chosen from outside the Covenanted service
The subordinate governments
313
313
314
316
318
319
320
321
1784-1815
CHAPTER XIX
THE EXCLUSION OF THE FRENCH,
By H.
The subordinate governments
313
313
314
316
318
319
320
321
1784-1815
CHAPTER XIX
THE EXCLUSION OF THE FRENCH,
By H.
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THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF INDIA
VOLUME V
BRITISH INDIA
1497--1858
## p. ii (#8) ###############################################
THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF INDIA
SIX VOLUMES
Ancient India
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
I
II
III
IV
VI
Rs. 45. 00
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The Mughal Period
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Edited by Dodwell
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## p. iii (#9) ##############################################
THE
CAMBRIDGE
HISTORY OF INDIA
VOLUME V
BRITISH INDIA
1497—1858
EDITED BY
H. H. DODWELL, M. A.
PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY AND CULTURE OF THE BRITISH
DOMINIONS IN ASIA, IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON
THIRD INDIAN REPRINT
1968
S.
CHAND & CO.
DELHI NEW DELHI JULLUNDUR
LUCKNOW-BOMBAY--CALCUTTA-MADRAS
TUE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY
LIBIAKY, Caritoi Campus Middletown, Pa. 17057
## p. iv (#10) ##############################################
S. CH H D
A N N • C 0.
Ram Nagar
NEW DELHI
Fountain
DELHI
Mai Hiran Gate
JULLUNDUR
Aminabad Park
LUCKNOW
187, Lamington Road
BOMBAY
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MADRAS
Published in India by S. Chand do Co. by arrangement with
Cambridge University Press, London.
Price : Rs. 35/-
I
Published by S. Chand & Co. , Ram Nagar, New Delhi-1 and
Offset by Eurasia Offset Printers, Ram Nagar, New Delhi-1,
1
## p. v (#11) ###############################################
PREFACE
I GREAT
GREATLY regret having to record the deaths of two contri-
butors, Mr S. M. Edwardes, and Lt. -Col. C. E. Luard, while this volume
was in preparation. Dr Surendranath Sen, however, was kind enough
to revise Chapters iv and xxii, with their bibliographies.
The spelling of proper names is generally that of the Imperial
Gazetteer ; all diacritical marks have been omitted.
The reader will find that in this and the following volume the scale
of treatment has had to be materially reduced. The period covered by
them is much shorter, but it is also incomparably fuller, and the alloca-
tion of space has offered many difficult problems. In the circumstances
it seemed to me desirable to economise as much as possible in the space
given to political history in order to provide room for an outline of the
development of the administrative system, a subject on which easily
accessible information is scanty and inadequate. I have thus been able
to make room not only for the chapters dealing with this topic in the
present volume but for a longer series of chapters in the next.
H. H. D.
SCHOOL OF ORIENTAL STUDIES
LONDON
## p. vi (#12) ##############################################
1
||
## p. vii (#13) #############################################
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA
By SIR E. DENISON Ross, C. I. E. , Professor of Persian in the University
of London, and Director of the School of Oriental Studies.
PAGE
1
2
3
09 NoaWN
The sea-route to India
Alexander VI's bulls
Historica Sources
Political State of South India
Settlement at Calicut
Cabral's Voyage
da Gama's second voyage
d'Albuquerque's first voyage
Pacheco's defence of Cochin
Almeida's government
The Egyptian squadron
d'Albuquerque's government
Capture of Malacca
Attack on Aden
Portuguese suzerainty over Ormuz
Lopo Soares's and Diogo Lopes's expeditions to the Red Sea
Vasco da Gama's return and death
The Portuguese in Gujarat
First siege of Diu
Garcia de Noronha
Estavao da Gama
Dom Joao de Castro
Portuguese policy
Later governors
Cession of Daman
Siege of Goa
Akbar in Gujarat
Portuguese relations with the Moghuls
Union of the Spanish and Portuguese crowns
Portuguese in Ceylon
7
7
8
9
10
11
11
12
13
13
14
15
15
16
16
17
18
19
20
22
23
24
24
CHAPTER II
THE DUTCH IN INDIA
By P. GEYL, Litt. D. , Professor of Dutch History
and Institutions in the University of London.
Early voyages of the Dutch to the east
Linschoten and Houtman
The United Company
Early factories in the Archipelago
Coromandel factories
28
29
30
31
33
## p. viii (#14) ############################################
viji
CONTENTS
PAGE
36
37
40
41
Havart's description
'Their organisation
Factories in Bengal
Early attempts on Ceylon
Conquest of Ceylon
'The Ten Years' Truce
Renewal of war with the Portuguese
Capture of Colombo
Capture of Negapatam
Capture of the Malabar fortresses
Organisation in Malabar
Relations with the King of Kandi
Religious policy
Misgovernment of Vuyst and Versluys
Renewed war and treaty with Kandi 1766
Naval power of the Dutch
Finance and organisation
Peculation
Attempted reforms
Relations with the French
Fall of the Company
42
44
47
47
49
49
51
51
53
54
54
55
57
58
59
59
60
CHAPTER III
THE FRENCH FACTORIES IN INDIA
By HENRI FROIDEVAUX.
Early voyages to the east
Madagascar
Colbert's company
Preparatory measures
Early factories
La Haye's expedition
Trinkomali
St Thomé
Pondichery
Martin's work
Dutch capture of Pondichery
Decadence of the company
Law's company
Mahé
Lenoir and Dumas
ag888598%228448
61
62
63
65
66
67
69
69
70
71
72
73
74
74
75
CHAPTER
IV
THE EAST INDIA COMPANY, 1600-1740
By SIR WILLIAM FOSTER, C. I. E. , late
Historiographer to the India Office.
Formation of the East India Company
Early voyages
Hawkins at Agra
Conflicts with the Portuguese
Roe's embassy
The capture of Ormuż
76
77
77
78
80
81
## p. ix (#15) ##############################################
CONTENTS
ix
PAGE
The Anglo-Dutch alliance
The Convention of Goa
The first Dutch War
Cession of Bombay
Trade from Surat
Early factories in Eastern India
The Company 1635-55
Courteen's Association
The Assada scheme and the United Joint Stock
Trade and trading conditions
The question of private trade
Cromwell's charter
Attacks on the Company
The Scottish East India Company
The English Company
The United Company
Rise of Bombay
Maratha troubles
Sir Josia Child's policy
Sir John Child at Bombay
The Coromandel factories
Disputes between the London and English Companies' servants
The Bengal factories
The Moghul War
Foundation of Calcutta
The Company 1709-40
Development of trade
Surman's embassy
Troubles in Bengal
Madras 1700-1740
Bombay 1700-1740
The Danish East India Company
The Ostend Company
Other foreign Companies
82
85
86
87
87
89
89
90
91
91
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
101
102
103
105
106
107
108
108
109
111
112
113
113
114
115
115
CHAPTER V
THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION
By H. H. DODWELL, M. A. , Professor of the History and Culture of the
British Dominions in Asia, in the University of London.
Situation of the Carnatic
117
The Maratha raid 1740
118
Anwar-ud-din nawab
119
Neutrality proposals
119
Barnett's squadron
120
La Bourdonnais captures Madras
120
Dupleix's quarrel with La Bourdonnais
121
Attitude of the nawab
121
122
French military successes
Siege of Pondichery
123
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
124
## p. x (#16) ###############################################
X
CONTENTS
CHAPTER VI
DUPLEIX AND BUSSY
By ALFRED MARTINEAU, Professor of Colonial History at the Sorbonne,
formerly Governor of the French Settlements in India.
PAGE
English projects in Tanjore
Dupleix's agreement with Chanda Sahib
Overthrow of Anwar-ud-din
Overthrow of Nasir Jang
Struggles round Trichinopoly
Death of Chanda Sahib and surrender of Law
Action of Vikravandi
Clive's successes in the Carnatic
French alliance with Morari Rao and Nandi Raja
Further attempts on Trichinopoly
Conference of Sadras
Recall of Dupleix
Bussy's' expedition
Ghazi-ud-din's attempt and death
Grant of the Sarkars
Bussy's position
Intrigues against Bussy
Bussy's success
His recall
125
126
126
127
128
130
130
131
131
131
132
132
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
CHAPTER VII
CLIVE IN BENGAL, 1756-60
By H. H. DODWELL
Accession of Siraj-ud-daula
His attitude towards the English
Capture of Calcutta
Expedition of recovery
Neutrality discussions with the French
Capture of Chandernagore
Discontent in Bengal
The conspiracy
Campaign of Plassey
Omichand's affair
Clive and the Hindu officials
Rotation government project
The shahzada in Bihar
The Dutch project
Clive's achievement
141
141
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
151
151
153
153
153
155
CHAPTER VIII
THE SEVEN YEARS WAR
By H. H. DODWELL.
Military situation in 1756
Influence of Clive's success in Bengal
French reinforcements
Lally's expedition
157
157
158
158
## p. xi (#17) ##############################################
CONTENTS
xi
Capture of Fort St David
The Tanjore expedition
The naval action 3 August, 1758
The siege of Madras
Forde's campaign
d'Aché's final defeat
Battle of Wandiwash
Hyder 'Ali and the French
Siege of Pondichery
The causes of the French failure
PAGE
159
159
160
160
162
163
163
163
164
164
CHAPTER 1X
BENGAL, 1780-72
By H. H. DODWELL,
Situation on Clive's departure
Caillaud's campaign 1780
Holwell's views on English policy
Mir Ja'far replaced by Mir Kasim
Affairs. of Shah 'Alam
Ramnarayan's abandonment
The internal trade question
The quarrel with Mir Kasim
Vansittart's policy
Expulsion of Mir Kasim and the war with Oudh
The Bengal mutinjes
Restoration of Mir Ja'far
Najm-ud-daula's accession
Clive's reappointment as governor
His settlement in Oudh
Arrangements with Shah 'Alam and the diwanni
The question of presents
The salt company
The batta question
The officers' mutiny
Clive's Military Fund
Clive's character
Verelst and Cartier
166
166
167
168
169
170
170
171
172
173
174
174
174
175
175
176
177
178
178
179
180
180
180
CHAPTER X
THE EAST INDIA COMPANY AND THE STATE,
1772-86
By P. E. ROBERTS, M. A. , Fellow of Worcester College, Oxford.
East Indian affairs in parliament
181
Position of the East India Company
182
Parliamentary measures of 1767
184
Debates of March, 1772
184
Select and secret committees appointed
186
Attacks on the Company
187
188
The Regulating Act
The acts of 1779 and 1780
191
The select and secret committees of 1781
192
193
Attempt to recall Hastings
## p. xii (#18) #############################################
xii
CONTENTS
Dundas's India bill
Fox's India bills
Supported by Burke
Fox's , commissioners
Pitt's India Act
The Board of Control
Hastings's views
Supplementary acts of 1786
PAGE
194
195
196
199
200
200
203
203
CHAPTER XI
THE EARLY REFORMS OF WARREN
HASTINGS IN BENGAL
By P. E. ROBERTS.
Warren Hastings's early service
Appointed governor of Bengal
Position in 1772
The dual government
Despatch of the supervisors
Hastings entrusted with their duties
Commercial reforms
Abolition of the dual government
Trial of Muhammad Reza Khan
Efficacy of the reforms
Abuse of patronage
Salaries and allowances
205
205
206
206
207
207
208
209
209
211
212
213
CHAPTER XII
EXTERNAL RELATIONS AND THE
ROHILLA WAR
By P. E. ROBERTS.
