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? ovid and his influence
2. Ovid in the Renaissance
The Renaissance was another aetas Ovidi-
ana. At what time Ovid "returned" it were
hard to say, for he had never departed. But an-
tiquity as a whole was more zealously sought
and found in this tremendous period than in
the centuries preceding -- the term "Renais-
sance" is no misnomer. Ovid's popularity, as
attested by translations, allusions and imita-
tions in the literature of all the European
countries, was securely established and ever
enlarged its bounds. The thirst for ancient life
and thought found satisfaction in his pages.
Painters and sculptors no less than poets,
turned to the Metamorphoses for stories and
themes, and for pictures that needed only the
transferring to canvas or to stone. His work be-
came an authoritative Bible of Art.
i. PETRARCH AND BOCCACCIO
Petrarch reckoned Ovid among his favorites.
With a hint from the Amores, he hit on an in-
vention in his Trionfo d'Amore that enjoyed a
wide vogue in contemporary and subsequent
poetry. But no censor morum could be more
savage than Petrarch in berating the indecency
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? THROUGH THE CENTURIES
! of that " insane work," the Art of Love, worthy
cause of the poet's exile, and typical product
of a mind " lascivious, lecherous, and altogether
mUlierous. " In general, Petrarch is too serious
and self-centred to- make Ovid his friend for
-life.
Boccaccio started with an intensely intimate
friendship with Ovid. His early works, both
Latin and Italian, are saturated with the amor-
'osities of Ovid's early poetry and with the gay
fancy of the Metamorphoses. In Fiametta, he
has constructed an elaborate tissue from the
Heroides and added his darling to their num-
ber. Ovid, praised by name, has furnished
many of the "ensamples olde" for the Am-
oroso. Visione, but here the spirit of Corinna
is. caught up into that of Beatrice and of Laura.
The pastoral fairy-land of Ameto takes much
of its scenery from the Metamorphoses. We
cannot deny that Boccaccio, or Sannazaro after
him, may have known something of the Greek
romance, but for the essence of the Ameto or
the Arcadia, we need look no further than Ovid,
Virgil, a few other Romans, and the genius of
the two authors. In the Decamerone, Boccaccio,
like Chaucer, essays a larger contest with Ovid.
If with Dryden, we allow Chaucer a special
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
prize as master of drama, the three contest-
ants all come off with flying colors, -- Arcades
omnes.
In the latter half of his bisected life, spent
soberly under the spell of the worshipped
Petrarch, Boccaccio turned to Ovid chiefly for
material for his scholarly work De Genealogia
Deoriem; Virgil is his principal authority, with
Ovid a close second. Boccaccio is not, like
Chaucer and Jean de Meun, an Ovid perfected
and transcended, but an Ovide manque. In his
youth, Ovid somewhat went to his head, and
in his old age was somewhat banished from his
heart.
ii. NEO-LATIN POETRY
As the full flush of the Renaissance comes
on, Latin poetry grows into a new art, beside
which the Latin verse of Dante, and even that
of Petrarch and Boccaccio, seemed to critics
of the day primitive and crude. In the work of
its best representatives, such as Pontano and
Sannazaro, this poetry is no mere learned ex-
ercise, but an expression of the writer's tem-
perament no less genuine than his writings in
his mother-tongue. To know fully the mind of
any poet of the age -- and the age includes
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? THROUGH THE CENTURIES
John Milton -- we must not relegate his Latin
poems to an appendix, but read them in order
with his other works.
Ovid's influence appears chiefly in the elegies
of the period; it notably affected their form.
The idea of love, as we have seen, that Ovid
sets forth in his early poems, was refined and
etherealized as it passed into the Mediaeval
Knightly Code and the poetry of the Trouba-
dors, whence it was exalted to heights yet more
sublime by Dante and, following in his wake,
by Petrarch and Boccaccio; Boccaccio's Am-
oroso Visione presents these three stages in
turn. Later in the Renaissance, the spirit of
Ovid reasserts itself. But Plato, too, was a
sovereign influence from the days of the Flor-
entine Academy, and these two battle hard for
the soul of every poet of the coming centuries
who sang of love. The "Platonism " of Spenser
and the "metaphysical" school in English
poetry is strongly seasoned with Ovid; at last
his influence quite faded away in the purer
idealism of Wordsworth's ode.
