Bismarck
therefore
had to face a
National Liberal party stronger than ever and more
?
National Liberal party stronger than ever and more
?
Robertson - Bismarck
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR
was too loyal at once to join an opposition. Bismarck was
not failing. On the contrary, he was about to give remark-
able proof of an astonishing versatility and vitality. The
year of retirement had renewed the lust of battle within
him. His return to Berlin in the spring of 1878 was not
caused wholly by the failure of the policy of the Kultur-
kampf, nor by the crisis that had developed in the Eastern
Question. He returned to close the first phase of his
Imperial Chancellorship and to open the second and last.
? 2. The Kulturkampf, 1871-1878
From 1871 onwards Germany, and above all Prussia,
was involved in the'Kulturkampj\ a name given by the
ardent Radical and eminent pathologist, Virchow, to the
struggle between the Papacy and the Civil State in Ger-
many. It conveniently summed up the deeper issues
involved between two antagonistic conceptions of culture
or civilisation, and between two theories of the basis and
competence of authority in a politically organised com-
munity and society. The abolition of the Temporal Power
and the Declaration of the Infallibility of the Papacy were
the climax to a great and well-marked chapter in the history
of the Roman Pontificate. When the powerful movement
of Conciliar Reform failed, in the first half of the fifteenth
century, to heal the Great Schism and cure the evils of the
Church of the Latin West, the modern Papacy began.
Under Nicholas v. commenced a development which in the
Council of Trent and the Tridentine Decrees not merely
formulated the reply of the Counter-Reformation to the
Reformation, but gave to the Pontificate a position, an
organisation, and a title that distinguish the Papacy of
the Renaissance and the sixteenth century from the
mediaeval Popes of the undivided Latin Church. The
entry of the Italian troops into Rome on September 20,
1870, ended the political system on which the Papacy
of the Renaissance and the Counter-Reformation rested.
The nineteenth-century Papacy and the Roman Church
throughout the world had now to readjust their title,
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? BISMARCK
organisation, and future--their claim to spiritual supremacy
and to unlimited jurisdiction, and unquestioning obedi-
ence within the Roman Communion--not merely to a new
Italy, but to a new Europe and a new world of international
relations and intellectual and moral ideas. It was not acci-
dental, but an essential feature of the processes that had
made that new world, that the Vatican Council coincided
with the world events of 1870. The first and most rever-
berating assertion that the new age had arrived was the
Vatican Decrees. They were a challenge, a programme,
and a publication of title-deeds in one.
The immediate origins of the embittered conflict that
broke out in Germany, the first and severest phase of which
broadly ended in 1878, had, as has been previously in-
dicated, its roots in the evolution of thought and political
action two generations prior to the establishment of the
Empire. For obvious reasons the struggle centred in
Germany, but the issues were raised in all the European
States. Prussia had had a foretaste of the struggle in the
newly acquired Rhenish provinces after 1815, which had
ended in a compromise that did not settle any of the
cardinal points at issue. Since 1848 the controversy had
been concentrated in Bavaria; but it had also broken out
sharply in Baden, where the control of the schools and of
the training of the clergy raised the central principles in
dispute.
The 'war '--for it was nothing less--was transferred
from Bavaria and Baden to Prussia and the Empire in 1871.
The concurrent promulgation of the Vatican Decrees and
the establishment of the German Empire fused the poli-
tical, ecclesiastical, and intellectual elements in the
controversy into a single but complex whole.
The Declaration of Papal Infallibility of July 18, 1870,
brought the matter to a head within the Roman Church,
and the refusal of the Roman Catholic Professor Dollinger,
'as a Christian, as a theologian, as a historian, as a citizen,'
to accept the Decrees at once raised the question: Would
the State accept the determination of the Papacy to im-
pose obedience on members of its own communion, priests,
and laymen, or would it support those who refused in their
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR
3"
right to exercise spiritual functions and jurisdiction, under
State protection? When the Archbishop of Munich pub-
lished the Vatican Decrees without first obtaining the
Regium Placitum required by Bavarian law, and when the
Bavarian government turned to the Imperial government
for assistance in the conflict, the answer was given by an
addition to the Penal Code--the famous Pulpit Paragraph
--forbidding priests in their official capacity to deal with
political matters.
The Imperial government was thereby committed to a
struggle with Ultramontanism. The claim of the In-
fallible Papacy challenged the nature, competence, and
limits of the sovereignty claimed by the secular State over
all persons and over all causes, ecclesiastical as well as civil,
throughout its dominions supreme.
Dollinger stated the theoretical issue very clearly :--
'The ultramontane view can be summarised in a single, concise,
and luminous proposition, but out of this proposition are evolved
a doctrine and a view that embrace not merely religion and the
Church, but science, the State, politics, morals, and the social
order--in a word, the whole intellectual and moral life of men and
nations. The proposition runs: The Pope is the supreme, the in-
fallible, and consequently the sole authority in all that concerns
religion, the Church, and morality; and each of his utterances on
these topics demands unconditional submission, internal no less
than external. '
The Decrees involved the concentration of all eccle-
siastical powers in the person of the Pope, whose utter-
ances ex cathedra were declared by the Vatican Council
to be infallible, and repudiation of which involved excom-
munication. They also enforced the claim that on the
secular State was laid the duty of carrying out the decisions
of the infallible spiritual authority, and that the definition
and decision of what constituted a question of religion or
morals lay in the ultimate resort with the Church, speak-
ing through the person and office of the supreme and
infallible Pontiff, by reason of the intrinsic, inalienable,
and inherent superiority of spiritual to secular authority.