Shah 'Alam withdraws from the Company's protection
Transfer of Kora and Allahabad to Oudh
Rohilkhand and the Marathas
The Rohilla treaty with Oudh
The conference at Benares
Decision to attack the Rohillas
Question of the Rohilla War
The Rohilla atrocities
Condemned by the Company
215
216
217
217
218
219
220
222
223
CHAPTER XIII
HASTINGS AND HIS COLLEAGUES
By P. E. ROBERTS.
The majority in council
Richard Barwell
Hastings's position
His conditional resignation
The compact with Francis
225
226
227
228
229
## p. xiii (#19) ############################################
CONTENTS
xiii
PAGE
Later councillors
Hastings's love of power
The majority attack on Hastings
Nandakumar's accusations
Nandakumar's trial
Misconduct of the majority and of Hastings
Position of the Supreme Court.
Character of Impey
Projected amalgamation of the Courts
Disputes with the Supreme Court
Impey and, the Sadr Court
Impey's impeachment
The Supreme Court amended
230
231
232
233
235
239
240
241
242
243
244
246
247
CHAPTER XIV
THE FIRST CONFLICT OF THE COMPANY
WITH THE MARATHAS, 1761-82
By the late LT. -COL. C. E. LUARD, C. I. E.
The accession of Madhu Rao
Raghunath Rao's regency
Struggle between Raghunath Rao and Madhu Rao
Position of the English
Maratha war with Hyder 'Ali
Death of Madhu Rao
Raghunath Rao's recovery power
Murder of Narayan Rao
Raghunath Rao Peshwa
His negotiations with the English
The Treaty of Surat
Battle of Adas
Intervention of the Bengal Government
Upton's mission
Treaty of Purandhar
St Lubin's intrigues
Renewal of war
The Convention of Wadgaon
The expedition from Bengal
Goddard's campaign
Capture of Gwalior
Negotiations with Nagpur
Goddard's negotiations
Treaty of Salbai
249
249
250
251
252
253
253
255
255
256
257
258
259
259
260
261
262
264
265
266
268
268
269
270
CHAPTER XV
THE CARNATIC, 1761-84
By H. H. DODWELL.
Position of Nawab. Walajah
Grant of the Sarkars
Early relations with Hyder 'Ali
The first Mysorė War
Political complications
273
274
275
276
277
## p. xiv (#20) #############################################
xiv
CONTENTS
PAGE
Sir John Lindsay's mission
Walajah's occupation of Tanjore
Pigot's imprisonment
Sir Thomas Rumbold's government
The Guntoor sarkar
The alienation of Hyder 'Ali
Outbreak of war
Colonel Baillie's detachment destroyed
Coote's campaign
Hughes's actions against Suffren
Errors in the conduct of war
Mathews in Bednur
Stuart's campaign against Bussy
Lord Macartney governor
Negotiations with Tipu Sultan
Macartney's relations with Hastings and Coote
The assignment of the Carnatic revenues
Difficulties about the command of the army
277
279
280
280
281
282
283
283
284
285
285
286
286
287
288
289
290
293
CHAPTER XVI
CHAIT SINGH, THE BEGAMS OF OUDH
AND FAIZULLA KHAN
By P. E. ROBERTS.
Demands on Chait Singh
Hastings goes to Benares
Revolt of Chait Singh
Question or his tenure
Chait Singh's present to Hastings
Later condition of Benares
Hastings's defence
The nawab of Oudh's present to Hastings
Position of Faizulla Khan
Demands on him
Hastings's attempts to reform Oudh
Projected relations with Delhi
295
296
296
297
298
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
CHAPTER XVII
THE IMPEACHMENT OF WARREN HASTINGS
By P. E. ROBERTS.
Hastings's reply to Burke's charges
Pitt's motives in supporting the impeachment
The charges voted
The error of the impeachment
Burke's violence
Hastings's character
307
307
309
309
311
312
## p. xv (#21) ##############################################
CONTENTS
XV
CHAPTER XVIII
LEGISLATION AND GOVERNMENTS, 1786-1818
By H. H. DODWELL.
PAGE
Disappearance of the Company's trade
Missionary activity
Relations of the Company and the Board of Control
Growth of a central power in India
The question of patronage
Correspondence with England
Governors, etc. chosen from outside the Covenanted service
The subordinate governments
313
313
314
316
318
319
320
321
1784-1815
CHAPTER XIX
THE EXCLUSION OF THE FRENCH,
By H. H. DODWELI. .
French adventurers in India
French projects
Contemplated alliance with the Dutch
Tipu's embassies
The French Revolution
Napoleon's expedition to Egypt
Mornington's precautions
Baird's expedition to the Red Sea
Decaen's instructions
French privateers
Gardane's mission
Capture of the French islands
323
324
325
325
326
327
327
328
329
330
331
332
CHAPTER XX.
TIPU SULTAN, 1785-1802.
By the VERY REVEREND, W. H. HUTTON, D. D. ,
Dean of Winchester.
War between Tipu and the Marathas
Settlement of the Guntoor question
Tipu's attack on Travancore
Cornwallis's triple alliance
The third Mysore War
Treaty of Seringapatam 1792
Shore refuses intervention
Causes of the fourth Mysore War
Death of Tipu Sultan
Tipu's character
Wellesley's settlement
Re-establishment of the Hindu reigning family
333
334
335
335
336
337
338
339
341
342
342
344
## p. xvi (#22) #############################################
XVI
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXI
OUDH AND THE CARNATIC, 1785-1801
By the DEAN OF WINCHESTER.
1. OUDH, 1785-1801.
PAGE
.
Condition of Oudh in 1787
Cornwallis's settlement
Shore and the succession question
Lucknow in 1794
Deposition of Wazir 'Ali
Oudh in 1798
Wellesley's views
Wellesley's negotiations
347
348
348
349
349
351
352
353
2. The CARNATIC, 1785-1801.
Position and character of Nawab Walajah
His debts
Cornwallis's treaty
Lord Hobart's proposals
Wellesley's views
The Tanjore question
The Seringapatam papers
The assumption of the Carnatic
355
355
356
357
359
360
361
361
CHAPTER XXII
THE FINAL STRUGGLE VV ITH
THE MARATHAS, 1784-1818
By the late S. M. EDWARDES. C. S. I. , C. V. O.
Mahadaji Sindhia
His position at Delhi
Rivalry of Nana Phadnavis
Ghulam Kadir seizes Delhi
Sindhia consolidates his position
Death of Mahadaji Sindhia
The Maratha confederacy
The pirate states
Intrigues and confusion at Poona
Wellesley's proposals to Baji Rao II
Holkar defeats Sindhia and Baji Rao
The Treaty of Bassein
War with Sindhia and Berar
War with Holkar
Barlow's settlement
State of Sindhia and Holkar
The Pindaris
The war with Nepal
Gangadhar Sastri's murder
Treaty of Gwalior
The last Maratha war
Lord Hastings's settlement
363
363
364
365
366
367
367
369
370
371
372
373
373
374
375
376
377
377
379
380
380
382
## p. xvii (#23) ############################################
CONTENTS
xvii
CHAPTER XXIII
MARATHA ADMINISTRATION
By the late S. M. EDWARDES.
PAGE
Position of the raja of Satara
The powers of the Peshwa
The Huzur Daftar
The Deccani village
The Mamlatdar
Financial irregularities
Minor revenue divisions
The judicial system: panchayats
Criminal cases
Police
The army
General character of the administration
Division of the land revenue
Land tenures
Miscellaneous taxes
Customs, etc.
Total revenues
384
384
385
386
387
388
389
389
390
391
393
394
394
395
396
397
399
CHAPTER XXIV
THE CONQUEST OF CEYLON, 1795-1815
By SIR MONTACU BURROWS. C. I. E.
Early English relations
Cleghorn and the capture of Colombo
Portuguese and Dutch influence on the island
The Company's administration
Frederick North's government
His attempt on Kandi
The massacre of 1803
The Kandian war
Eheylapola
The occupation of Kandi
401)
401
402
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
CHAPTER XXV
THE
REVENUE AD NIINISTRATION
OF BENGAL, 1765-86
By R. B. RIMSCOTHAM, B. Lit.
Grant of the diwanni
Revenue agents in Bengal
The zamindar
The supervisors of revenue
The kanungo
Concealment of the land revenue
Hastings as revenue administrator
The Committee of Circuit
Union of revenue and judicial powers
40:1
409
409
411
412
413
413
414
415
## p. xviii (#24) ###########################################
xviii
CONTENTS
PAGE
The rai-raian
Settlement of 1772
The collectors
The diwanni adalats
The changes of 1773: provincial councils
Criticisms of Francis, etc.
Interference of the Supreme Court
Krishna Kantu Nandi
Replies to the circular of 23 October, 1774
Discussions of 1775-76
The Amini Commission
Impey chief judge of the sadr
Annual settlements
Centralisation of 1781
Its defects
Macpherson's reorganisation
The chief Saristadar
416
416
417
418
418
419
421
421
422
423
424
426
426
427
· 428
430
431
CHAPTER XXVI
THE BENGAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM,
1786-1818
By LILIAN M.
chosen from outside the Covenanted service
The subordinate governments
313
313
314
316
318
319
320
321
1784-1815
CHAPTER XIX
THE EXCLUSION OF THE FRENCH,
By H. H. DODWELI. .
French adventurers in India
French projects
Contemplated alliance with the Dutch
Tipu's embassies
The French Revolution
Napoleon's expedition to Egypt
Mornington's precautions
Baird's expedition to the Red Sea
Decaen's instructions
French privateers
Gardane's mission
Capture of the French islands
323
324
325
325
326
327
327
328
329
330
331
332
CHAPTER XX.
TIPU SULTAN, 1785-1802.
By the VERY REVEREND, W. H. HUTTON, D. D. ,
Dean of Winchester.
War between Tipu and the Marathas
Settlement of the Guntoor question
Tipu's attack on Travancore
Cornwallis's triple alliance
The third Mysore War
Treaty of Seringapatam 1792
Shore refuses intervention
Causes of the fourth Mysore War
Death of Tipu Sultan
Tipu's character
Wellesley's settlement
Re-establishment of the Hindu reigning family
333
334
335
335
336
337
338
339
341
342
342
344
## p. xvi (#22) #############################################
XVI
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXI
OUDH AND THE CARNATIC, 1785-1801
By the DEAN OF WINCHESTER.
1. OUDH, 1785-1801.
PAGE
.
Condition of Oudh in 1787
Cornwallis's settlement
Shore and the succession question
Lucknow in 1794
Deposition of Wazir 'Ali
Oudh in 1798
Wellesley's views
Wellesley's negotiations
347
348
348
349
349
351
352
353
2. The CARNATIC, 1785-1801.
Position and character of Nawab Walajah
His debts
Cornwallis's treaty
Lord Hobart's proposals
Wellesley's views
The Tanjore question
The Seringapatam papers
The assumption of the Carnatic
355
355
356
357
359
360
361
361
CHAPTER XXII
THE FINAL STRUGGLE VV ITH
THE MARATHAS, 1784-1818
By the late S. M. EDWARDES. C. S. I. , C. V. O.
