge payoffs, who, more insolent than the savage crime, compelled Nerva to give thanks among the people to the soldiers, since they had killed the most base and wicked of all [148] mortals. 9. He admitted Trajan to the position of son and to a share of imperium; with him he lived three months. 10. It was he who, with his voice rising in anger as he shouted out very many things against someone by the name Regulus, was seized by a sweat. 11. When it abated, the excessive shivering of his body revealed the beginnings of a fever, nor much later did he end his life in his sixty-third year of age. 12. His body, as formerly that of Augustus, was conveyed with honor by the senate and buried in the tomb of Augustus. On the day on which he died, there was an eclipse of the sun.
13
Ulpius Trajan, from the city Tudertina, called Ulpius from his grandfather, Trajan from Traius, the founder of his paternal line, or named thus from his father Trajan, ruled twenty years. 2. He showed himself to be the sort of man of state that the awestruck abilities of consummate writers have scarcely and with difficulty been able to express. 3. He accepted imperium at Agrippina, the noble colony in Gallia, possessing diligence in military matters, mildness in civil, and largess in supporting citizens. 4. And since there are two things expected of egregious principes -- integrity at home, bravery in arms, and prudence in both -- so great was the quantity of what is best in him that, as if in some due proportion, he seemed to have combined the virtues, except that he was somewhat given to food and drink. 5. He was liberal toward friends and, as much as befit his style of life, thoroughly enjoyed associations. 6. He established baths in honor of Sura, with whose zeal he had secured imperium. 7. With regard to this, he appeared over and above what was necessary to wish to dedicate everything in his name, when it was enough to have said that he improved or repaired. 8. He was certainly tolerant of labor, a devotee of whatever was best and [149] warlike. He highly esteemed very straightforward characters or men most erudite, although he himself was of slight theoretical knowledge and moderately eloquent. 9. But of justice and human and divine law he was as much a deviser of the new as a guardian of the traditional. 10. All of these things were viewed the greater, because, with the Roman state destroyed and prostrated through many and fearsome tyrants, a divinity was thought to have been opportunely bestowed toward the remedy of evils so great to the extent that quite numerous and wondrous things proclaimed his coming. Among these, the main cornice proclaimed in Attic speech from the pediment of the Capitol: ["It will be well"]. 11. The ashes of his cremated body were borne back to Rome and interred in the Forum of Trajan under his column, and an image was placed above it, just as triumphators are accustomed to do, entering the city, with the senate preceding and the army. 12. At that time, more destructively by far than under Nerva, the Tiber flooded with great devastation of close-by buildings; and there occurred a serious earthquake through many provinces and a dreadful plague and famines and fires. 13. To all these things Trajan brought relief through remedies usually excellent, decreeing that the height of houses not exceed sixty feet on account of proneness to collapse and deadly expenses if ever things such as this should come to pass. 14. From this he was deservedly called "Father of his Country. " He lived sixty-four years.
14
Aelius Hadrian, a scion of Itala, born to Aelius Adrianus, a cousin of princeps Trajan, who came from Adria, the town in the Picenum area which also gave the name to the Adriatic Sea, ruled twenty-two years. 2. He was quite considerably learned in literature and was called by many "Greekling. " He devoured the pursuits and customs of the Athenians, having mastered not merely rhetoric, but other disciplines, too, the science of singing, of playing the harp, and of medicine, a musician, geometrician, painter, [150] and a sculptor from bronze or marble who approximated Polycletus and Euphranoras. Indeed, like those things in a way, he, too, was refined, so that human affairs hardly ever seem to have experienced anything finer. 3. With a power of memory beyond that which is believable for anyone, he was able to review by their names places, affairs, troops, and even those absent. 4. He was of immense industry, inasmuch as he made a circuit of all the provinces on foot, outstripping the accompanying retinue, while he revived all towns and increased the orders. 5. For indeed, on the example of the military legions, he had mustered into cohorts workmen, stone-masons, architects, and, of men for the building and beautifying of walls, every sort. 6. He was diverse, manifold, and multiform; as if a born arbiter with respect to vices and virtues, by some artifice he controlled intellectual impulse. He adroitly concealed a mind envious, melancholy, hedonistic, and excessive with respect to his own ostentation; he simulated restraint, affability, clemency, and conversely disguised the ardor for fame with which he burned. 7. With respect to questioning and likewise to answering in earnest, in jest, or in invective, he was very skillful; he returned verse to verse, speech to the speaker, so you might actually believe that he had given advance thought to everything. 8. His wife, Sabina, while she was nearly being incapacitated by servile affronts, was driven to a voluntary death. She used to say openly that, because she had judged his character inhuman, she had taken pains lest, to the bane of the human race, she become pregnant by him. 9. Overcome by a subcutaneous disease which he had long endured placidly, burning and impatient with pain, he destroyed many from the senate. 10. Since peace was procured from many kings by means of tributes, he used to say that he had obtained more by leisure than others had by arms. 11. Certainly he organized the public and palatine offices, though not those of the military, in the [151] form which, with a few things changed by Constantine, persists today. 12. He lived sixty-two years; then he was consumed by a miserable death, weakened by the torment of nearly all his limbs to such a degree that, beseeching his most faithful ministers, he frequently averred that he must be killed and, lest he vent his madness on himself, that a guard of those dearest to him be maintained.