Of the two writers whom I have selected as
representative of the best in Neo-Latin poetry,
Pontano reflects in his verse the gorgeous color-
ings of the bay of Naples, whose islands and
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
peaks and inlets he transformed, with a fresh
sense of myth, into nymphs and deities and
subjects for his poems. Pontano's most original
use of the elegy is in his De Amore Comugali.
Ovid might be mystified at such a title, but
would admire the contents; for this proper poet
has more sensuous charm and passion than any
of the Roman poets of love, with the single
exception of Catullus. The initial poem of the
third book is in homage of Ovid. Pontano
stands raptly gazing on the town of the poet's
birth, and imagines a meeting between Ovid
and Corinna there. A dialogue ensues in which
Ovid in the role of the passionate shepherd is
seriously intense for once.
Sannazaro is a gentler spirit, more celestial
than Pontano; his verse has less color and more
grace. When he imitates Ovid in swearing fidel-
ity to his mistress, his oath is true. When he
takes the lament for Tibullus as a model for
his eulogy of Pontano, he avoids witty incon-
gruities and utters his devotion simply. San-
nazaro no less than his friend has the art of
peopling the hills and streams about Naples
with sprightly personifications. This is the
charm of his famous invention in the pastoral,
his Fisher Eclogues: Virgilian in form, they
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? THROUGH THE CENTURIES
have many a coloring from Ovid. In the Sal-
ices, he tells of the escape of some nymphs
from a troop of villain satyrs and their merci-
ful transformation into willows, which still
shrink from the touch of their pursuers and
lean far out across the stream. Catullus could
not surpass the grace or Ovid the narrative
rapidity of this perfect little poem.
Ovidius Ethicus was not forgotten in the
Renaissance. Commentaries were written as
explicitly moral as those of the twelfth century.
Ovid is also the starting-point for a long line
of "Sacred Fasti," beginning with "good old
Mantuan" in 1513 and continued by French
writers of Latin verse like the Benedictine
Hugo Vaillant (1674). Similarly, the Art of
Love was translated into something supernal.
Petrus Iacobus Martellus in 1698 published at
Bologna his L'Arte d'Amar Dio, and Thomas
Ravasinus at Paris in 1706 two books De Arte
Amandi S. Mariam.
For a typical utterance of what Ovid meant
in the Renaissance, we may consult the edition
by Guido Morillonius in 1516. This scholar
declares:
"When, not many days ago, I would re-
fresh my mind after the meanderings of the
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
dialecticians and seek the holy dwellings of the
Muses, by chance I laid hand on the Heroides
of Ovid. Ye Gods, what manifold learning do
they display, and how they twinkle with
sprightly wit! If Horace gave his vote for one
who could combine the profitable and the pleas-
ant, none, methinks, can excel Ovid in this art.
He has so mingled the serious with honey-sweet
fiction and fiction with the serious, that 'tis
hard telling whether he offers us more pleasure
than profit or more profit than pleasure. "
Such was the agreeable compound discovered
by most readers at that time in the works of
Ovid.
3. Ovid in Modern Poetry
In the wide expanse of modern literature,
it were profitless to enumerate every author
who has in some fashion drawn inspiration
from Ovid's poetry. From the Renaissance to
the Romantic movement at the close of the
eighteenth century, Ovid's works were firmly
fixed in the programme of liberal studies. It
were difficult to mention a writer of eminence
in the literatures of Europe who showed no
acquaintance with Ovid in writing on Ovid's
themes. Modern reincarnations of Ovid occur,
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? THROUGH THE CENTURIES
though none so impressive as Jean de Meun
or Chaucer. There is no greater treat for a
lover of literature than to master an ancient
poet, Homer or Euripides, Virgil or Ovid, and
to read through those moderns who studied
him best.