Mahadaji Sindhia
His position at Delhi
Rivalry of Nana Phadnavis
Ghulam Kadir seizes Delhi
Sindhia consolidates his position
Death of Mahadaji Sindhia
The Maratha confederacy
The pirate states
Intrigues and confusion at Poona
Wellesley's proposals to Baji Rao II
Holkar defeats Sindhia and Baji Rao
The Treaty of Bassein
War with Sindhia and Berar
War with Holkar
Barlow's settlement
State of Sindhia and Holkar
The Pindaris
The war with Nepal
Gangadhar Sastri's murder
Treaty of Gwalior
The last Maratha war
Lord Hastings's settlement
363
363
364
365
366
367
367
369
370
371
372
373
373
374
375
376
377
377
379
380
380
382
## p. xvii (#23) ############################################
CONTENTS
xvii
CHAPTER XXIII
MARATHA ADMINISTRATION
By the late S. M. EDWARDES.
PAGE
Position of the raja of Satara
The powers of the Peshwa
The Huzur Daftar
The Deccani village
The Mamlatdar
Financial irregularities
Minor revenue divisions
The judicial system: panchayats
Criminal cases
Police
The army
General character of the administration
Division of the land revenue
Land tenures
Miscellaneous taxes
Customs, etc.
Total revenues
384
384
385
386
387
388
389
389
390
391
393
394
394
395
396
397
399
CHAPTER XXIV
THE CONQUEST OF CEYLON, 1795-1815
By SIR MONTACU BURROWS. C. I. E.
Early English relations
Cleghorn and the capture of Colombo
Portuguese and Dutch influence on the island
The Company's administration
Frederick North's government
His attempt on Kandi
The massacre of 1803
The Kandian war
Eheylapola
The occupation of Kandi
401)
401
402
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
CHAPTER XXV
THE
REVENUE AD NIINISTRATION
OF BENGAL, 1765-86
By R. B. RIMSCOTHAM, B. Lit.
Grant of the diwanni
Revenue agents in Bengal
The zamindar
The supervisors of revenue
The kanungo
Concealment of the land revenue
Hastings as revenue administrator
The Committee of Circuit
Union of revenue and judicial powers
40:1
409
409
411
412
413
413
414
415
## p. xviii (#24) ###########################################
xviii
CONTENTS
PAGE
The rai-raian
Settlement of 1772
The collectors
The diwanni adalats
The changes of 1773: provincial councils
Criticisms of Francis, etc.
Interference of the Supreme Court
Krishna Kantu Nandi
Replies to the circular of 23 October, 1774
Discussions of 1775-76
The Amini Commission
Impey chief judge of the sadr
Annual settlements
Centralisation of 1781
Its defects
Macpherson's reorganisation
The chief Saristadar
416
416
417
418
418
419
421
421
422
423
424
426
426
427
· 428
430
431
CHAPTER XXVI
THE BENGAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM,
1786-1818
By LILIAN M. PENSON, Ph. D.
Cornwallis's instructions
His appointment
His advisers: John Shore
James Grant
Charles Grant
Sir William Jones
Cornwallis's character
The Board of Trade
The General Department
The Board of Revenue
The judicial system
The reform of the Board of Trade
The revenue reforms of 1787
The reform of criminal justice
The Secret Department of reform
The Secretariat
Further reforms of 1790
The decennial settlement
The permanent settlement
Reform of the police system
Separation of judicial and executive authority
The Cornwallis code
Changes introduced by Shore and Wellesley
The Select Committee of 1808
Lord Hastings's alterations
Importance Cornwallis's work
433
434
435
435
435
436
437
438
439
439
44. 2
441
442
444
446
446
447
448
450
451
452
454
456
458
458
480
## p. xix (#25) #############################################
CONTENTS
xfx
CHAPTER XXVII
THE MADRAS DISTRICT SYSTEM
AND LAND REVENUE TO 1818
By J T. GWYNN, I. C. S. (Retd. ).
PAGE
462
463
463
466
467
468
468
470
471
472
474
474
476
470
480
South Indian administration in the eighteenth century
Position of the poligars
Position of the ryots
Land and sair revenue
Early Company's administration
Lionel Place in the jagir
Crlonel Alexander Read
Thomas Munro
Early ryotwari
Introduction of the permanent zamindari settlement
The. Bengal judicial system
The poligar settlements
Village settlements
Munro and the Fifth Report
Results of the early period
CHAPTER XXVIII
AFGHANISTAN, RUSSIA AND PERSIA
By W. A. J: ARCHBOLD, M. A. , LL. B.
Early history of the Kabul kingdom
Zaman Shah
Shah Shuja
English views on Central Asia
Missions to Persia, Kabul and Lahore
Rise of Dost Muhammad
Russian designs in Central Asia
Lord Auckland
Burnes's mission
The siege of Herat
The Tripartite Treaty
Preparation for the invasion of Afghanistan
The Simla Manifesto
Home policy
Keane's advance
The storm of Ghazni
Shah Shuja's position
The Russian expedition
Difficulties with the Sikhs
Troubles in Afghanistan
Surrender of Dost Muhammad
Situation in 1841
The revolt at Kabul
Macnaghten's negotiations
Retreat and massacre of the Kabul force
Auckland's measures
Sale's defence of Jallalabad
Ellenborough appointed Governor-General
Nott at Kandahar
Ellenborough's orders
Kabul reoccupied
The evacuation of Afghanistan
483
485
485
486
486
488
489
490
491
493
495
497
498
498
499
501
502
502
503
504
505
505
506
508
510
511
512
513
515
516
518
520
## p. xx (#26) ##############################################
XX
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXIX
THE CONQUEST OF SIND AND
THE PANJAB
By W. A. J. ARCHBOLD.
I. SIND.
PAGE
The Talpura Mirs
The navigation of the Indus
Sind and the Tripartite Treaty
Treaties with the Mirs
Ellenborough's early views
Napier's instructions
The Khairpur succession
Imam Garh
Outbreak in Lower Sind
Battles of Miani and Dabo
Annexation
522
523
525
527
528
530
533
534
536
536
538
II. THE PANJAB.
Rise of Ranjit Singh
The Cis-Satlej Sikhs
Expansion of Ranjit's dominions
The capture of Peshawar
Projects against Sind
Character of Ranjit.
Intrigue and disorder after his death
Ellenborough's views
Further revolutions
The first Sikh War
Battles of Firozshah and Sobraon
Hardinge's settlement
Revision of the treaty
Murder of Agnew and Anderson
The second Sikh War
Annexation of the Panjab
539
540
541
543
544
544
546
547
548
548
550
552
553
554
555
556
CHAPTER XXX
BURMA, 1782-1852
By G. E. HARVEY, I. C. S.
Early English intercourse
The first Burmese War
The Residents
The second Burmese War
Administration of Arakan
Administration of Tenasserim
558
559
560
561
562
565
## p. xxi (#27) #############################################
CONTENTS
xxi
CHAPTER XXXI
THE INDIAN STATES, 1818-57
By the late Lr. -COL. C. E. LUARD.
Lord Hastings's settlement
Malcolm's work in Central India
Settlement in Rajputana
Hastings and Oudh
Hastings and the Nizam
The Bharatpur succession
Ellenborough and Gwalior
Annexation of Satara
Annexation of Nagpur
Dealings with Jhansi and Karauli
Annexation of Oudh:
Dalhousie's policy
PAGE
570
571
573
575
575
577
578
881
582
582
583
586
CHAPTER XXXII
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOVEREIGNTY
IN BRITISH INDIA
By H. H. DODWELL.
Dual origin of the Company's authority
Developments in the Carnatic
Developments in Bengal
The Crown and the Company
Language of statutes and treaties
Hastings's' assertion of British sovereignty
Francis's views
French and English policy
Browne's mission to Delhi
The attitude of Cornwallis
Wellesley and Shah 'Alam
Lord Hastings's views
Amherst and Akbar II
Ellenborough's and Dalhousie's negotiations
Disappearance of the Moghul Empire
589
390
591
592
592
597
599
600
601
603
604
605
606
606
807
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
The Portuguese in India (Chapter 1)
The Dutch in India (Chapter II)
The French Factories in India (Chapter in)
The East India Company, 1600-1740 (Chapter rv)
The Struggle with the French (Chapters V, vi, and VIII)
The Conquest of Bengal (Chapters vil and ix)
Warren Hastings and Bengal, 1772-85 (Chapters X-XIII and XVI-XVII)
The First Conflict of the Company with the Marathas, 1761-82
(Chapter XIV)
The Carnatic, 1761-84 (Chapter xv)
Legislation and Governments, 1786-1818 (Chapter XVII)
The Exclusion of the French, 1784-1815 (Chapter Xix)
Tipu Sultan. 1785-1802 (Chapter XX)
609
613
615
618
621
623
625
.
627
628
631
632
634
## p. xxii (#28) ############################################
xxii
CONTENTS
The Carnatic, 1785-1801 (Chapter XXI)
Oudh, 1785-1801 (Chapter XXI)
The Final Struggle with the Marathas, 1784-1818 (Chapter XXri)
Maratha Administration (Chapter XXII)
The Conquest of Ceylon, 1795-1815 (Chapter XXIV)
The Revenue Administration of Bengal, 1765-86 (Chapter XXV)
The Bengal Administrative System, 1786-1818. (Chapter XXVI)
The Madras District System and Land Revenue to 1818. (Chapter XXVII)
Afghanistan, Russia and Persia (Chapter XXVIII)
The Conquest of Sind (Chapter XXIX)
The Conquest of the Panjab (Chapter XXIX)
Burma, 1782-1852 (Chapter Xxx)
The Indian States, 1818-57 (Chapter XXXI)
The Development of Sovereignty in British India (Chapter xxxu)
PAGE
635
636
636
638
639
640
641
642
644
647
648
650
652
654.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
654
INDEX
661
## p. 1 (#29) ###############################################
CHAPTER I
THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA, 1498—1598
THE last decade of the fifteenth century witnessed the discovery
of a new world by Columbus and of a new route to an old world by
Vasco da Gama. Both discoveries were epoch-making, though in
totally different ways. The latter, however, had the more immediate
effect on the history of Europe; and perhaps no event during the
middle ages had such far-reaching repercussion on the civilised world
as the opening of the sea-route to India. Vast countries, hitherto
visited only by rare travellers or not at all, and known by name only
to the learned few, were suddenly brought into touch with the West;
and the luxuries of the East, which had hitherto passed through so
many hands before they reached the European market, could now be
brought direct to Lisbon. As a result, the sea-borne trade of the
Muslims in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea was paralysed, and
the prosperous houses of Genoa and Venice were faced with the ruin
of half their trade in the Levant, while Portugal rose suddenly to such
prosperity and fame that she was soon without a rival in Europe.