Bismarck and Germany had now to decide whether the
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? BISMARCK
Empire would accept the doctrine and consequences in-
volved in the Vatican Decrees. One example will suffice
to illustrate the problem. When the Archbishop of
Cologne excommunicated four 'old Catholic' professors
of the State University of Bonn for refusal to subscribe to
the Vatican Decrees, was the Prussian State to acquiesce in
this jurisdiction over officers of the university who held
their chairs under the authority of the State? The
Prussian Constitution (Art. 12) guaranteed' the enjoyment
of civil and political rights independently of religious
belief '; it stated (Art. 20) that' science and its doctrines
are free '; it laid down (Art. 22) that 'proofs of moral,
scientific and technical capacity . . . to give public in-
struction' concerned 'the State authorities,' and that
(Art. 23) 'public teachers had the rights and duties of
State servants. ' The action of the Archbishop implied
that the Prussian State was to suspend or deprive its public
servants of a right conferred on them under legal guarantees
at the bidding of an authority, in itself only exercising
jurisdiction defined by, and drawing emoluments under
the protection of, the State. It followed that the Roman
Pontiffs would, if the State assented unconditionallyj deter-
mine what kind of teaching and by whom would be
given in every university and school throughout Germany,
and under what conditions teachers in State universities
and schools, paid for and controlled by the State, would
hold office or be liable to suspension, dismissal, or depri-
vation of their rights.
To Bismarck the problem at the outset was primarily
political. The Second Empire and Napoleon in. had
been the main supporters of the temporal power of the
Papacy. Bismarck had "refused to intervene prior to
or during the Vatican Council. There is considerable
evidence that the dominant party at the Vatican had con-
templated completing the Decrees of Infallibility by a
declaration that the retention of the temporal power by
the Papacy should be regarded as a revealed article of faith,
not a revealed dogma, but a truth guaranteed by the doc-
trinal body of the Holy Church. But if so, the course of
political events quashed the intention. The immediate
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR 313
problem in the autumn of 1870 was whether Bismarck
would take steps to restore the temporal power. True to
his methods, the Chancellor first negotiated with Arch-
bishops Ledochowski and Bonnechose: The support of
the French Church, aided by the Papacy, in securing the
Seace with France that he desired might be worth buying,
ut Bismarck convinced himself in the negotiation that
the Papacy lacked either the power or the goodwill or
both to carry out a suitable bargain, and the general de-
velopment of the international situation very soon proved
that the restoration of the temporal power by Prussian
diplomacy or arms would imperil the peace with France,
the new Empire, and the completion of unification. All
the Nationalist and Liberal forces in Germany would have
allied themselves with public opinion in Great Britain and
the Nationalist forces in Italy to repudiate and oppose
such a policy.
There remained, therefore, the issues raised by the
Vatican Decrees, separable from the question of the
Temporal Power. The establishment of the Empire
made a struggle inevitable. It could only have been
avoided had Bismarck accepted the Decrees as binding
on the Roman Catholic subjects of the Empire, and ac-
quiesced in their enforcement by the active co-operation
of the civil powers in the Empire and in Prussia. If that
was impossible, as it clearly was, what was the Civil State
to do to protect its authority, and how was it to treat
ecclesiastical and spiritual persons who repudiated that
authority or resisted the execution of its will? Diplomacy
between Berlin and the Curia could not effect a compro-
mise in 1871. Those who controlled the policy of the
Vatican were confronted by serious opposition within their
own communion to the Decrees; if they failed to enforce
obedience, the Ultramontane interpretation of Papal
power and ecclesiastical unity would be shattered. - The
Vatican Council of 1870 was a deliberate step in the policy
of Ultramontanism: once the Roman Curia had pinned
its flag to the Decrees the enforcement of obedience within
its own communion and spiritual jurisdiction was a
question of life and death. It was no less impossible for
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? 3H
BISMARCK
the Prussian Civil Power to place its secular authority un-
reservedly at the disposal of the Vatican and to acquiesce
in the claim of the Roman Church to determine how far
it would obey, and how far it would set aside as invalid,
the law of the land defined by the Civil Power. The
position in 1871 for Papacy and Empire was not that in
1878 or 1888; the validity of the Decrees was impugned
by Catholics of the eminence of Dellinger, Rheinkens, and
others, and in 1871 it was an open question whether the
Vatican would succeed in enforcing its authority within
the Roman communion.
Political and intellectual Liberalism prior to 1871, and
notably since the promulgation of the Syllabus of 1864,
combined in proclaiming the full sovereignty of the civil
power; it could reckon on the strength of the Protestant
of the Clerical party to German unification, and its denial
of the unlimited sovereignty of the Crown in Parliament,
strengthened the determination of the Protestant parties
in the broadest sense to impose the acceptance of that
sovereignty. To the Liberal leaders, 'the intellectuals,'
--such as Virchow and Bluntschli--the Vatican Decrees
were illuminated by the Syllabus of 1864, which not only
condemned without qualification the intellectual basis
of modern society, but imperilled the free, critical, and
scientific pursuit of truth; and in the case of the German
universities, which had made so notable a contribution to
German civilisation, the policy of Pio Nono and Antonelli
was, they held, a demand for the endowment and pro-
tection of obscurantism by the Prussian State. Because
Dollinger refused to accept the Decrees he was to be
hounded from the university chair that he adorned to die
excommunicate, like a tainted wether of the flock. The
Freilehrheit and Freilehrnheit of the German universities
were challenged by such action.
The Liberal theory of State sovereignty was reinforced
by the party which regarded the State as Power. If
Prussia and the Empire could not be master in their own
house, what was the meaning and value of Prussian power?
In Bismarck the Papal claims stirred the same feeling as in
The opposition
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR 315
our Henry vn1. : 'Use not such language to me, I like it
less than any man. ' And Andrassy in 1873 has related how
when Bismarck spoke to him of the Kulturkampf, 'his
eyes flashed, his words poured out, he spoke of the Pope
as a public danger, a revolutionary, an anarchist. ' Bis-
marck deliberately told the Reichstag in 1874 that the
war of 1870 ' was declared in agreement with Rome which
securely reckoned on the victory of the French, and that
the decision of Napoleon for peace was shaken and undone
by the influence of none but the Jesuits. ' After 1871
Bismarck rightly or wrongly feared an Ultramontane
coalition against the Empire.