In Italian literature, for example, we turn to
Ariosto. He is replete with reminiscences of
Ovid, but to recognize these is only the begin-
ning of the reader's interest. We must know
the background of Ariosto, first of all, by fol-
lowing the course of the Mediaeval chivalrous
epic as it is reinterpreted by Pulci and Boiardo,
and by noting the Classical flavors with which
these romances, like those of the Middle Ages,
were spiced. The spirit of Ovid is more obvi-
ous in Pulci and that of Virgil in Boiardo. We
are then ready for the Orlando Furioso, which
will furnish the Ovidian reader unbounded en-
tertainment. The poem is a glorious mixture,
a whirlwind of adventures and magic, flying
dragons, enchanted castles and furious com-
bats. The magic is not that of Ovid, made natu-
ral by the poet's sleight-of-hand, nor that of
Dante, made true by the poet's faith, -- it is a
slap, dash, devil-may-care magic which recks
not of reason or credulity. The work is a ka-
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
leidoscope of all history, all cultures, all beliefs,
with a riot of Ovidian irony and burlesque.
Woe to the critic, if he would avoid the mad-
house, who would plot Ariosto's epic technique!
Not only the hero but the epic is furioso, and
the reader is mad with delight.
In Portuguese literature, we shall find a wide
acquaintance with Ovid exhibited by Camoens
in his famous epic, Lusiadas. Turning to Spain,
? we observe Ovid assisting at the inception of
the modern novel. The Comedia de Calisto y
Melibea, known as the Celestina, written at the
close of the fifteenth century, owes its general
plot to Ovid's amatory poems and to the
Mediaeval Pamphilus. In form, it is a prose
dialogue, which holds in solution both the novel
and the drama. In the drama, we shall find a
thorough student of Ovid in Lope de Vega. In
the work of which he himself was most fond,
the Dorotea, he harks back to Celestina for the
character of the go-between, but besides this,
the piece is crowded with reminiscences of
Ovid. Calderon appreciated the "serious re-
lief" furnished by the story of Cephalus and
Procris in the Art of Love and the Metamor-
phoses, for he made a tragedy of it in his Celos
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? THROUGH THE CENTURIES
aun del Aire Matan. He also saw that it made
good stuff for comedy, and turned it into one,
his C6falo y Procris. These examples will suf-
fice to convince the Ovidian that his poet was
well known to Spanish writers. To meet Ovid's
peer in narrative irony and burlesque, one has
only to turn to Cervantes.
Erasmus gives us the best of Holland, and
the Praise of Folly is Erasmus at his best. The
satire is essentially Horatian, with a bit of -
Lucian thrown in, yet the reader of Ovid will
feel that he is breathing a familiar air. In Ger-
many, we may strike at once for the highest,
for Ovid is one of the Latin poets whom Goethe
greatly relished. As is plain from Dichtung
und Wahrheit, he had read Ovid at an early
age, and later he defended him against Herder's
attacks. There are constant reminiscences of
Ovid in Wilhelm Meister. When Goethe took
his departure from Rome in 1781, his own
distress of mind recalled to him Ovid's farewell
to his city in the Tristia, and prompted the
writing of the Romische Elegien. We should
not expect much of Ovid in Faust,--except
perhaps in the person of Mephistopheles -- and
yet Goethe pays homage to his beloved poet
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
by inserting Philemon and Baucis among the
manifold figures in his great vision of life at
the end of the poem.
Ovid is more at home in France than in Ger-
many. He is a favorite with the authors of the
Pleiade, -- Marot, Baif, DuBellay and Ron-
sard. Montaigne read him at school on the sly.
The satires of Regnier contain many close imi-
tations of Ovid. One of them reproduces the
libertine's confession of Amores, ii. 4; as Re-
gnier is not a libertine but a moralist, his poem
is tinged with virtuous longings and regrets, --
it is a new sort of Ovide moralist. Still, Re-
gnier could imitate in another style. Later in
the seventeenth century, translations of our
poet multiplied; La Fontaine turned the Meta-
morphoses into rondeaux. As praeceptor amoris
Ovid assumed in polite society the authority
that he had once exercised in the Mediaeval
Courts of Love. He furnished many subjects
for drama and opera. Above all, Moliere should
be read from cover to cover by the true
Ovidian, not merely for the abundant imita-
tions, but for the spirit of comedy of which he
and Ovid and the few elect who are chronicled
in Meredith's essay know the inner secrets.
The atmosphere of Carmina Amatoria is con-
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? THROUGH THE CENTURIES
stantly about us in Moliere's plays.