Persia, too, was threatened with the loss of the heavy customs she had
for centuries been levying on the wares which were carried westward
through her territory. Nothing can better illustrate the revolutionary
effect of the opening of the sea-route to India on the markets of
Europe than the detailed statement of the payments made by
merchants 'trading from India to Alexandria which is given by con-
temporary Portuguese writers. I repeat here the excellent summary
given by Mr. Whiteway:
The profits on wares sent from the East to Europe were enormous to bear
the cost of passage through so many jurisdictions and the expense. of so many
transhipments. There has come to us a detailed statement of the payments made
by the merchants trading from India to Alexandria, which is full of interest; it
refers to a time when an independent Sultan ruled in Cairo, but under the
Ottoman Turks the payments would certainly not have been smaller. The Red
Sea merchants lived in Jedda and had their factors in Calicut. The regulations
of the Sultan of Cairo required that one-third of the imports should be pepper,
and this amount must be sold to him in Jedda at Calicut prices. Say a merchant
brought goods from Calicut to the value there of £300, and among them no
pepper. He would have to buy in Jedda, at Jedda prices, pepper worth in
Calicut £100, and re-sell it to the Sultan at the Calicut price. On
the balance of the goods he would pay 10 per cent. ad valorem, and again on
the balance, after deducting this 10 per cent. , 4 per cent. more. Instead,
however, of getting the Calicut price of the pepper in money, he was compelled
to take copper in Jedda from the Sultan at Calicut prices--that is, copper 1. 0
Jędda vas worth 7 cruzados the quintal, but this he was compelled to buy at
12 cruzados, the Calicut price. Practically, therefore, the Sultan of Cairo was;
at no expense to himself, a partner to the extent of one-third in every voyage.
1 Rise of Portuguese Power in India, pp. 7. 8.
1
## p. 2 (#30) ###############################################
2
THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA, 1498-1598
In spite of these exactions the profits on the double journey would be very large
indeed.
To continue, however, with the goods to Europe. Brought to Suez in smaller
boats from Jedda, the importer had to pay 5 per cent. ad valorem in ready
money; and to supply this money there were banks at Suez prepared to cash
drafts. The journey to Cairo took three days; and a camel to carry about 450 lbs.
cost about 37s. 6d. A mile out of Cairo the goods were registered. The value
of pepper in the Cairo market was about 20d. the pound, and a merchant buy-
ing pepper had to buy an amount equal to one-third of his purchases. From
Cairo the goods were taken down the Nile in boats, and were carried from the
river to Alexandria on camels. At Alexandria they were registered again, and
buyer and seller had each to pay 5 per cent. ad valorem. The shipper had also
lo pay 5 per cent. to frank him across the sea.
The Pope, Alexander VI, in view of the wonderful discoveries by
the Spaniards and the Portuguese, had taken upon himself between
1493 and 1494 to issue no less than four bulis with the object of
parcelling out the world between these two nations. The Pope's
delimitations, which with each bull showed greater advantages to
Spain, were somewhat modified by the Treaty of Tordesillas (June,
1494), which gave Portugal all the lands which might be discovered
east of a straight line drawn from the Arctic to the Antarctic Pole at
a distance of 370 leagues west of Cape Verde, and to Spain all lands
west of that line. And in 1502 the same Pope gave the king of Portu-
gal permission to style himself “Lord of the Navigation, Conquest and
Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia and India”.
It must not be forgotten that by the end of the fifteenth century
the Portuguese had explored not only the whole length of the western
coast of Africa but also a portion of the mainland beyond the Cape
of Good Hope; and that Vasco da Gama was not sent to discover
India, but merely to find the direct sea-route to that country. The
original idea underlying this mission was to find spices and Christians.
Factories were established without great difficulty, but the chief care
of the Portuguese commanders was the attempt to drive all Muham-
madan shipping from the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea in order to
ensure the carrying of all Indian products in Portuguese vessels. The
next hundred years are therefore occupied not only in establishing
factories on the coast of India, but also in placing garrisons at a
number of strategic points, i. e. at the entrance of the Red Sea and
elsewhere outside India.
So long as their energies were mainly devoted to the control of
the high seas and to the capture or defence of these strategic points,
the Portuguese were pre-eminently successful, though thwarted of two
of the prizes they most coveted, namely Aden and Jedda. But they
showed themselves incapable of founding on Indian soil anything
resembling an overseas empire; and although they have continued to
hold a certain number of their Indian possessions down to the present
1 See especially Van der Linden, “Alexander VI and his Bulls, 1493-1494",
American Historical Review, XXI, No. 1, 1916.
## p. 3 (#31) ###############################################
HISTORICAL SOURCES
3
day, they were not strong enough, when the time came, to defeat
their European rivals in the East, and lost one by one those outlying
bases which had once given them the command of the eastern seas.
Though, as has been so often observed, the predominance of the
religious orders in civil affairs contributed greatly to the decline of
the Portuguese power in India, the devoted labours in other spheres
of the Jesuits at Goa must never be lost sight of. The contributions of
their missionaries to the historical and geographical literature of the
world constitute an inestimable treasure-house of knowledge, and have
placed under a lasting obligation all students of the East. It is also
a fortunate circumstance that, apart from the literary activity of the
Jesuits, the Portuguese produced during this heroic age, in addition
to a great epic poet, a number of fine chroniclers, who wrote minute
and thrilling narratives of their progress in the East; notably Barros,
Couto, Castanheda, Goes, Alvarez, Almeida, Duarte Barbosa, and last
but not least the great Affonso d'Albuquerque himself, whose Letters
and Commentaries will bear comparison with those of any other
soldier-statesman.
Finally a word may be said regarding the Muhammadan sources
for the history of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean and the Red
Sea, existing in Arabic, Persian and Turkish. Although these writers,
like the Portuguese, are not free from prejudice nor above the sup-
pression of incidents wounding national and religious pride, their
narratives are usually in complete accord with those of their enemies,
and bear striking testimony to the intelligent grasp which the Portu-
guese gained of the public affairs and private intrigues of the
Musulmans.
The principal states in Hindustan and Western India at the end of
the fifteenth century were the Muhammadan kingdoms of Delhi,
Gujarat, Berar, Bidar, Ahmadnagar and Bijapur: and the Hindu
kingdoms of Vijayanagar, Kannanur, Calicut and Cochin.
It was actually the power of Vijayanagar which prevented the
Muhammadan states of Northern India from making a coalition against
the Portuguese when they first settled on the coast; and when in
1565 the power of Vijayanagar was broken and a coalition formed,
the Portuguese were too strongly established to be ousted. As, during
the first half of the sixteenth century, Vijayanagar was really the
dominating power in Southern India, it is strange that the Portuguese
never tried to conciliate tha: state, but on the contrary were at times
openly hostile.
On 8 July, 1497, three vessels, varying from 60 to 150 tons burden,
left Lisbon under Vasco da Gama, and on 17 May, 1498, they anchored
1 See Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, October, 1921, and January,
1922, "The Portuguese in India and Arabia between 1507-1517; and between
1517-1538", by the present writer.
## p. 4 (#32) ###############################################
4
THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA, 1498-1598
off a small village eight miles north of Calicut. It is not without
significance that the first landing of these men, whose main object
was to usurp the spice trade, hitherto a monopoly of the Muham-
madans, should have been on Hindu territory. One wonders what
might have been the fate of da Gama and his companions if the
landing had been attempted, say, in some part of the powerful Muslim
kingdom of Gujarat. As it turned out, the Hindu ruler of Calicut,
whose hereditary title was Zamorin, gave a friendly reception to
these strangers, had them conducted by a pilot to a safer anchorage,
and invited da Gama to pay him a visit in Calicut. In response to this
invitation a party of fourteen set out for the Zamorin's capital; and so
great was their ignorance of things Indian that they mistook a Hindu
temple for a Christian chapel, imagining that what was not Muham-
madan must be Christian. Though they cannot have found the Hindu
idols very orthodox in type, they nevertheless entered the temple
and prayed there. 1
For the attainment of their immediate object these early Portu.
guese adventurers were poorly equipped. In the first place they had
brought no presents for the local rulers with whom they would have
to treat-a strange omission in view of their past experiences in Africa;
and secondly their wares proved unattractive to the Indians, which
in the circumstances was quite natural. In spite of the difficulties
which the Muhammadan traders, in self-defence, put in their way,
the adventurers achieved, thanks to the Zamorin, a certain measure
of success and seem to have established quite friendly relations with
the people of the country. When, however, on 29 August, 1498, da
Gama set out on his return voyage, he carried with him five out of
twelve inhabitants whom he had made prisoners as a reprisal for
the detention of some of his goods, ultimately restored to him. This
was the one injudicious act associated with the first expedition, and
no doubt helped to confirm the stories, eagerly spread by the Muslim
traders, of the high-handed methods of the Portuguese in Africa. As
a reconnaissance, da Gama's voyage was of the utmost importance;
for on his return to Lisbon after an absence of two years with two out
of his three ships, and fifty-five survivors out of the original company
of 170, he was able to show specimens of the articles obtainable in the
Calicut market, and to tell the merchants of Portugal what wares met
with the favour of the Malabaris. Of the religion and customs of that
.
part of India he seems to have learnt surprisingly little. To judge by
the instructions issued to the second expedition, it would appear that
da Gama's party had actually passed three months in a Hindu country
without discovering the existence of the Hindu religion. All the
inhabitants of India who were not Muslims were assumed to be
Christians, but of course bad Christians as they were not Catholics;
1. See Whiteway, op. cit. p. 80.
2 Idem, p. 89, n. 1.
## p. 5 (#33) ###############################################
PEDRO ALVAREZ CABRAT.
6
>
and we know how much time and how many lives the Portuguese
afterwards devoted to the conversion to the Roman faith of the
Ethiopians who were already. Christians. Still it remains a mystery
why they failed to discover that the Zamorin was neither Christian
nor Muslim, seeing that they were for so long in daily intercourse
with him.
After the return of da Gama, preparations were immediately made
in Portugal to equip a new fleet on a far larger scale than the first,
and, on 9 March, 1500, Pedro Alvarez Cabral set out from Lisbon in
command of a fleet of thirteen vessels and 1200 men. Among his
captains was Bartholomeu Dias, who had been the first sailor to round
the Cape. After a series of amazing adventures, including the acci-
dental discovery of Brazil and Madagascar, Cabral with six vessels
reached Calicut on 13 September, 1500, and on the 18th he had an
interview on shore with the Zamorin. Cabral was eminently unsuited
for the diplomatic side of his mission, and showed no disposition to
consider the sentiments and prejudices of those with whom he was
sent to trade. Misunderstandings due to ignorance and mistrust arose
after the first interview, and reached a climax with the seizure on
16 December of a ship belonging to the Arabs, which led to a riot in
which forty Portuguese perished and their factory was levelled with
the ground. In consequence of this it became impossible for Cabral
to remain at Calicut, but, before leaving with only two ships laden,
he put to death 600 innocent boatmen who had had nothing to do
with the riot, and for two days bombarded the town. On 24 December
they reached Cochin, where, though they did not actually meet the
raja—who afterwards proyed such a valuable ally to them—they
succeeded in loading the remainder of their ships. Scarcely had they
done so, however, when news came that a large fleet was sailing down
the coast from Calicut to attack them. Cabral stole away on the night
of 9 January, 1501, leaving in Cochin about thirty Portuguese, among
whom was the famous Duarte Barbosa 1 On the following day Cabral
only escaped an encounter with the Zamorin's fleet by reason of a
calm. It may be mentioned that when off Kannanur he was assisted
by the local raja with supplies. Eventually Cabral reached Portugal
with five vessels so richly laden that the expenses of the whole expe-
dition were more than covered. But the most important result of
this in many ways disastrous journey was the discovery of the Cochin
harbour, which was greatly superior to Calicut as an anchorage, and
the further knowledge of Indian politics, which taught them that in
the raja of Cochin, the enemy of the Zamorin, they might find a
constant ally.
In 1501 a fleet of four trading vessels went to Cochin and returned
in safety, having been warned at Mozambique to avoid Calicut.