Qn the other hand, the Roman Catholics numbered a
third of the German population, and the formation under
Windthorst of the Centre party, of sixty votes, a party
founded on a confessional basis, was a formidable reality,
'the most monstrous phenomenon in politics,' Bismarck
said. The Centre denied the validity of the treaties on
which the Empire was based, and demanded along with
a more truly federal State and greater liberty for the
federated States, the complete freedom and independence
of the Roman Church within the Empire.
After an address to the Emperor, requesting the res-
toration of the temporal power, they opposed a resolute
resistance to the unifying legislation and administrative
action of the imperial sovereignty. Bismarck decided,
with the enthusiastic support of the National Liberals,
the Progressives and Radicals, to crush the Clerical oppo-
sition. Herr von Falk became Minister of Education in
1872, and between that date and 1876 a series of measures
generally known as' The May Laws' (from the date of the
first important batch of May 15, 1873) was passed in the
Prussian Landtag. The Jesuits were expelled; civil
marriage was made compulsory; the Catholic Bureau in
the Ministry of Education was suppressed; the inspection
of schools was withdrawn from the Roman priesthood and
placed under the control of State inspectors; priests were
forbidden to abuse ecclesiastical punishments, e. g. ex-
communication: all ecclesiastical seminaries were placed
under State control; every priest before being permitted
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? 316
BISMARCK
to exercise office in the church was required to be educated
in a German university and to pass an examination in
German history, philosophy, literature, and classics; all
exercise of spiritual office by unauthorised persons was
punishable by loss of civic rights, and the State was
empowered to withhold from recalcitrant bishops the
payment of the State endowment.
These legislative powers were enforced by drastic
executive action. Cardinal Ledochowski, Archbishop of
Posen, was fined, imprisoned, and then dismissed from his
bishopric. The Archbishop of Cologne and the Bishops
of Trier and Paderborn were imprisoned, and by 1876
more than one thousand three hundred parishes had ho
recognised and 'loyal' Roman Catholic priest. Thousands
of Roman Catholics had been fined or imprisoned, while
the Roman Catholics throughout the Empire refused to
recognise the validity of the penal legislation, and were in
open revolt. Germany, in fact, was rent into two bitterly
opposed camps. The ferocity of the contending parties
can only be appreciated by a prolonged study of the con-
temporary literature, the pamphlets, and the caricatures
that flooded Germany from the Baltic to the Alps. 'Do
not fear,' Bismarck had exclaimed (May 14,1872),' we will
not go to Canossa either in body or in spirit. ' The declara-
tion, with its reference to the Investiture Contest with
Gregory vn. , rang through Germany. And in thousands
of German homes, even to-day, portraits of the Chancellor,
with these words as their motto, can be seen in a place
of honour. 'I am,' Bismarck proudly claimed, 'from the
Garonne to the Vistula, from the Baltic to the Tiber, the
best-hated man in all Europe. ' At Kissingen in 1874
Kullmann, a half-witted journeyman, who belonged to the
Catholic society of Salzwedel, attempted to assassinate the
Chancellor on the ground that he had insulted his party,
the Centre. 'You may push away the man from you as
you like,' Bismarck said to the Centre in the Reichstag,
'but he himself clings tightly to your coat-tails'; and
the uproar that followed the taunt was a miniature of the
internal situation in Germany.
Bismarck's decision to crush the Clerical Centre was
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR 317
momentous. 1 After 1878 he argued that he was not
responsible for the policy of the Kulturkampf, nor for the
May Laws and their execution. The argument will not
stand the test of facts nor of probability. In 1872, 1873,
and 1875 ne spoke repeatedly both in the Reichstag and
the Prussian Landtag in defence of the coercive legislation
and of the general policy of Prussia and the Empire in the
controversy. He complained bitterly in private letters
to Roon of the desertion of the Conservative party in
the 'Catholic controversy'; he was responsible for the
appointment of Falk, and supported him until 1878 against
the attacks in Court circles. It is, in the absence of all
corroborative evidence to the contrary, impossible to
believe that Bismarck as Chancellor and Minister-President
would have allowed a subordinate colleague to embark
Prussia and the Empire by legislation and administrative
action in a life-and-death struggle, which involved the most
delicate and fundamental issues of high policy at home and
abroad, without his complete concurrence. It is demon-
strable that the correspondence between the Emperor and
the Pope, which stated very tersely the Prussian attitude,
was on the Emperor's side drafted by Bismarck; the with-
drawal of the German mission from the Curia--the rupture,
in fact, of diplomatic relations--was Bismarck's act, and in
the negotiations after 1878 Bismarck assumed that the
May Laws would not be withdrawn unless the Vatican
made substantial concessions. The later assertion (in 1878
and repeated in his Memoirs) that he regarded the struggle
as mainly a recrudescence of the chronic problem of
Poland was an afterthought, and the blame subsequently
laid on Falk, as the author of the mischief and the failure,
was a characteristic trait of ingratitude. A scapegoat had
to be found, and Falk, the hero of the National Liberals
and Radicals, served the convenient purpose of exculpating
the Chancellor and affronting the parties with which
Bismarck broke between 1878 and 1879.
In 1874 Bismarck told the Reichstag that since 1862 his
1 Under-Secretary von Thile told Lord Odo Russell in 1872 'that Bismarck's
determination to raise the storm and fight the Church was so sudden that he
and Bismarck's private secretaries could mark the day and hour of 4the change
that came over him like an inspiration. '
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? BISMARCK
previsions and forecasts in all the great issues had been
wonderfully accurate. The remark had a side reference
to the KulturkampJ. But in 1871 Bismarck plainly mis-1
calculated. The diplomacy with which he had hitherto
crossed swords successfully had not had the traditions,
skill, fertility in resource, and pertinacity of the Vatican.