In his
Amphitryon, for instance, he has avoided
Plautus's daring combination of divine bur-
lesque and divine worship; the comedy of the
gods at the beginning of the play is in the
manner not of Plautus but of Ovid.
Ovid, the master of burlesque, was himself
subjected to that irreverence. Following in
the wake of Scarron's new Aeneid, D'Assoucy
turned the myths of the Metamorphoses
into travesty. Ovid would not have been
shocked, though he might wonder at the
necessity of such performances. All in all, the
seventeenth century in French literature is an-
other aetas Ovidiana. In fact, it may well be
that the qualities which impress us today as
distinctively French were at least partly due to
the deliberate study of antique models, first
during the regime of the Pleiade, at the begin-
ning of the sixteenth century, and again, with
special devotion to Ovid, in the times of the
Grand Monarque. Courtesy, finesse and style
--virtues conspicuously French--would surely
be recognized in Ovid and be fortified by his
example.
Ovid's prestige suffered no diminution in the
eighteenth century, as the names of Gentil-
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
Bernard and Andre Chenier will serve to sug-
gest. In an elegy on the exile of the poet, Lin-
gendes scorches the barbarian Augustus for
robbing his country of the rarest spirit that it
had ever seen. He consoles the exile with the
hospitality that France extends and with the
French beauties, la belle Renie in particular,
whose like the city of Aeneas never saw. So
then, he exclaims:
Va trouver les Frangais oil le destin t'appelle
Tour finir ton malheur,
Et quitte de bon coeur ta langue maternelle
Pour apprendre la lew.
But Ovid had been speaking French -- and the
French Ovidian -- for some time.
Even during the Romantic revolt, our poet
was too French to be permanently cast aside.
In the year VII of that New Era which the
Disciples Reason established for mankind,
though less solidly than they supposed, there
was printed in Paris, " sous les yeux et par les
soins de" J. C. Poncelin, a translation into
French of the Oevres Complettes d'Ovide, ac-
companied in the different volumes by exquisite
engravings, one of which, reproduced above,
represents a not altogether heart-broken Ovid
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? THROUGH THE CENTURIES
in exile. Since the Romantic movement, French
scholarship has made admirable contributions
to our understanding of Ovid, but among men
of letters, few besides Banville and Anatole
France may be numbered among his disciples.
The appearance of a golden little volume on
Ovid by Emile Ripert marks, let us hope, the
beginning of a better era.
In our own literature, after Chaucer and
Gower, we may meet Ovid again in the graceful
fancies of Spenser's Faerie Queene and find a
new pastoral Fasti in his Shephearde's Calen-
dar. There are suggestions of Corinna in Sid-
ney's Stella, though the poet had no need to
fear the reproach " That Plato I have reade for
nought. " A new sort of Heroides is invented
by Drayton, who composes, in his England's
Heroical Epistles, message and answer for
Rosamund and Henry II, Queen Katherine and
Owen Tudor, and other noble (and rather
heavy) characters. In the Elizabethan drama,
Ovid supplies subjects for many of the mytho-
logical plays, including the daring use of the
story of Iphis and Ianthe in the Maid's Meta-
morphosis, an anonymous piece written about
1600. One will discover many a bit of Ovid by
browsing about in Heywood and Lyly and
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
Peele. In Lyly's Endimion, when Sir Tophas
falls in love with a very Ovidian character, the
"old enchantress," Dipsas, he reels off Latin
quotations, mostly from the Art of Love, and
says to his servant: "Epi, I feel all Ovid de
arte amandi lie as heavie at my heart as a
loade of logges. " Ben Jonson, who has not so
many borrowings from Ovid as one might ex-
pect, constructs a sub-plot in the Poetaster
from the poet's life.
"As the soul of Euphorbus was thought to
live in Pythagoras," said Francis Meres, in his
Palladis Tamia, "so the sweet witty soul of
Ovid lives in mellifluous and honey-tongued
Shakespeare. " Shakespeare is another of our
poet's reincarnations. There is hardly an as-
pect of Ovid's genius and art that one will not
see reproduced somewhere in Shakespeare.