It is convenient here to review the new situation in which Portu-
1 Duarte Barbosa, ed. by M. Longworth Dames (Hakluyt Society.
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THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF INDIA
VOLUME V
BRITISH INDIA
1497--1858
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THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF INDIA
SIX VOLUMES
Ancient India
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The Mughal Period
The Indian Empire,
1858. 1947
Rs. 30. 00
THE
CAMBRIDGE SHORTER HISTORY OF INDIA
Edited by Dodwell
Rs. 18. 00
## p. iii (#9) ##############################################
THE
CAMBRIDGE
HISTORY OF INDIA
VOLUME V
BRITISH INDIA
1497—1858
EDITED BY
H. H. DODWELL, M. A.
PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY AND CULTURE OF THE BRITISH
DOMINIONS IN ASIA, IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON
THIRD INDIAN REPRINT
1968
S.
CHAND & CO.
DELHI NEW DELHI JULLUNDUR
LUCKNOW-BOMBAY--CALCUTTA-MADRAS
TUE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY
LIBIAKY, Caritoi Campus Middletown, Pa. 17057
## p. iv (#10) ##############################################
S. CH H D
A N N • C 0.
Ram Nagar
NEW DELHI
Fountain
DELHI
Mai Hiran Gate
JULLUNDUR
Aminabad Park
LUCKNOW
187, Lamington Road
BOMBAY
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MADRAS
Published in India by S. Chand do Co. by arrangement with
Cambridge University Press, London.
Price : Rs. 35/-
I
Published by S. Chand & Co. , Ram Nagar, New Delhi-1 and
Offset by Eurasia Offset Printers, Ram Nagar, New Delhi-1,
1
## p. v (#11) ###############################################
PREFACE
I GREAT
GREATLY regret having to record the deaths of two contri-
butors, Mr S. M. Edwardes, and Lt. -Col. C. E. Luard, while this volume
was in preparation. Dr Surendranath Sen, however, was kind enough
to revise Chapters iv and xxii, with their bibliographies.
The spelling of proper names is generally that of the Imperial
Gazetteer ; all diacritical marks have been omitted.
The reader will find that in this and the following volume the scale
of treatment has had to be materially reduced. The period covered by
them is much shorter, but it is also incomparably fuller, and the alloca-
tion of space has offered many difficult problems. In the circumstances
it seemed to me desirable to economise as much as possible in the space
given to political history in order to provide room for an outline of the
development of the administrative system, a subject on which easily
accessible information is scanty and inadequate. I have thus been able
to make room not only for the chapters dealing with this topic in the
present volume but for a longer series of chapters in the next.
H. H. D.
SCHOOL OF ORIENTAL STUDIES
LONDON
## p. vi (#12) ##############################################
1
||
## p. vii (#13) #############################################
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA
By SIR E. DENISON Ross, C. I. E. , Professor of Persian in the University
of London, and Director of the School of Oriental Studies.
PAGE
1
2
3
09 NoaWN
The sea-route to India
Alexander VI's bulls
Historica Sources
Political State of South India
Settlement at Calicut
Cabral's Voyage
da Gama's second voyage
d'Albuquerque's first voyage
Pacheco's defence of Cochin
Almeida's government
The Egyptian squadron
d'Albuquerque's government
Capture of Malacca
Attack on Aden
Portuguese suzerainty over Ormuz
Lopo Soares's and Diogo Lopes's expeditions to the Red Sea
Vasco da Gama's return and death
The Portuguese in Gujarat
First siege of Diu
Garcia de Noronha
Estavao da Gama
Dom Joao de Castro
Portuguese policy
Later governors
Cession of Daman
Siege of Goa
Akbar in Gujarat
Portuguese relations with the Moghuls
Union of the Spanish and Portuguese crowns
Portuguese in Ceylon
7
7
8
9
10
11
11
12
13
13
14
15
15
16
16
17
18
19
20
22
23
24
24
CHAPTER II
THE DUTCH IN INDIA
By P. GEYL, Litt. D. , Professor of Dutch History
and Institutions in the University of London.
Early voyages of the Dutch to the east
Linschoten and Houtman
The United Company
Early factories in the Archipelago
Coromandel factories
28
29
30
31
33
## p. viii (#14) ############################################
viji
CONTENTS
PAGE
36
37
40
41
Havart's description
'Their organisation
Factories in Bengal
Early attempts on Ceylon
Conquest of Ceylon
'The Ten Years' Truce
Renewal of war with the Portuguese
Capture of Colombo
Capture of Negapatam
Capture of the Malabar fortresses
Organisation in Malabar
Relations with the King of Kandi
Religious policy
Misgovernment of Vuyst and Versluys
Renewed war and treaty with Kandi 1766
Naval power of the Dutch
Finance and organisation
Peculation
Attempted reforms
Relations with the French
Fall of the Company
42
44
47
47
49
49
51
51
53
54
54
55
57
58
59
59
60
CHAPTER III
THE FRENCH FACTORIES IN INDIA
By HENRI FROIDEVAUX.
Early voyages to the east
Madagascar
Colbert's company
Preparatory measures
Early factories
La Haye's expedition
Trinkomali
St Thomé
Pondichery
Martin's work
Dutch capture of Pondichery
Decadence of the company
Law's company
Mahé
Lenoir and Dumas
ag888598%228448
61
62
63
65
66
67
69
69
70
71
72
73
74
74
75
CHAPTER
IV
THE EAST INDIA COMPANY, 1600-1740
By SIR WILLIAM FOSTER, C. I. E. , late
Historiographer to the India Office.
Formation of the East India Company
Early voyages
Hawkins at Agra
Conflicts with the Portuguese
Roe's embassy
The capture of Ormuż
76
77
77
78
80
81
## p. ix (#15) ##############################################
CONTENTS
ix
PAGE
The Anglo-Dutch alliance
The Convention of Goa
The first Dutch War
Cession of Bombay
Trade from Surat
Early factories in Eastern India
The Company 1635-55
Courteen's Association
The Assada scheme and the United Joint Stock
Trade and trading conditions
The question of private trade
Cromwell's charter
Attacks on the Company
The Scottish East India Company
The English Company
The United Company
Rise of Bombay
Maratha troubles
Sir Josia Child's policy
Sir John Child at Bombay
The Coromandel factories
Disputes between the London and English Companies' servants
The Bengal factories
The Moghul War
Foundation of Calcutta
The Company 1709-40
Development of trade
Surman's embassy
Troubles in Bengal
Madras 1700-1740
Bombay 1700-1740
The Danish East India Company
The Ostend Company
Other foreign Companies
82
85
86
87
87
89
89
90
91
91
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
101
102
103
105
106
107
108
108
109
111
112
113
113
114
115
115
CHAPTER V
THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION
By H. H. DODWELL, M. A. , Professor of the History and Culture of the
British Dominions in Asia, in the University of London.
Situation of the Carnatic
117
The Maratha raid 1740
118
Anwar-ud-din nawab
119
Neutrality proposals
119
Barnett's squadron
120
La Bourdonnais captures Madras
120
Dupleix's quarrel with La Bourdonnais
121
Attitude of the nawab
121
122
French military successes
Siege of Pondichery
123
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
124
## p. x (#16) ###############################################
X
CONTENTS
CHAPTER VI
DUPLEIX AND BUSSY
By ALFRED MARTINEAU, Professor of Colonial History at the Sorbonne,
formerly Governor of the French Settlements in India.
PAGE
English projects in Tanjore
Dupleix's agreement with Chanda Sahib
Overthrow of Anwar-ud-din
Overthrow of Nasir Jang
Struggles round Trichinopoly
Death of Chanda Sahib and surrender of Law
Action of Vikravandi
Clive's successes in the Carnatic
French alliance with Morari Rao and Nandi Raja
Further attempts on Trichinopoly
Conference of Sadras
Recall of Dupleix
Bussy's' expedition
Ghazi-ud-din's attempt and death
Grant of the Sarkars
Bussy's position
Intrigues against Bussy
Bussy's success
His recall
125
126
126
127
128
130
130
131
131
131
132
132
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
CHAPTER VII
CLIVE IN BENGAL, 1756-60
By H. H. DODWELL
Accession of Siraj-ud-daula
His attitude towards the English
Capture of Calcutta
Expedition of recovery
Neutrality discussions with the French
Capture of Chandernagore
Discontent in Bengal
The conspiracy
Campaign of Plassey
Omichand's affair
Clive and the Hindu officials
Rotation government project
The shahzada in Bihar
The Dutch project
Clive's achievement
141
141
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
151
151
153
153
153
155
CHAPTER VIII
THE SEVEN YEARS WAR
By H. H. DODWELL.
Military situation in 1756
Influence of Clive's success in Bengal
French reinforcements
Lally's expedition
157
157
158
158
## p. xi (#17) ##############################################
CONTENTS
xi
Capture of Fort St David
The Tanjore expedition
The naval action 3 August, 1758
The siege of Madras
Forde's campaign
d'Aché's final defeat
Battle of Wandiwash
Hyder 'Ali and the French
Siege of Pondichery
The causes of the French failure
PAGE
159
159
160
160
162
163
163
163
164
164
CHAPTER 1X
BENGAL, 1780-72
By H. H. DODWELL,
Situation on Clive's departure
Caillaud's campaign 1780
Holwell's views on English policy
Mir Ja'far replaced by Mir Kasim
Affairs. of Shah 'Alam
Ramnarayan's abandonment
The internal trade question
The quarrel with Mir Kasim
Vansittart's policy
Expulsion of Mir Kasim and the war with Oudh
The Bengal mutinjes
Restoration of Mir Ja'far
Najm-ud-daula's accession
Clive's reappointment as governor
His settlement in Oudh
Arrangements with Shah 'Alam and the diwanni
The question of presents
The salt company
The batta question
The officers' mutiny
Clive's Military Fund
Clive's character
Verelst and Cartier
166
166
167
168
169
170
170
171
172
173
174
174
174
175
175
176
177
178
178
179
180
180
180
CHAPTER X
THE EAST INDIA COMPANY AND THE STATE,
1772-86
By P. E. ROBERTS, M. A. , Fellow of Worcester College, Oxford.
East Indian affairs in parliament
181
Position of the East India Company
182
Parliamentary measures of 1767
184
Debates of March, 1772
184
Select and secret committees appointed
186
Attacks on the Company
187
188
The Regulating Act
The acts of 1779 and 1780
191
The select and secret committees of 1781
192
193
Attempt to recall Hastings
## p. xii (#18) #############################################
xii
CONTENTS
Dundas's India bill
Fox's India bills
Supported by Burke
Fox's , commissioners
Pitt's India Act
The Board of Control
Hastings's views
Supplementary acts of 1786
PAGE
194
195
196
199
200
200
203
203
CHAPTER XI
THE EARLY REFORMS OF WARREN
HASTINGS IN BENGAL
By P. E. ROBERTS.
Warren Hastings's early service
Appointed governor of Bengal
Position in 1772
The dual government
Despatch of the supervisors
Hastings entrusted with their duties
Commercial reforms
Abolition of the dual government
Trial of Muhammad Reza Khan
Efficacy of the reforms
Abuse of patronage
Salaries and allowances
205
205
206
206
207
207
208
209
209
211
212
213
CHAPTER XII
EXTERNAL RELATIONS AND THE
ROHILLA WAR
By P. E. ROBERTS.