The Roman Curia could and did pull many wires through-
out Europe, and it could afford to wait. It had no capital
that could be stormed, leaving the defence impotent. Its
capital was everywhere, planted in the consciences of
millions of its communion. Heads can be cut off, but the
obedience of heart and will cannot be enforced by prison
or the guillotine. Bullets or wristcuffs cannot kill ideas.
The extermination of the faithful is not the same thing as
the extirpation of a faith. Indeed, the seven years from
1871 to 1878 were an instructive object-lesson in the limits
of power even when exercised by a State with the executive
strength of Prussia. In the constitutional conflict in 1862
Bismarck had rightly assumed that the Liberals would not
raise barricades, defy the laws, or refuse to pay taxes, and
that, if they did, the whiff of grapeshot would settle the
first outbreak. In 1872 he apparently calculated that the
Catholics would either not resist, or, if they did, would soon
surrender to a rigorous coercion. He was completely
mistaken. When Cardinal Archbishops, with the applause
of their congregations, defied the law and went to prison,
the State as Power could only, as Windthorst remarked,
bring in the guillotine--if it dared. For when a State by
its own action converts law-breakers into martyrs for con-
science it loses the sympathy of the law-abiding. The
average German began to think as Pepys did when he saw
oppressed Dissenters going to prison under the Clarendon
code: 'I would to God they would conform or not be so
well catch'd. ' Universal suffrage proved a terrible weapon
in the hands of the Centre party. At the general election
of 1874 the National Liberals increased their numbers to
over one hundred and fifty, but the Clericals polled
a million and a half votes and returned not sixty but
ninety-one members.
Bismarck therefore had to face a
National Liberal party stronger than ever and more
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR 319
indispensable to the government, and a Centre opposi-
tion enormously encouraged by its success.
It was in the nature of things that on both sides the
struggle should extend far beyond the limits foreseen in
1871: and the simple original issue, whether the Vatican
should or should not constrain opponents of the Decrees
to obedience, was by 1876 converted into an illimitable
controversy on the functions, basis, character, and ends of
civil government and its relation to ecclesiastical authority;
it threatened to divide Germany into two great con-
fessional camps, Protestant and Catholic, and to throw
back the newly born Empire of 1871 into the maelstrom
of Charles v. and the epoch of the Reformation, with the
passions of mediaeval Guelph and Ghibelline, and of Empire
and Papacy superimposed. In the welter of conflict the
secession and formation of the 'Old Catholics,' a tiny hand-
ful of the combatants, became a neglected by-issue. The
fiery support of religious and political Protestantism, and
of die powerful secularist intellectuals who desired to see a
complete separation of Church and State in every German
State, and the extirpation of denominational endowment
and teaching, was fatal to Liberal Catholicism. The issues
raised by Vaticanism became an assault in many quarters
on the Roman Catholic Church: and the cry of ' Los von
Rom ' and the establishment of a German national Catholic
Church on Febronian lines, independent of the Papacy,
aided the Papal effort to represent 'the May Laws' as a
Diocletian persecution, led by Bismarck into whom Satan
had entered.
To the Papacy, indeed, the Kulturkampf proved to
be an unqualified blessing. In 1871 and 1872 the anti-
infallibility movement within the Roman Communion was
a grave danger. But with an unerring eye the directors of
Vatican policy seized the weapon of their adversaries and
turned it against them. They closed the Roman Catholic
ranks as far as possible, and shifted the issue from the
narrower field of ' the May Laws' to a trial of strength
between the Roman Church as a whole and its opponents
spiritual or secular. The more eagerly did those oppo-
nents mass for attacks on a broad front, the broader the
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? 320
BISMARCK
front on which the Vatican deployed its counter-attacks.
Windthorst proved himself a consummate tactician and a
polished debater. He placed large issues in sonorous
phrases before the electorate in the programmes of the
Clerical Centre--freedom of conscience, the independence
of religion, the liberty of the individual German to worship
as reason led him, an Empire based on justice (Justitia funda-
mentum regnorum), taken from the mediaeval law books--and
by provocative taunts he understood how to seduce Con-
servatives, Liberals, Radicals, and Progressives into violent
indiscretions. It required courage to stand up to Bismarck,
but Windthorst smilingly removed the gloves and took and
gave telling punishment with a finished equanimity.
The results by 1878 were disquieting. Lord Odo
Russell's dispatches from 1873-77 indicate Bismarck's de-
pression, irritation, and anxiety. The Clericals had built
up a powerful and extraordinarily well-organised party;
they had ample funds, an influential press, and a network of
local machinery. It was the Kulturkampf which enabled
the Centre to become in Bismarck's lifetime the best
drilled, most obedient, and strongest single party in
Germany. They drew their strength from every class--
from cardinals and Polish magnates to the industrial
democracy in the old ecclesiastical principalities. The
stronger the executive action against them, the stronger
they reacted against it. The disciplining of Germany for
two generations told immensely in their favour. The
Clericals, and later the Social Democrats, had in the
German voter a man who had been drilled in a great mili-
tary machine, to whom obedience to command was life.
Given an organiser, a party with a real cause had organis-
able material ready to hand in the German electorate.
The Roman Church was an organisation already made.
Windthorst enjoyed its matchless and unlimited support.
The decadence of National Liberalism after 1878 is largely
accounted for by the absence of an intelligible cause, the
halting and contradictory language of its spokesmen, and
its dependence on a reservoir in a single social stratum, the
middle class. The Clerical party had none of these patent
defects.