15
The Antonius called Fulvius or Boionius, afterward also given the cognomen Pius, ruled twenty-three years. 2. Adopted as a son by Hadrian, whose son-in-law he had been, he was of such great goodness in the principate that he doubtless lived without a model, although his own age will have compared him to Numa, since by his authority alone, with no war, he ruled the orb of the earth for twenty-three years, with all legions, nations, and peoples together fearing and loving him so much that they regarded him as a parent or patron more than a dominus or imperator, and all, wishing in the fashion of the propitious heavenly ones judgment about controversies among themselves, called upon him. 4. Indeed, even Indians, Bactrians, and Hyrcanians sent legations when the justness of so great an imperator became known, a justness which he adorned with a serious, handsome countenance, long of limb, suitably robust. 5. Before he emerged to be saluted, he partook of a little bread, lest, with his strength consumed as a result of the blood around his heart being cold, he be interrupted and too little meet the needs of the business of state, which he used to pursue with, to outward appearance, the unbelievable diligence of the best paterfamilias. 6. He lacked an appetite for glory and ostentation, and was so mild that he commented to the senate, which was pursuing men who had plotted against him, that men desirous of evil must not be [152] investigated in his actual presence, lest, if many should be discovered, the extent to which he was in odium become apparent. 7. Accordingly, it was at Lorii, his country-estate, twelve thousand paces from the city, that he was consumed by a fever a few days after twenty-three years of imperium. 8. In his honor were decreed temples, priests, and countless other things. 9. Moreover, he was so gentle that when, through suspicion of a shortage of grain, he was being pelted with stones by the Roman commons, after the supply had been exposed to view, he preferred to placate rather than punish the sedition.
16
Marcus Aurelius Antonius ruled eighteen years. 2. He showed himself to be of all virtues and of celestial character, and was thrust before public calamities like a defender. For indeed, if he had not been born to those times, surely, as if with one fall, all of the Roman state would have collapsed. 3. Since there was never rest from arms, and wars were raging through all Oriens, Illyricum, Italy, and Gallia, and there were earthquakes not without the destruction of cities, inundations of rivers, numerous plagues, species of locusts which infested fields, there is almost nothing by which mortals are accustomed to be vexed with the most serious difficulties that is able to be described which did not rage while he was ruling. 4. I believe that it has been bestowed by divine providence that, when the law of the universe or nature produces † or something else unknown to men, they are appeased by the counsels of honest men as by the remedies of medicine. 5. With a new kind of benevolence, he admitted his own kinsmen, Lucius Annius Verus, to a share of imperium. This is the Verus who, while journeying between Altinum and Concordia, died, in the eleventh year of imperium, as a result of a surge of blood, a disorder which the Greeks call [apoplexy]. 6. He was a poet, mostly of tragedies, studious, of a rugged and lascivious character. [153] 7. After his demise, Marcus Antoninus controlled the state alone. From the beginning of his life, he was extremely placid, so much so that from infancy he changed his expression neither from joy nor sorrow. Of philosophy and Greek literature he was a student <most expert>. 8. He allowed more illustrious men and his ministers alike to host banquets in the same splendor as did he himself. 9. When, with the treasury exhausted, he did not have the funds which he applied to the soldiers and did not wish to inflict anything on the provincials or senate, he removed by a confiscation made in the Forum of Trajan material of regal splendor, golden vases, crystalline and murrine goblets, and his own wife's silken and golden apparel, numerous ornaments of gems, and through two continuous months an auction was held and much gold was collected. 10. After a victory, however, he refunded the purchase prices to buyers who wished to return what had been bought. 11. In his time, Cassius, seizing a tyranny, was killed. 12. He himself was consumed by disease at Bendobona in the fifty-ninth year of his life. 13. When the announcement about his death reached Rome, with the city convulsed with public lamentation, the senate gathered in the senate house, wrapped in mourning garb, weeping. 14. And what is scarcely believable about Romulus, all in common consent presumed that Marcus had been received into heaven. In his honor temples, columns, and many other things were decreed.