Shah 'Alam withdraws from the Company's protection
Transfer of Kora and Allahabad to Oudh
Rohilkhand and the Marathas
The Rohilla treaty with Oudh
The conference at Benares
Decision to attack the Rohillas
Question of the Rohilla War
The Rohilla atrocities
Condemned by the Company
215
216
217
217
218
219
220
222
223
CHAPTER XIII
HASTINGS AND HIS COLLEAGUES
By P. E. ROBERTS.
The majority in council
Richard Barwell
Hastings's position
His conditional resignation
The compact with Francis
225
226
227
228
229
## p. xiii (#19) ############################################
CONTENTS
xiii
PAGE
Later councillors
Hastings's love of power
The majority attack on Hastings
Nandakumar's accusations
Nandakumar's trial
Misconduct of the majority and of Hastings
Position of the Supreme Court.
Character of Impey
Projected amalgamation of the Courts
Disputes with the Supreme Court
Impey and, the Sadr Court
Impey's impeachment
The Supreme Court amended
230
231
232
233
235
239
240
241
242
243
244
246
247
CHAPTER XIV
THE FIRST CONFLICT OF THE COMPANY
WITH THE MARATHAS, 1761-82
By the late LT. -COL. C. E. LUARD, C. I. E.
The accession of Madhu Rao
Raghunath Rao's regency
Struggle between Raghunath Rao and Madhu Rao
Position of the English
Maratha war with Hyder 'Ali
Death of Madhu Rao
Raghunath Rao's recovery power
Murder of Narayan Rao
Raghunath Rao Peshwa
His negotiations with the English
The Treaty of Surat
Battle of Adas
Intervention of the Bengal Government
Upton's mission
Treaty of Purandhar
St Lubin's intrigues
Renewal of war
The Convention of Wadgaon
The expedition from Bengal
Goddard's campaign
Capture of Gwalior
Negotiations with Nagpur
Goddard's negotiations
Treaty of Salbai
249
249
250
251
252
253
253
255
255
256
257
258
259
259
260
261
262
264
265
266
268
268
269
270
CHAPTER XV
THE CARNATIC, 1761-84
By H. H. DODWELL.
Position of Nawab. Walajah
Grant of the Sarkars
Early relations with Hyder 'Ali
The first Mysorė War
Political complications
273
274
275
276
277
## p. xiv (#20) #############################################
xiv
CONTENTS
PAGE
Sir John Lindsay's mission
Walajah's occupation of Tanjore
Pigot's imprisonment
Sir Thomas Rumbold's government
The Guntoor sarkar
The alienation of Hyder 'Ali
Outbreak of war
Colonel Baillie's detachment destroyed
Coote's campaign
Hughes's actions against Suffren
Errors in the conduct of war
Mathews in Bednur
Stuart's campaign against Bussy
Lord Macartney governor
Negotiations with Tipu Sultan
Macartney's relations with Hastings and Coote
The assignment of the Carnatic revenues
Difficulties about the command of the army
277
279
280
280
281
282
283
283
284
285
285
286
286
287
288
289
290
293
CHAPTER XVI
CHAIT SINGH, THE BEGAMS OF OUDH
AND FAIZULLA KHAN
By P. E. ROBERTS.
Demands on Chait Singh
Hastings goes to Benares
Revolt of Chait Singh
Question or his tenure
Chait Singh's present to Hastings
Later condition of Benares
Hastings's defence
The nawab of Oudh's present to Hastings
Position of Faizulla Khan
Demands on him
Hastings's attempts to reform Oudh
Projected relations with Delhi
295
296
296
297
298
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
CHAPTER XVII
THE IMPEACHMENT OF WARREN HASTINGS
By P. E. ROBERTS.
Hastings's reply to Burke's charges
Pitt's motives in supporting the impeachment
The charges voted
The error of the impeachment
Burke's violence
Hastings's character
307
307
309
309
311
312
## p. xv (#21) ##############################################
CONTENTS
XV
CHAPTER XVIII
LEGISLATION AND GOVERNMENTS, 1786-1818
By H. H. DODWELL.
PAGE
Disappearance of the Company's trade
Missionary activity
Relations of the Company and the Board of Control
Growth of a central power in India
The question of patronage
Correspondence with England
Governors, etc. chosen from outside the Covenanted service
The subordinate governments
313
313
314
316
318
319
320
321
1784-1815
CHAPTER XIX
THE EXCLUSION OF THE FRENCH,
By H. H. DODWELI. .
French adventurers in India
French projects
Contemplated alliance with the Dutch
Tipu's embassies
The French Revolution
Napoleon's expedition to Egypt
Mornington's precautions
Baird's expedition to the Red Sea
Decaen's instructions
French privateers
Gardane's mission
Capture of the French islands
323
324
325
325
326
327
327
328
329
330
331
332
CHAPTER XX.
TIPU SULTAN, 1785-1802.
By the VERY REVEREND, W. H. HUTTON, D. D. ,
Dean of Winchester.
War between Tipu and the Marathas
Settlement of the Guntoor question
Tipu's attack on Travancore
Cornwallis's triple alliance
The third Mysore War
Treaty of Seringapatam 1792
Shore refuses intervention
Causes of the fourth Mysore War
Death of Tipu Sultan
Tipu's character
Wellesley's settlement
Re-establishment of the Hindu reigning family
333
334
335
335
336
337
338
339
341
342
342
344
## p. xvi (#22) #############################################
XVI
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXI
OUDH AND THE CARNATIC, 1785-1801
By the DEAN OF WINCHESTER.
1. OUDH, 1785-1801.
PAGE
.
Condition of Oudh in 1787
Cornwallis's settlement
Shore and the succession question
Lucknow in 1794
Deposition of Wazir 'Ali
Oudh in 1798
Wellesley's views
Wellesley's negotiations
347
348
348
349
349
351
352
353
2. The CARNATIC, 1785-1801.
Position and character of Nawab Walajah
His debts
Cornwallis's treaty
Lord Hobart's proposals
Wellesley's views
The Tanjore question
The Seringapatam papers
The assumption of the Carnatic
355
355
356
357
359
360
361
361
CHAPTER XXII
THE FINAL STRUGGLE VV ITH
THE MARATHAS, 1784-1818
By the late S. M. EDWARDES. C. S. I. , C. V. O.
Mahadaji Sindhia
His position at Delhi
Rivalry of Nana Phadnavis
Ghulam Kadir seizes Delhi
Sindhia consolidates his position
Death of Mahadaji Sindhia
The Maratha confederacy
The pirate states
Intrigues and confusion at Poona
Wellesley's proposals to Baji Rao II
Holkar defeats Sindhia and Baji Rao
The Treaty of Bassein
War with Sindhia and Berar
War with Holkar
Barlow's settlement
State of Sindhia and Holkar
The Pindaris
The war with Nepal
Gangadhar Sastri's murder
Treaty of Gwalior
The last Maratha war
Lord Hastings's settlement
363
363
364
365
366
367
367
369
370
371
372
373
373
374
375
376
377
377
379
380
380
382
## p. xvii (#23) ############################################
CONTENTS
xvii
CHAPTER XXIII
MARATHA ADMINISTRATION
By the late S. M. EDWARDES.
PAGE
Position of the raja of Satara
The powers of the Peshwa
The Huzur Daftar
The Deccani village
The Mamlatdar
Financial irregularities
Minor revenue divisions
The judicial system: panchayats
Criminal cases
Police
The army
General character of the administration
Division of the land revenue
Land tenures
Miscellaneous taxes
Customs, etc.
Total revenues
384
384
385
386
387
388
389
389
390
391
393
394
394
395
396
397
399
CHAPTER XXIV
THE CONQUEST OF CEYLON, 1795-1815
By SIR MONTACU BURROWS. C. I. E.
Early English relations
Cleghorn and the capture of Colombo
Portuguese and Dutch influence on the island
The Company's administration
Frederick North's government
His attempt on Kandi
The massacre of 1803
The Kandian war
Eheylapola
The occupation of Kandi
401)
401
402
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
CHAPTER XXV
THE
REVENUE AD NIINISTRATION
OF BENGAL, 1765-86
By R. B. RIMSCOTHAM, B. Lit.
Grant of the diwanni
Revenue agents in Bengal
The zamindar
The supervisors of revenue
The kanungo
Concealment of the land revenue
Hastings as revenue administrator
The Committee of Circuit
Union of revenue and judicial powers
40:1
409
409
411
412
413
413
414
415
## p. xviii (#24) ###########################################
xviii
CONTENTS
PAGE
The rai-raian
Settlement of 1772
The collectors
The diwanni adalats
The changes of 1773: provincial councils
Criticisms of Francis, etc.
Interference of the Supreme Court
Krishna Kantu Nandi
Replies to the circular of 23 October, 1774
Discussions of 1775-76
The Amini Commission
Impey chief judge of the sadr
Annual settlements
Centralisation of 1781
Its defects
Macpherson's reorganisation
The chief Saristadar
416
416
417
418
418
419
421
421
422
423
424
426
426
427
· 428
430
431
CHAPTER XXVI
THE BENGAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM,
1786-1818
By LILIAN M.
chosen from outside the Covenanted service
The subordinate governments
313
313
314
316
318
319
320
321
1784-1815
CHAPTER XIX
THE EXCLUSION OF THE FRENCH,
By H. H. DODWELI. .
French adventurers in India
French projects
Contemplated alliance with the Dutch
Tipu's embassies
The French Revolution
Napoleon's expedition to Egypt
Mornington's precautions
Baird's expedition to the Red Sea
Decaen's instructions
French privateers
Gardane's mission
Capture of the French islands
323
324
325
325
326
327
327
328
329
330
331
332
CHAPTER XX.
TIPU SULTAN, 1785-1802.
By the VERY REVEREND, W. H. HUTTON, D. D. ,
Dean of Winchester.
War between Tipu and the Marathas
Settlement of the Guntoor question
Tipu's attack on Travancore
Cornwallis's triple alliance
The third Mysore War
Treaty of Seringapatam 1792
Shore refuses intervention
Causes of the fourth Mysore War
Death of Tipu Sultan
Tipu's character
Wellesley's settlement
Re-establishment of the Hindu reigning family
333
334
335
335
336
337
338
339
341
342
342
344
## p. xvi (#22) #############################################
XVI
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXI
OUDH AND THE CARNATIC, 1785-1801
By the DEAN OF WINCHESTER.
1. OUDH, 1785-1801.
PAGE
.
Condition of Oudh in 1787
Cornwallis's settlement
Shore and the succession question
Lucknow in 1794
Deposition of Wazir 'Ali
Oudh in 1798
Wellesley's views
Wellesley's negotiations
347
348
348
349
349
351
352
353
2. The CARNATIC, 1785-1801.
Position and character of Nawab Walajah
His debts
Cornwallis's treaty
Lord Hobart's proposals
Wellesley's views
The Tanjore question
The Seringapatam papers
The assumption of the Carnatic
355
355
356
357
359
360
361
361
CHAPTER XXII
THE FINAL STRUGGLE VV ITH
THE MARATHAS, 1784-1818
By the late S. M. EDWARDES. C. S. I. , C. V. O.