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR 321
The ministerial conduct of the fight was vitiated also by
serious blunders. The punitive measures against the
inferior clergy--the hard-working priest of the village and
small town--threw hundreds of parishes, ignorant of the
deeper issues of Vaticanism, into opposition. The govern-
ment made no effort to enlist the sympathy of educated
Catholicism with the cause of freedom of opinion. Instead
of concentrating on the narrower issue of Vaticanism and
assisting the German hierarchy, placed in a grave perplexity
between two allegiances and influenced by a genuine anti-
pathy to the more profound consequences in the Decrees
and by a patriotic reluctance to defy the law binding on
German citizens; instead of trying to find a compromise for
the bishops coerced by Rome and menaced by the State;
instead of rallying the Catholic laity to the support of its
episcopate in the struggle with the Curia, the government
struck right and left at high and low with the indiscrimina-
tion of brute strength. Falk fought with the ability of a
trained lawyer who assumes that a juristic answer, expressed
in well-drafted legislation, and backed by executive action,
can settle every problem of life and conduct. Bismarck left
the law to Falk, the administration to the Home Office,
and thought of the higher politics alone. The limitations
in his statecraft were at once exposed. This was not a
case where ' one hand could wash the other. ' The subtle
yet deep intellectual and moral implications in the contro-
versy did not interest him, nor had he the time, the inclina-
tion, or the accumulated knowledge to master them. And,
as with Napoleon 1. in his struggle with the Papacy, the
ingrained contempt for ideas as ideas, for 'ideologues,' and
for men to whom ideas have a more inspiring import than
material force warped his judgment and blinded his in-
tuition. To Bismarck, as to Napoleon, the Church was a
necessity of an ordered life, but its action and position must
be strictly correlated to the ends prescribed by reasons of
State. In the Kulturkampf Bismarck found himself in
deeper water than his strength and skill could manage.
He was to repeat the experience in the struggle with
Social Democracy.
The shrewd Thiers predicted in 1873 that 'the iron
B. X
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BISMARCK
Chancellor' would find himself in the position described
in a story of Napoleon 1. 'Sire,' said a wag,' the enemy
has lost thousands of men. ' 'Yes,' replied Napoleon,' but
I have lost the battle. ' At Varzin in 1877 Bismarck was
ruefully reflecting that hundreds of priests had been driven
from their altars, but that he was on the point of losing the
battle.
For twelve months in the solitude of his estate the
Chancellor calculated and probed. The Emperor was
very unhappy, for he was at war with a third of his Empire.
'We have made enough concessions to Liberalism,' he
kept on fretfully repeating. The Empress, the powerful
Radziwills who represented at Court the Polish cause, the
Crown Prince's circle, and the Conservatives who after
1876 had closed their split, were in different ways and for
different reasons pressing for a cessation of the struggle.
Strong Protestants argued that the State as Power might
apply to the Lutheran Church the Erastian control applied
to the Roman Catholics. The Conservatives hated the
alliance with National Liberalism. The Centre might be
intolerant and superstitious, but it stood for authority and
social order, for religion and the Christian State, and not
for secularism and a godless education. Bismarck's sup-
port of the law imposing civil marriage in the Empire--a
recantation of the principles he had laid down from 1847-
51--was denounced as a lamentable apostasy, forced on him
by Liberalism. The governing class pressed for a return
to a Conservative policy. In a word, the pressure in all
the quarters most influential with the Crown was exerted
against the Bismarckian regime from 1871 to 1877.
Bismarck felt the pressure, and lashed out perpetually at
the insolence of the critics. But he recognised that the
whole internal and parliamentary situation was crumbling
into chaos. The financial position was critical. The
unified Empire was proving to be very costly. The system
of 'matricular contributions' to the Imperial revenue
from the federated States was a burden that aggravated
Particularism. The failure to nationalise the raflways cut
off a valuable Imperial revenue. New taxation was im-
peratively needed. The government required a large
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR 323
expanding income, removed as far as possible from the
control of the Reichstag. There was only one method
available--indirect taxation by a tariff. Failure to provide
the necessary Imperial revenue, except by trenching on the
funds of the federated States, would inevitably cause a
demand for a reduction of military expenditure. Yet, a
comprehensive tariff meant a complete departure from
the Free-Trade system. Would the Liberals--would
Germany--agree to that?
Since 1873 a series of commercial crises, aided by a wave
of speculation and ' bubble companies' and the artificial
inflation caused by the milliards of the French indemnity
swept over Germany. Bankruptcies became as familiar
as funerals. German industry was hard pressed by inter-
national, and especially British, competition. The manu-
facturing interests cried out for protection, and the for-
mation in 1876 of a ' central union of German Industrials'
(Central Verband deutscher Industrieller) on a Protectionist
basis was a significant symptom. The industrial revolu-
tion, that had been coming for a generation, developed
after 1871 with impressive rapidity. It was to convert
Germany in thirty years into a second workshop of the
world, in which the need of raw material and of expanding
export markets, the rise of an industrial ' proletariat,' in-
creasing with every decade at a remarkable rate, and the
establishment of ' the grand industry,' were to be the de-
cisive characteristics. The middle class was throwing up
an industrial aristocracy drawn from the captains of in-
dustry--the financier, the manufacturer, the director of
interlocking syndicates, cartels and companies--whose
interests were those of a capitalistic society, freed from
the interference of Parliament. Could not this new
Schlotjunkertum--'theJunkers of the chimneys' that turned
the romantic banks of the fabled Rhine into the Lancashire
and Midlands of Germany-- be allied with the old agrarian
Junkertum in the struggle with individualist Liberalism
inspired by Cobden, Mill, and the British? With 1877
agricultural depression set in all over Europe, caused by the
raising of the European margin of cultivation in conse-
quence of competition in agricultural produce from the
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BISMARCK
two Americas and the cheapness and facilities of oceanic
transit. Rents fell as prices fell. Agrarian Junkertum
was being hard hit; no less serious was the future of
German agriculture, on which the structure of Prussian
society was based and the supply of the best recruits for
the army depended. Had Bismarck read Adam Smith he
would have agreed that for Germany defence was more
important than opulence, and defence meant the whole
system of government and the governing class.
The Kulturkampf had thrown much more than Vatican-
ism into the crucible. Socialist Democracy, fed by the
industrial revolution, and watered by the political con-
fusion, was reproducing itself in the tissues, fibres, and
blood stream of the social and political organism with the
rapidity of the anthrax bacillus in an appropriate culture.