Ovid's works are a storehouse of ancient lore
for him, and a monument of "the elegancy
and golden cadence of poesy. " Naso he is in-
deed, the man " for smelling out the odorifer-
ous flowers of fancy, the jerks of invention. "Ba
But primarily, it is the call of deep unto deep
that Shakespeare hears in Ovid. A brilliant
essayist of our day finds in Shakespeare, as
many have found in Ovid, a lack of religion. 54
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? THROUGH THE CENTURIES
This analysis leaves something unexplained,
and yet both spirits are free, looking about on
a world of shifting circumstance, and moulding
it into what their fancy wills.
The youthful Milton, Puritan though he was,
consecrated his earliest verse to Ovid. Curious
evidence of his fondness for Ovid has recently
come to light, in the shape of one hundred and
seventy-one stanzas written by Milton at the
age of fifteen to accompany a set of draw-
ings illustrating scenes in the Metamorphoses.
The juvenile phrases here exhibited may
be traced in the poet's later works. 55 Milton's
Latin verse, free and convivial in some of
its specimens, must be read simultaneously
with the Ode on the Nativity, Lycidas and
the other English poems, if we would see
the conflict of Ovid and Virgil in Milton's
mind and art. 58 Ovid leads at the start,
but Virgil wins, and becomes the poet's fore-
most model in Paradise Lost. Yet Ovid is not
flung aside. He furnishes Milton with mat-
ter and with devices, both of which are sub-
limated in the loftier Virgilian air of his epic.
The poetry, both the gay and the sober, of
Herrick and Cowley will take on new meaning
if one come to them fresh from Ovid. Dryden's
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
satire will be found more nearly akin to Ovid
than to the other ancient models that he so
nicely balances in his essay. In his Fables, he
has, perhaps unconsciously, summed up the
course of Mediaeval narrative by selecting as
his typical raconteurs Chaucer, Boccaccio and
Ovid. As master of the stage, Dryden passed
on his sceptre to Congreve, and in Congreve,
Ovid, the Ovid of the Art of Love, lives again.
There has never been a finer monument to
Ovid's placid irony than the Way of the World.
Gay and Prior are worthy masters of Ovid's
comedy. Swift's satire is more bitter, Pope's is
of sharper tang and Addison is a gentler spirit.
And yet the reader of Ovid will find his mas-
ter's presence in them all.
The Romantic movement in England, as in
the other countries of Europe, sounds Ovid's
knell, though not for Byron, who, as author of
Don Juan, often suggests the flavor of Pope.
We should not view Romanticism too narrowly,
for Landor, a discreet admirer of Ovid, lived
through the period, and Shelley carried his
copy of our poet as he travelled about in Italy.
Amongst the Victorians, Tennyson shows some
reading of our poet, particularly in Oenone, and
Browning's omnivorous appetite finds satisfac-
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? THROUGH THE CENTURIES
tion now and then in the marvels of the Meta-
morphoses or the poet's romantic career. Swin-
burne, whose masters are the Greeks, had
studied Ovid for his Atalanta. But despite such
incidental homage, Ovid had had his day. This
was no aetas Ovidiana, and none has followed
since. It is perhaps about time that our poet's
star should once more take the ascendant.
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? III. OVID THE MODERN
"Les anciens, monsieur, sont les anciens, et nous sommes
les gens de maintenant. "
Prisca iuvent alios, ego me nunc denique natum
Gratulor: haec aetas moribus apta meis.
"En verite Ovide est encore, en ce debut du XX0 siecle,
un poete d'actualite. "
O eminent authorities on Dante have
"It would hardly be an exaggeration
to say that distinctly modern literature has its
springs in the French poets of the twelfth cen-
tury, and that these poets were inspired and
(paradox as it may seem) ' modernized' by the
inspiration they drew from Ovid. " 67
There is nothing paradoxical here, for Ovid
is a modern of the moderns. It is curious how
we change our views about modernity as we
push back our studies into the past. We begin
by setting the highest values on things modern.