Mahadaji Sindhia
His position at Delhi
Rivalry of Nana Phadnavis
Ghulam Kadir seizes Delhi
Sindhia consolidates his position
Death of Mahadaji Sindhia
The Maratha confederacy
The pirate states
Intrigues and confusion at Poona
Wellesley's proposals to Baji Rao II
Holkar defeats Sindhia and Baji Rao
The Treaty of Bassein
War with Sindhia and Berar
War with Holkar
Barlow's settlement
State of Sindhia and Holkar
The Pindaris
The war with Nepal
Gangadhar Sastri's murder
Treaty of Gwalior
The last Maratha war
Lord Hastings's settlement
363
363
364
365
366
367
367
369
370
371
372
373
373
374
375
376
377
377
379
380
380
382
## p. xvii (#23) ############################################
CONTENTS
xvii
CHAPTER XXIII
MARATHA ADMINISTRATION
By the late S. M. EDWARDES.
PAGE
Position of the raja of Satara
The powers of the Peshwa
The Huzur Daftar
The Deccani village
The Mamlatdar
Financial irregularities
Minor revenue divisions
The judicial system: panchayats
Criminal cases
Police
The army
General character of the administration
Division of the land revenue
Land tenures
Miscellaneous taxes
Customs, etc.
Total revenues
384
384
385
386
387
388
389
389
390
391
393
394
394
395
396
397
399
CHAPTER XXIV
THE CONQUEST OF CEYLON, 1795-1815
By SIR MONTACU BURROWS. C. I. E.
Early English relations
Cleghorn and the capture of Colombo
Portuguese and Dutch influence on the island
The Company's administration
Frederick North's government
His attempt on Kandi
The massacre of 1803
The Kandian war
Eheylapola
The occupation of Kandi
401)
401
402
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
CHAPTER XXV
THE
REVENUE AD NIINISTRATION
OF BENGAL, 1765-86
By R. B. RIMSCOTHAM, B. Lit.
Grant of the diwanni
Revenue agents in Bengal
The zamindar
The supervisors of revenue
The kanungo
Concealment of the land revenue
Hastings as revenue administrator
The Committee of Circuit
Union of revenue and judicial powers
40:1
409
409
411
412
413
413
414
415
## p. xviii (#24) ###########################################
xviii
CONTENTS
PAGE
The rai-raian
Settlement of 1772
The collectors
The diwanni adalats
The changes of 1773: provincial councils
Criticisms of Francis, etc.
Interference of the Supreme Court
Krishna Kantu Nandi
Replies to the circular of 23 October, 1774
Discussions of 1775-76
The Amini Commission
Impey chief judge of the sadr
Annual settlements
Centralisation of 1781
Its defects
Macpherson's reorganisation
The chief Saristadar
416
416
417
418
418
419
421
421
422
423
424
426
426
427
· 428
430
431
CHAPTER XXVI
THE BENGAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM,
1786-1818
By LILIAN M. PENSON, Ph. D.
Cornwallis's instructions
His appointment
His advisers: John Shore
James Grant
Charles Grant
Sir William Jones
Cornwallis's character
The Board of Trade
The General Department
The Board of Revenue
The judicial system
The reform of the Board of Trade
The revenue reforms of 1787
The reform of criminal justice
The Secret Department of reform
The Secretariat
Further reforms of 1790
The decennial settlement
The permanent settlement
Reform of the police system
Separation of judicial and executive authority
The Cornwallis code
Changes introduced by Shore and Wellesley
The Select Committee of 1808
Lord Hastings's alterations
Importance Cornwallis's work
433
434
435
435
435
436
437
438
439
439
44. 2
441
442
444
446
446
447
448
450
451
452
454
456
458
458
480
## p. xix (#25) #############################################
CONTENTS
xfx
CHAPTER XXVII
THE MADRAS DISTRICT SYSTEM
AND LAND REVENUE TO 1818
By J T. GWYNN, I. C. S. (Retd. ).
PAGE
462
463
463
466
467
468
468
470
471
472
474
474
476
470
480
South Indian administration in the eighteenth century
Position of the poligars
Position of the ryots
Land and sair revenue
Early Company's administration
Lionel Place in the jagir
Crlonel Alexander Read
Thomas Munro
Early ryotwari
Introduction of the permanent zamindari settlement
The. Bengal judicial system
The poligar settlements
Village settlements
Munro and the Fifth Report
Results of the early period
CHAPTER XXVIII
AFGHANISTAN, RUSSIA AND PERSIA
By W. A. J: ARCHBOLD, M. A. , LL. B.
Early history of the Kabul kingdom
Zaman Shah
Shah Shuja
English views on Central Asia
Missions to Persia, Kabul and Lahore
Rise of Dost Muhammad
Russian designs in Central Asia
Lord Auckland
Burnes's mission
The siege of Herat
The Tripartite Treaty
Preparation for the invasion of Afghanistan
The Simla Manifesto
Home policy
Keane's advance
The storm of Ghazni
Shah Shuja's position
The Russian expedition
Difficulties with the Sikhs
Troubles in Afghanistan
Surrender of Dost Muhammad
Situation in 1841
The revolt at Kabul
Macnaghten's negotiations
Retreat and massacre of the Kabul force
Auckland's measures
Sale's defence of Jallalabad
Ellenborough appointed Governor-General
Nott at Kandahar
Ellenborough's orders
Kabul reoccupied
The evacuation of Afghanistan
483
485
485
486
486
488
489
490
491
493
495
497
498
498
499
501
502
502
503
504
505
505
506
508
510
511
512
513
515
516
518
520
## p. xx (#26) ##############################################
XX
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXIX
THE CONQUEST OF SIND AND
THE PANJAB
By W. A. J. ARCHBOLD.
I. SIND.
PAGE
The Talpura Mirs
The navigation of the Indus
Sind and the Tripartite Treaty
Treaties with the Mirs
Ellenborough's early views
Napier's instructions
The Khairpur succession
Imam Garh
Outbreak in Lower Sind
Battles of Miani and Dabo
Annexation
522
523
525
527
528
530
533
534
536
536
538
II. THE PANJAB.
Rise of Ranjit Singh
The Cis-Satlej Sikhs
Expansion of Ranjit's dominions
The capture of Peshawar
Projects against Sind
Character of Ranjit.
Intrigue and disorder after his death
Ellenborough's views
Further revolutions
The first Sikh War
Battles of Firozshah and Sobraon
Hardinge's settlement
Revision of the treaty
Murder of Agnew and Anderson
The second Sikh War
Annexation of the Panjab
539
540
541
543
544
544
546
547
548
548
550
552
553
554
555
556
CHAPTER XXX
BURMA, 1782-1852
By G. E. HARVEY, I. C. S.
Early English intercourse
The first Burmese War
The Residents
The second Burmese War
Administration of Arakan
Administration of Tenasserim
558
559
560
561
562
565
## p. xxi (#27) #############################################
CONTENTS
xxi
CHAPTER XXXI
THE INDIAN STATES, 1818-57
By the late Lr. -COL. C. E. LUARD.
Lord Hastings's settlement
Malcolm's work in Central India
Settlement in Rajputana
Hastings and Oudh
Hastings and the Nizam
The Bharatpur succession
Ellenborough and Gwalior
Annexation of Satara
Annexation of Nagpur
Dealings with Jhansi and Karauli
Annexation of Oudh:
Dalhousie's policy
PAGE
570
571
573
575
575
577
578
881
582
582
583
586
CHAPTER XXXII
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOVEREIGNTY
IN BRITISH INDIA
By H. H. DODWELL.
Dual origin of the Company's authority
Developments in the Carnatic
Developments in Bengal
The Crown and the Company
Language of statutes and treaties
Hastings's' assertion of British sovereignty
Francis's views
French and English policy
Browne's mission to Delhi
The attitude of Cornwallis
Wellesley and Shah 'Alam
Lord Hastings's views
Amherst and Akbar II
Ellenborough's and Dalhousie's negotiations
Disappearance of the Moghul Empire
589
390
591
592
592
597
599
600
601
603
604
605
606
606
807
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
The Portuguese in India (Chapter 1)
The Dutch in India (Chapter II)
The French Factories in India (Chapter in)
The East India Company, 1600-1740 (Chapter rv)
The Struggle with the French (Chapters V, vi, and VIII)
The Conquest of Bengal (Chapters vil and ix)
Warren Hastings and Bengal, 1772-85 (Chapters X-XIII and XVI-XVII)
The First Conflict of the Company with the Marathas, 1761-82
(Chapter XIV)
The Carnatic, 1761-84 (Chapter xv)
Legislation and Governments, 1786-1818 (Chapter XVII)
The Exclusion of the French, 1784-1815 (Chapter Xix)
Tipu Sultan. 1785-1802 (Chapter XX)
609
613
615
618
621
623
625
.
627
628
631
632
634
## p. xxii (#28) ############################################
xxii
CONTENTS
The Carnatic, 1785-1801 (Chapter XXI)
Oudh, 1785-1801 (Chapter XXI)
The Final Struggle with the Marathas, 1784-1818 (Chapter XXri)
Maratha Administration (Chapter XXII)
The Conquest of Ceylon, 1795-1815 (Chapter XXIV)
The Revenue Administration of Bengal, 1765-86 (Chapter XXV)
The Bengal Administrative System, 1786-1818. (Chapter XXVI)
The Madras District System and Land Revenue to 1818. (Chapter XXVII)
Afghanistan, Russia and Persia (Chapter XXVIII)
The Conquest of Sind (Chapter XXIX)
The Conquest of the Panjab (Chapter XXIX)
Burma, 1782-1852 (Chapter Xxx)
The Indian States, 1818-57 (Chapter XXXI)
The Development of Sovereignty in British India (Chapter xxxu)
PAGE
635
636
636
638
639
640
641
642
644
647
648
650
652
654.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
654
INDEX
661
## p. 1 (#29) ###############################################
CHAPTER I
THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA, 1498—1598
THE last decade of the fifteenth century witnessed the discovery
of a new world by Columbus and of a new route to an old world by
Vasco da Gama. Both discoveries were epoch-making, though in
totally different ways. The latter, however, had the more immediate
effect on the history of Europe; and perhaps no event during the
middle ages had such far-reaching repercussion on the civilised world
as the opening of the sea-route to India. Vast countries, hitherto
visited only by rare travellers or not at all, and known by name only
to the learned few, were suddenly brought into touch with the West;
and the luxuries of the East, which had hitherto passed through so
many hands before they reached the European market, could now be
brought direct to Lisbon. As a result, the sea-borne trade of the
Muslims in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea was paralysed, and
the prosperous houses of Genoa and Venice were faced with the ruin
of half their trade in the Levant, while Portugal rose suddenly to such
prosperity and fame that she was soon without a rival in Europe.
Persia, too, was threatened with the loss of the heavy customs she had
for centuries been levying on the wares which were carried westward
through her territory. Nothing can better illustrate the revolutionary
effect of the opening of the sea-route to India on the markets of
Europe than the detailed statement of the payments made by
merchants 'trading from India to Alexandria which is given by con-
temporary Portuguese writers. I repeat here the excellent summary
given by Mr. Whiteway:
The profits on wares sent from the East to Europe were enormous to bear
the cost of passage through so many jurisdictions and the expense. of so many
transhipments. There has come to us a detailed statement of the payments made
by the merchants trading from India to Alexandria, which is full of interest; it
refers to a time when an independent Sultan ruled in Cairo, but under the
Ottoman Turks the payments would certainly not have been smaller. The Red
Sea merchants lived in Jedda and had their factors in Calicut. The regulations
of the Sultan of Cairo required that one-third of the imports should be pepper,
and this amount must be sold to him in Jedda at Calicut prices. Say a merchant
brought goods from Calicut to the value there of £300, and among them no
pepper. He would have to buy in Jedda, at Jedda prices, pepper worth in
Calicut £100, and re-sell it to the Sultan at the Calicut price. On
the balance of the goods he would pay 10 per cent. ad valorem, and again on
the balance, after deducting this 10 per cent. , 4 per cent. more. Instead,
however, of getting the Calicut price of the pepper in money, he was compelled
to take copper in Jedda from the Sultan at Calicut prices--that is, copper 1. 0
Jędda vas worth 7 cruzados the quintal, but this he was compelled to buy at
12 cruzados, the Calicut price. Practically, therefore, the Sultan of Cairo was;
at no expense to himself, a partner to the extent of one-third in every voyage.