The Gotha programme of Social Democracy in 1875 re-
wrote the Eisenach programme of 1869 in italics: the
realisation of its aims was as deadly to the agrarian Junkers
as to the capitalist class; its secularism menaced Catholic
Clericals, Lutherans, and Calvinists with complete impar-
tiality. In 1874 the two Socialist members of the Reichstag
of 1871 had become 9, in 1877 12, representing half a million
votes, a third of the Centre vote. If it were not crushed,
what would Socialist Democracy be in 1887? Bismarck's
survey in short--the survey of a statesman who based his
policy on 'ponderable' realities--suggested a complete
change of system; and already in 1876 Roon, so often the
conservative periscope, hinted from his retirement that con-
servatives could begin to fatten the calf for the prodigal son
of Junkertum, emaciated by the husks of Liberalism.
It was not only in foreign policy that Bismarck's pro-
longed silences caused apprehension. From the woods
and glades of Varzin came rumours that rippled from the
lobbies of the Reichstag to the portico of the Vatican. Two
obstacles--the Kulturkampf and the National Liberals--
barred a bold bid for the governing classes of a future,
rather than the present, Germany, by a new, comprehen-
sive and constructive policy--a policy of pourboires and
power. To Bismarck more than any man the road to
Canossa, the white shirt and shivering in the snow of
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR 325
Henry iv. , were hateful. But if the Papacy would share
the shirt, forgo the snow and trudge half-way to meet
him, a joint Canossa might be found at Kissingen or some
other resort where foreign diplomatists cured their souls
while they washed their bodies. If the Centre could be
secured it would vote solidly and manoeuvre at command
like a regiment. As for ' the May Laws' and Falk, 'we
can always,' as Bismarck said to Augustenburg in 1864,
'wring the necks of the chickens we have ourselves hatched. '
The National Liberals were tremendously powerful--
one hundred and fifty votes in the Reichstag--and they
could rely in Liberal issues on the Progressives and
Radicals. The Liberal bloc was at present the master of
the situation, and intended to remain so. They held the
road to Canossa or Protection in force. A hint came from
Varzin. Bennigsen went to the lion's den and returned.
When Bismarck came back to Berlin in the spring of
1878 it was clear what had happened. He had offered
office to the Nationalist Liberal leader, but on condition
of support in a new policy, vaguely outlined. 'I desired,'
wrote Bismarck, in his Memoirs (ii. 198), ' sincerely to per-
suade him, as I expressed it, to jump into my boat and
help me steer; I was drawn up by the landing-stage and
waiting for him to embark. ' Bennigsen indicated that, if
places were also found for two or three other prominent
National Liberals, the proposal might be seriously con-
sidered. Bismarck refused. There was room for Bennig-
sen in the King's Council, but not for Forckenbeck, or
Stauffenberg or any one else. Bennigsen then refused
for himself and the others. When the Emperor, inspired
by the Conservatives and soldiers, angrily remonstrated
against this trafficking with Liberalism behind his Imperial
and Prussian back, Bismarck was able to assure him, with
perfect truth, that the last thing he desired was to ask his
Majesty to confer office on National Liberals. Bismarck
had hoped to split the Liberals by detaching Bennigsen and
the right of the party. Bennigsen desired to introduce
Parliamentary government--'a ministry a la Gladstone,'
which as in Great Britain would be representative of the
strongest party in the Legislature and make the policy of
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BISMARCK
the future. The negotiation, however, was a complete
failure. But while Bennigsen did not get office, Bismarck
gave the coup de gr&ce to the last effort to introduce the
system of responsible party government into the govern-
ment of the Empire. It only remained now to crush the
National Liberals.
It is commonly said that the Bismarckian policy in the
Kulturkampf ended in a complete defeat--proved by the
recantation of the next ten years. Three comments, how-
ever, are essential in this connection. First, the Liberal
parties which passed and upheld ' the May Laws ' and the
principles underlying them never recanted nor repented.
On the contrary, they opposed and lamented, with good
reason, the Chancellor's surrender. Secondly, the Vatican
in 1878 was as tired of the struggle as Bismarck. It had not
been defeated, but it had failed so far to secure amendment,
much less the repeal, of ' the May Laws. ' By 1878 the
danger of serious schism within the Roman Communion
had vanished. Ninety-nine Catholics out of a hundred
accepted the Vatican Decrees, but the Roman Church in
Germany was crippled by the Falk code. Had the
National Liberals come into office, determined to fight
to a finish, the Vatican would not have had an alliance to
sell which gave it so commanding a position in the nego-
tiations that followed the death of Pio Nono and the ac-
cession of Leo xii1. There is every reason to suppose that
a strong National Liberal ministry could have continued
the struggle and imposed a very different compromise to
that dictated from Rome and accepted by Bismarck.
Thirdly, Bismarck deliberately sacrificed victory in the
Kulturkampf to victory in other issues, more important
in his judgment. What those issues were the next twelve
years revealed (see p. 451). The turning-point in the
making of Imperial Germany was reached in 1878. The
Germany of 1890 was essentially the product of Bismarck's
policy in these twelve years imposed on the results pre-
viously achieved. But Bismarck was able to evade the
Liberal ultimatum and accomplish the vital transition to
the new era, only because the Reichstag was not a govern-
ment-making, policy-making organ. The adroitness and
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR
was too loyal at once to join an opposition. Bismarck was
not failing. On the contrary, he was about to give remark-
able proof of an astonishing versatility and vitality. The
year of retirement had renewed the lust of battle within
him. His return to Berlin in the spring of 1878 was not
caused wholly by the failure of the policy of the Kultur-
kampf, nor by the crisis that had developed in the Eastern
Question. He returned to close the first phase of his
Imperial Chancellorship and to open the second and last.