We rightly reject what is antiquated and mean-
ingless in favor of what is contemporary and
OVID
RIPERT
declared:
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? OVID THE MODERN
real. Then, by chance, we discover something
that immediately concerns us in Thucydides or
Plato or Horace, and we say: "How modern
these ancients were! " At the time when they
wrote, they thought themselves modern too. If
they can speak to us today, they are more alive
than one whose heart and lungs are still in
operation, but whose brain perished centuries
ago. As our studies proceed and the writers of
old seem more and more like human beings, all
of a sudden our perspective is reversed, as when
the planetary system of Ptolemy changed to
that of Copernicus. History no longer revolves
egocentrically about us; we begin to know our
place in the shifting panorama of time. We no
longer congratulate the ancients on being mod-
ern, but ourselves on our new-found ability to
appreciate living thought by whomsoever it has
been expressed. Literature has taught us how
to tell the quick from the dead. We embark on
a voyage of discovery, prepared to make our-
selves contemporary with the best of the past,
and to recognize modernity wherever there is
life.
To be contemporary with every age, a writer
must, first of all, seem modern to his own. One
whose imagination is fed merely by the past,
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
one who believes that the count of mighty poets
is made up and the scroll of them folded in the
Muse's hands, has, to the best of his ability,
sounded the death-knell of his own poetry. The
root of his fancy is strong, but the flower is
weak. Unless, like Keats, he belies his words
in his practice, he will soon be swept aside by
the living thought of his times. Something is
lacking in his sanity and in his sense of humor,
if he cannot exclaim with our poet:
Let others praise the hoary past. But how
I thank my stars I was not born till now!
The present age is suited to my ways. 58
To understand our debt to Ovid, we may, to
be sure, follow the course of his posthumous
fame and the manner of his appeal to the dif-
ferent ages. Irrespective of his own attain-
ments, we must ever be grateful to the writer
who saved for literature the stories of Midas,
of Alcyone, of Atalanta's race, of Pyramus and
Thisbe, of Philemon and Baucis, -- jewels that
have sparkled in diverse settings of pure gold.
We must also acknowledge the genius of a
writer who invented a new literary form like
the Heroides that proved prolific of emulation
in most of the subsequent periods of literature.
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? OVID THE MODERN
But it is even more essential to know the man
himself and his art. We owe a debt only to
those who can speak to our own times. The
Classics live today not because the ancient
authors became famous, -- magnorum no mi-
lium umbrae -- but because they were modern.
Ovid was modern, first, in his art of inter-
preting the past in terms of his own age, in
making his heroes Augustan, in pushing back
the boundary of his times to include the first
moments of history. It is the god Janus, once
a shapeless mass in the sea of primeval chaos,
who gives Ovid the maxim:
We praise old times but use the present age.
Yet, after all, this is modernity in the less im-
portant sense; it accounts for the poet's popu-
larity in his life-time but not for his appeal to
posterity. Ovid will remain modern so long as
the universal qualities that make him great are
valued by mankind, -- his wit, his art, his cre-
ative fancy, the mastery of his own moods and
of his plastic world. Wit was his ruin, but we
may pardon its excess. The exile's misery is his
atonement and perpetually a moral for sober-
minded folk to draw. It is profitable to draw
the moral, yet we need not emblazon it forever
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
in letters of lead, -- ingerao periit. Fatal to
him, his wit is no disaster to mankind, so long
as a spark of comedy survives.
Nor does Ovid fail to give us that criticism
of life which to Matthew Arnold is the essence
of literature. Gilbert Murray, who has come
nobly to Ovid's defence, finds, after all, that
our poet's criticism of life is slight. It is such
as is "passed by a child, playing alone and
peopling the summer evening with delightful
shapes, upon the stupid nurse who drags it off
to bed. " 58 I venture to see in Ovid a spirit
more mature than this. His mimic world is no
toy fancy, a thing apart. He rather has ab-
sorbed life into it as into the only verity that
remains eternal amid the flux and flow. Ovid
dwells in his mind rather than in the images
that it creates. His thought is so little obtru-
sive, his art is so careful that we too hastily
circumscribe its limits instead of stretching our
own imaginations by its aid. Ovid perishes for
his style -- like Cicero among the philosophers
-- no less than for his wit.
As we glance back at the periods of history
that have valued Ovid most, -- that aetas Ovi-
diana in? the Ages of Faith, the Renaissance
in all the countries of Europe, the times of
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? OVID THE MODERN
Louis XIV in French literature, those of Eliz-
abeth, the Restoration and Queen Anne -- we
become aware that these are very eminent
periods in human civilization. The horrible
thought may occur that possibly our own age,
despite its triumphs in the natural sciences and
in creature comforts, may somewhat have
slipped from the heights of literary taste.