1 Rise of Portuguese Power in India, pp. 7. 8.
1
## p. 2 (#30) ###############################################
2
THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA, 1498-1598
In spite of these exactions the profits on the double journey would be very large
indeed.
To continue, however, with the goods to Europe. Brought to Suez in smaller
boats from Jedda, the importer had to pay 5 per cent. ad valorem in ready
money; and to supply this money there were banks at Suez prepared to cash
drafts. The journey to Cairo took three days; and a camel to carry about 450 lbs.
cost about 37s. 6d. A mile out of Cairo the goods were registered. The value
of pepper in the Cairo market was about 20d. the pound, and a merchant buy-
ing pepper had to buy an amount equal to one-third of his purchases. From
Cairo the goods were taken down the Nile in boats, and were carried from the
river to Alexandria on camels. At Alexandria they were registered again, and
buyer and seller had each to pay 5 per cent. ad valorem. The shipper had also
lo pay 5 per cent. to frank him across the sea.
The Pope, Alexander VI, in view of the wonderful discoveries by
the Spaniards and the Portuguese, had taken upon himself between
1493 and 1494 to issue no less than four bulis with the object of
parcelling out the world between these two nations. The Pope's
delimitations, which with each bull showed greater advantages to
Spain, were somewhat modified by the Treaty of Tordesillas (June,
1494), which gave Portugal all the lands which might be discovered
east of a straight line drawn from the Arctic to the Antarctic Pole at
a distance of 370 leagues west of Cape Verde, and to Spain all lands
west of that line. And in 1502 the same Pope gave the king of Portu-
gal permission to style himself “Lord of the Navigation, Conquest and
Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia and India”.
It must not be forgotten that by the end of the fifteenth century
the Portuguese had explored not only the whole length of the western
coast of Africa but also a portion of the mainland beyond the Cape
of Good Hope; and that Vasco da Gama was not sent to discover
India, but merely to find the direct sea-route to that country. The
original idea underlying this mission was to find spices and Christians.
Factories were established without great difficulty, but the chief care
of the Portuguese commanders was the attempt to drive all Muham-
madan shipping from the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea in order to
ensure the carrying of all Indian products in Portuguese vessels. The
next hundred years are therefore occupied not only in establishing
factories on the coast of India, but also in placing garrisons at a
number of strategic points, i. e. at the entrance of the Red Sea and
elsewhere outside India.
So long as their energies were mainly devoted to the control of
the high seas and to the capture or defence of these strategic points,
the Portuguese were pre-eminently successful, though thwarted of two
of the prizes they most coveted, namely Aden and Jedda. But they
showed themselves incapable of founding on Indian soil anything
resembling an overseas empire; and although they have continued to
hold a certain number of their Indian possessions down to the present
1 See especially Van der Linden, “Alexander VI and his Bulls, 1493-1494",
American Historical Review, XXI, No. 1, 1916.
## p. 3 (#31) ###############################################
HISTORICAL SOURCES
3
day, they were not strong enough, when the time came, to defeat
their European rivals in the East, and lost one by one those outlying
bases which had once given them the command of the eastern seas.
Though, as has been so often observed, the predominance of the
religious orders in civil affairs contributed greatly to the decline of
the Portuguese power in India, the devoted labours in other spheres
of the Jesuits at Goa must never be lost sight of. The contributions of
their missionaries to the historical and geographical literature of the
world constitute an inestimable treasure-house of knowledge, and have
placed under a lasting obligation all students of the East. It is also
a fortunate circumstance that, apart from the literary activity of the
Jesuits, the Portuguese produced during this heroic age, in addition
to a great epic poet, a number of fine chroniclers, who wrote minute
and thrilling narratives of their progress in the East; notably Barros,
Couto, Castanheda, Goes, Alvarez, Almeida, Duarte Barbosa, and last
but not least the great Affonso d'Albuquerque himself, whose Letters
and Commentaries will bear comparison with those of any other
soldier-statesman.
Finally a word may be said regarding the Muhammadan sources
for the history of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean and the Red
Sea, existing in Arabic, Persian and Turkish. Although these writers,
like the Portuguese, are not free from prejudice nor above the sup-
pression of incidents wounding national and religious pride, their
narratives are usually in complete accord with those of their enemies,
and bear striking testimony to the intelligent grasp which the Portu-
guese gained of the public affairs and private intrigues of the
Musulmans.
The principal states in Hindustan and Western India at the end of
the fifteenth century were the Muhammadan kingdoms of Delhi,
Gujarat, Berar, Bidar, Ahmadnagar and Bijapur: and the Hindu
kingdoms of Vijayanagar, Kannanur, Calicut and Cochin.
It was actually the power of Vijayanagar which prevented the
Muhammadan states of Northern India from making a coalition against
the Portuguese when they first settled on the coast; and when in
1565 the power of Vijayanagar was broken and a coalition formed,
the Portuguese were too strongly established to be ousted. As, during
the first half of the sixteenth century, Vijayanagar was really the
dominating power in Southern India, it is strange that the Portuguese
never tried to conciliate tha: state, but on the contrary were at times
openly hostile.
On 8 July, 1497, three vessels, varying from 60 to 150 tons burden,
left Lisbon under Vasco da Gama, and on 17 May, 1498, they anchored
1 See Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, October, 1921, and January,
1922, "The Portuguese in India and Arabia between 1507-1517; and between
1517-1538", by the present writer.
## p. 4 (#32) ###############################################
4
THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA, 1498-1598
off a small village eight miles north of Calicut. It is not without
significance that the first landing of these men, whose main object
was to usurp the spice trade, hitherto a monopoly of the Muham-
madans, should have been on Hindu territory. One wonders what
might have been the fate of da Gama and his companions if the
landing had been attempted, say, in some part of the powerful Muslim
kingdom of Gujarat. As it turned out, the Hindu ruler of Calicut,
whose hereditary title was Zamorin, gave a friendly reception to
these strangers, had them conducted by a pilot to a safer anchorage,
and invited da Gama to pay him a visit in Calicut. In response to this
invitation a party of fourteen set out for the Zamorin's capital; and so
great was their ignorance of things Indian that they mistook a Hindu
temple for a Christian chapel, imagining that what was not Muham-
madan must be Christian. Though they cannot have found the Hindu
idols very orthodox in type, they nevertheless entered the temple
and prayed there. 1
For the attainment of their immediate object these early Portu.
guese adventurers were poorly equipped. In the first place they had
brought no presents for the local rulers with whom they would have
to treat-a strange omission in view of their past experiences in Africa;
and secondly their wares proved unattractive to the Indians, which
in the circumstances was quite natural. In spite of the difficulties
which the Muhammadan traders, in self-defence, put in their way,
the adventurers achieved, thanks to the Zamorin, a certain measure
of success and seem to have established quite friendly relations with
the people of the country. When, however, on 29 August, 1498, da
Gama set out on his return voyage, he carried with him five out of
twelve inhabitants whom he had made prisoners as a reprisal for
the detention of some of his goods, ultimately restored to him. This
was the one injudicious act associated with the first expedition, and
no doubt helped to confirm the stories, eagerly spread by the Muslim
traders, of the high-handed methods of the Portuguese in Africa. As
a reconnaissance, da Gama's voyage was of the utmost importance;
for on his return to Lisbon after an absence of two years with two out
of his three ships, and fifty-five survivors out of the original company
of 170, he was able to show specimens of the articles obtainable in the
Calicut market, and to tell the merchants of Portugal what wares met
with the favour of the Malabaris. Of the religion and customs of that
.
part of India he seems to have learnt surprisingly little. To judge by
the instructions issued to the second expedition, it would appear that
da Gama's party had actually passed three months in a Hindu country
without discovering the existence of the Hindu religion. All the
inhabitants of India who were not Muslims were assumed to be
Christians, but of course bad Christians as they were not Catholics;
1. See Whiteway, op. cit. p. 80.
2 Idem, p. 89, n. 1.
## p. 5 (#33) ###############################################
PEDRO ALVAREZ CABRAT.
6
>
and we know how much time and how many lives the Portuguese
afterwards devoted to the conversion to the Roman faith of the
Ethiopians who were already. Christians. Still it remains a mystery
why they failed to discover that the Zamorin was neither Christian
nor Muslim, seeing that they were for so long in daily intercourse
with him.
After the return of da Gama, preparations were immediately made
in Portugal to equip a new fleet on a far larger scale than the first,
and, on 9 March, 1500, Pedro Alvarez Cabral set out from Lisbon in
command of a fleet of thirteen vessels and 1200 men. Among his
captains was Bartholomeu Dias, who had been the first sailor to round
the Cape. After a series of amazing adventures, including the acci-
dental discovery of Brazil and Madagascar, Cabral with six vessels
reached Calicut on 13 September, 1500, and on the 18th he had an
interview on shore with the Zamorin. Cabral was eminently unsuited
for the diplomatic side of his mission, and showed no disposition to
consider the sentiments and prejudices of those with whom he was
sent to trade. Misunderstandings due to ignorance and mistrust arose
after the first interview, and reached a climax with the seizure on
16 December of a ship belonging to the Arabs, which led to a riot in
which forty Portuguese perished and their factory was levelled with
the ground. In consequence of this it became impossible for Cabral
to remain at Calicut, but, before leaving with only two ships laden,
he put to death 600 innocent boatmen who had had nothing to do
with the riot, and for two days bombarded the town. On 24 December
they reached Cochin, where, though they did not actually meet the
raja—who afterwards proyed such a valuable ally to them—they
succeeded in loading the remainder of their ships. Scarcely had they
done so, however, when news came that a large fleet was sailing down
the coast from Calicut to attack them. Cabral stole away on the night
of 9 January, 1501, leaving in Cochin about thirty Portuguese, among
whom was the famous Duarte Barbosa 1 On the following day Cabral
only escaped an encounter with the Zamorin's fleet by reason of a
calm. It may be mentioned that when off Kannanur he was assisted
by the local raja with supplies. Eventually Cabral reached Portugal
with five vessels so richly laden that the expenses of the whole expe-
dition were more than covered. But the most important result of
this in many ways disastrous journey was the discovery of the Cochin
harbour, which was greatly superior to Calicut as an anchorage, and
the further knowledge of Indian politics, which taught them that in
the raja of Cochin, the enemy of the Zamorin, they might find a
constant ally.
In 1501 a fleet of four trading vessels went to Cochin and returned
in safety, having been warned at Mozambique to avoid Calicut.
It is convenient here to review the new situation in which Portu-
1 Duarte Barbosa, ed. by M. Longworth Dames (Hakluyt Society.