? 2. The Kulturkampf, 1871-1878
From 1871 onwards Germany, and above all Prussia,
was involved in the'Kulturkampj\ a name given by the
ardent Radical and eminent pathologist, Virchow, to the
struggle between the Papacy and the Civil State in Ger-
many. It conveniently summed up the deeper issues
involved between two antagonistic conceptions of culture
or civilisation, and between two theories of the basis and
competence of authority in a politically organised com-
munity and society. The abolition of the Temporal Power
and the Declaration of the Infallibility of the Papacy were
the climax to a great and well-marked chapter in the history
of the Roman Pontificate. When the powerful movement
of Conciliar Reform failed, in the first half of the fifteenth
century, to heal the Great Schism and cure the evils of the
Church of the Latin West, the modern Papacy began.
Under Nicholas v. commenced a development which in the
Council of Trent and the Tridentine Decrees not merely
formulated the reply of the Counter-Reformation to the
Reformation, but gave to the Pontificate a position, an
organisation, and a title that distinguish the Papacy of
the Renaissance and the sixteenth century from the
mediaeval Popes of the undivided Latin Church. The
entry of the Italian troops into Rome on September 20,
1870, ended the political system on which the Papacy
of the Renaissance and the Counter-Reformation rested.
The nineteenth-century Papacy and the Roman Church
throughout the world had now to readjust their title,
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? BISMARCK
organisation, and future--their claim to spiritual supremacy
and to unlimited jurisdiction, and unquestioning obedi-
ence within the Roman Communion--not merely to a new
Italy, but to a new Europe and a new world of international
relations and intellectual and moral ideas. It was not acci-
dental, but an essential feature of the processes that had
made that new world, that the Vatican Council coincided
with the world events of 1870. The first and most rever-
berating assertion that the new age had arrived was the
Vatican Decrees. They were a challenge, a programme,
and a publication of title-deeds in one.
The immediate origins of the embittered conflict that
broke out in Germany, the first and severest phase of which
broadly ended in 1878, had, as has been previously in-
dicated, its roots in the evolution of thought and political
action two generations prior to the establishment of the
Empire. For obvious reasons the struggle centred in
Germany, but the issues were raised in all the European
States. Prussia had had a foretaste of the struggle in the
newly acquired Rhenish provinces after 1815, which had
ended in a compromise that did not settle any of the
cardinal points at issue. Since 1848 the controversy had
been concentrated in Bavaria; but it had also broken out
sharply in Baden, where the control of the schools and of
the training of the clergy raised the central principles in
dispute.
The 'war '--for it was nothing less--was transferred
from Bavaria and Baden to Prussia and the Empire in 1871.
The concurrent promulgation of the Vatican Decrees and
the establishment of the German Empire fused the poli-
tical, ecclesiastical, and intellectual elements in the
controversy into a single but complex whole.
The Declaration of Papal Infallibility of July 18, 1870,
brought the matter to a head within the Roman Church,
and the refusal of the Roman Catholic Professor Dollinger,
'as a Christian, as a theologian, as a historian, as a citizen,'
to accept the Decrees at once raised the question: Would
the State accept the determination of the Papacy to im-
pose obedience on members of its own communion, priests,
and laymen, or would it support those who refused in their
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR
3"
right to exercise spiritual functions and jurisdiction, under
State protection? When the Archbishop of Munich pub-
lished the Vatican Decrees without first obtaining the
Regium Placitum required by Bavarian law, and when the
Bavarian government turned to the Imperial government
for assistance in the conflict, the answer was given by an
addition to the Penal Code--the famous Pulpit Paragraph
--forbidding priests in their official capacity to deal with
political matters.
The Imperial government was thereby committed to a
struggle with Ultramontanism. The claim of the In-
fallible Papacy challenged the nature, competence, and
limits of the sovereignty claimed by the secular State over
all persons and over all causes, ecclesiastical as well as civil,
throughout its dominions supreme.
Dollinger stated the theoretical issue very clearly :--
'The ultramontane view can be summarised in a single, concise,
and luminous proposition, but out of this proposition are evolved
a doctrine and a view that embrace not merely religion and the
Church, but science, the State, politics, morals, and the social
order--in a word, the whole intellectual and moral life of men and
nations. The proposition runs: The Pope is the supreme, the in-
fallible, and consequently the sole authority in all that concerns
religion, the Church, and morality; and each of his utterances on
these topics demands unconditional submission, internal no less
than external. '
The Decrees involved the concentration of all eccle-
siastical powers in the person of the Pope, whose utter-
ances ex cathedra were declared by the Vatican Council
to be infallible, and repudiation of which involved excom-
munication. They also enforced the claim that on the
secular State was laid the duty of carrying out the decisions
of the infallible spiritual authority, and that the definition
and decision of what constituted a question of religion or
morals lay in the ultimate resort with the Church, speak-
ing through the person and office of the supreme and
infallible Pontiff, by reason of the intrinsic, inalienable,
and inherent superiority of spiritual to secular authority.
Bismarck and Germany had now to decide whether the
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? BISMARCK
Empire would accept the doctrine and consequences in-
volved in the Vatican Decrees. One example will suffice
to illustrate the problem. When the Archbishop of
Cologne excommunicated four 'old Catholic' professors
of the State University of Bonn for refusal to subscribe to
the Vatican Decrees, was the Prussian State to acquiesce in
this jurisdiction over officers of the university who held
their chairs under the authority of the State? The
Prussian Constitution (Art. 12) guaranteed' the enjoyment
of civil and political rights independently of religious
belief '; it stated (Art. 20) that' science and its doctrines
are free '; it laid down (Art. 22) that 'proofs of moral,
scientific and technical capacity . . . to give public in-
struction' concerned 'the State authorities,' and that
(Art. 23) 'public teachers had the rights and duties of
State servants. ' The action of the Archbishop implied
that the Prussian State was to suspend or deprive its public
servants of a right conferred on them under legal guarantees
at the bidding of an authority, in itself only exercising
jurisdiction defined by, and drawing emoluments under
the protection of, the State. It followed that the Roman
Pontiffs would, if the State assented unconditionallyj deter-
mine what kind of teaching and by whom would be
given in every university and school throughout Germany,
and under what conditions teachers in State universities
and schools, paid for and controlled by the State, would
hold office or be liable to suspension, dismissal, or depri-
vation of their rights.