17
Aurelius Commodus, son of Antoninus, and himself called Antoninus, ruled thirteen years. 2. What he was going to become, in the very beginning, he revealed. For when [154] he was being advised by his father in his will not to allow the barbarians, who were now exhausted, to regain strength, he had responded that, although negotiations could be completed over a period of time by a live man, nothing could to be completed by a dead man. 3. He was quite fierce with sexual desire and greed, with cruelty, faithful to no one, and more savage toward those whom he had exalted with most splendid honors and enormous gifts. 4. So depraved was he that he often battled with gladiatorial weapons in the amphitheater. 5. Nevertheless, Marcia, of freedman stock, prevailed on this man by her beauty and meretricious arts, and, when she had thoroughly gained control of his mind, offered a drink of poison to him when he was emerging from the bath. Finally, his throat crushed by a very strong wrestling instructor who had been let loose on him, he expired in the thirty-second year of his life.
18
Helvius Pertinax ruled eighty-five days. Compelled to imperium, he drew "Resister and Submitter" as a sort of cognomen. 2. Having risen from a humble origin, he advanced to the urban prefecture, was made imperator, and, by the viciousness of Julianus, was cut down with many wounds at the age of sixty-seven. His head was carried about the entire city. 3. By this death, there perished a man who is an example of human vicissitude, who, through all types of labor, reached the heights, to such a degree that he was called the "Pillar of Fortune. " 4. For he was the product of a freedman father among the Ligurians on a humble estate of Lollius Getianus, in whose prefecture it was most happily fated that he become a client, and he became a teacher of the letters which are taught by grammarians. He was more pleasing than beneficial, hence men called him by the Greek name ["Smooth-talk"]. 5. Never was he drawn to vengeance by injuries he had received. He was a lover of simplicity, he presented himself as a common man by means of his speech, his dining, and his demeanor. 6. To him [155]in death was decreed the name "Divine;" for his praise, there was acclaimed with repeated ovations until voices failed: "With Pertinax in control, we lived secure, we feared no one. To a dutiful father! To the father of the senate! To the father of all good men! "
19
Didius Julianus, by birth of Mediolanum, ruled seven months. He was a man of the nobility, very skilled in law, factious, reckless, eager to rule. 2. At this time, near Antioch, Niger Pescennius and, at Sabaria in Pannonia, Septimius Severus were made Augusti. 3. By this Severus, Julianus was led to the secret baths of the palace and, with his neck stretched out in the fashion of the condemned, was decapitated and his head placed on the rostra.
20
Septimius Severus ruled eighteen years. 2. He eliminated Pescennius, a man of utter baseness. Under him Albinus, too, who in Gallia had made himself Caesar, was slain near Lugdunum. 3. Severus left as successors his own sons, Bassianus and Geta. 4. In Britannia he extended a wall over a distance of thirty-two thousand paces, from sea to sea. 5. Of all the men who had lived before him, he was the most warlike. He was relentless in character, persevering to the end toward everything to which he had turned his attention. To whom he was well disposed, he exhibited a goodwill singular and abiding. He was thrifty when it came to his needs, lavish in largess. 6. Toward friends and enemies he was equally passionate, inasmuch as he enriched Lateranus, Cilo, Anullinus, Bassus, and several others -- and with buildings worthy of note, particular examples of which we see which are called the "House of the Parthians" and the "House of Lateranus. " 7. To no one, in his reign, did he permit offices to be sold. 8. He was sufficiently educated in Latin literature, erudite in the Greek language, more at ease with Punic eloquence, [156] inasmuch as he was born near Leptis in the province Africa. 9. When he was unable to endure the pain of all his limbs, especially of his feet, in place of a drug, which was being denied him, he too avidly fell upon a meal large and of very much meat; since he was unable to digest this, he was overcome by the indisposition and breathed his last. 10. He lived sixty-five years.
21
Aurelius Antonius Bassianus Caracalla, Severus' son, was born at Lugdunum and ruled alone six years. 2. He was called by the name Bassianus from his maternal grandfather. But since he had brought very many garments from Gallia and had made ankle-length tunics and forced the urban population to enter dressed in such clothing for the purpose of saluting him, he was from this garment given the cognomen Caracalla. 3. His own brother Geta he destroyed, on account of which he was punished with madness by the railing of the Dirae, who, not without merit, are called Furies. From this madness he later recovered. 4. After he viewed the body of Alexander of Macedon, he ordered himself to be called "the Great" and "Alexander," having been drawn by the intrigues of flatterers to the point that, with fierce expression and neck turned toward his left shoulder (which he had noted in Alexander's face), he reached the point of conviction and persuaded himself that he was of very similar countenance.