To Bismarck the problem at the outset was primarily
political. The Second Empire and Napoleon in. had
been the main supporters of the temporal power of the
Papacy. Bismarck had "refused to intervene prior to
or during the Vatican Council. There is considerable
evidence that the dominant party at the Vatican had con-
templated completing the Decrees of Infallibility by a
declaration that the retention of the temporal power by
the Papacy should be regarded as a revealed article of faith,
not a revealed dogma, but a truth guaranteed by the doc-
trinal body of the Holy Church. But if so, the course of
political events quashed the intention. The immediate
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR 313
problem in the autumn of 1870 was whether Bismarck
would take steps to restore the temporal power. True to
his methods, the Chancellor first negotiated with Arch-
bishops Ledochowski and Bonnechose: The support of
the French Church, aided by the Papacy, in securing the
Seace with France that he desired might be worth buying,
ut Bismarck convinced himself in the negotiation that
the Papacy lacked either the power or the goodwill or
both to carry out a suitable bargain, and the general de-
velopment of the international situation very soon proved
that the restoration of the temporal power by Prussian
diplomacy or arms would imperil the peace with France,
the new Empire, and the completion of unification. All
the Nationalist and Liberal forces in Germany would have
allied themselves with public opinion in Great Britain and
the Nationalist forces in Italy to repudiate and oppose
such a policy.
There remained, therefore, the issues raised by the
Vatican Decrees, separable from the question of the
Temporal Power. The establishment of the Empire
made a struggle inevitable. It could only have been
avoided had Bismarck accepted the Decrees as binding
on the Roman Catholic subjects of the Empire, and ac-
quiesced in their enforcement by the active co-operation
of the civil powers in the Empire and in Prussia. If that
was impossible, as it clearly was, what was the Civil State
to do to protect its authority, and how was it to treat
ecclesiastical and spiritual persons who repudiated that
authority or resisted the execution of its will? Diplomacy
between Berlin and the Curia could not effect a compro-
mise in 1871. Those who controlled the policy of the
Vatican were confronted by serious opposition within their
own communion to the Decrees; if they failed to enforce
obedience, the Ultramontane interpretation of Papal
power and ecclesiastical unity would be shattered. - The
Vatican Council of 1870 was a deliberate step in the policy
of Ultramontanism: once the Roman Curia had pinned
its flag to the Decrees the enforcement of obedience within
its own communion and spiritual jurisdiction was a
question of life and death. It was no less impossible for
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BISMARCK
the Prussian Civil Power to place its secular authority un-
reservedly at the disposal of the Vatican and to acquiesce
in the claim of the Roman Church to determine how far
it would obey, and how far it would set aside as invalid,
the law of the land defined by the Civil Power. The
position in 1871 for Papacy and Empire was not that in
1878 or 1888; the validity of the Decrees was impugned
by Catholics of the eminence of Dellinger, Rheinkens, and
others, and in 1871 it was an open question whether the
Vatican would succeed in enforcing its authority within
the Roman communion.
Political and intellectual Liberalism prior to 1871, and
notably since the promulgation of the Syllabus of 1864,
combined in proclaiming the full sovereignty of the civil
power; it could reckon on the strength of the Protestant
of the Clerical party to German unification, and its denial
of the unlimited sovereignty of the Crown in Parliament,
strengthened the determination of the Protestant parties
in the broadest sense to impose the acceptance of that
sovereignty. To the Liberal leaders, 'the intellectuals,'
--such as Virchow and Bluntschli--the Vatican Decrees
were illuminated by the Syllabus of 1864, which not only
condemned without qualification the intellectual basis
of modern society, but imperilled the free, critical, and
scientific pursuit of truth; and in the case of the German
universities, which had made so notable a contribution to
German civilisation, the policy of Pio Nono and Antonelli
was, they held, a demand for the endowment and pro-
tection of obscurantism by the Prussian State. Because
Dollinger refused to accept the Decrees he was to be
hounded from the university chair that he adorned to die
excommunicate, like a tainted wether of the flock. The
Freilehrheit and Freilehrnheit of the German universities
were challenged by such action.
The Liberal theory of State sovereignty was reinforced
by the party which regarded the State as Power. If
Prussia and the Empire could not be master in their own
house, what was the meaning and value of Prussian power?
In Bismarck the Papal claims stirred the same feeling as in
The opposition
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR 315
our Henry vn1. : 'Use not such language to me, I like it
less than any man. ' And Andrassy in 1873 has related how
when Bismarck spoke to him of the Kulturkampf, 'his
eyes flashed, his words poured out, he spoke of the Pope
as a public danger, a revolutionary, an anarchist. ' Bis-
marck deliberately told the Reichstag in 1874 that the
war of 1870 ' was declared in agreement with Rome which
securely reckoned on the victory of the French, and that
the decision of Napoleon for peace was shaken and undone
by the influence of none but the Jesuits. ' After 1871
Bismarck rightly or wrongly feared an Ultramontane
coalition against the Empire.
Qn the other hand, the Roman Catholics numbered a
third of the German population, and the formation under
Windthorst of the Centre party, of sixty votes, a party
founded on a confessional basis, was a formidable reality,
'the most monstrous phenomenon in politics,' Bismarck
said. The Centre denied the validity of the treaties on
which the Empire was based, and demanded along with
a more truly federal State and greater liberty for the
federated States, the complete freedom and independence
of the Roman Church within the Empire.
After an address to the Emperor, requesting the res-
toration of the temporal power, they opposed a resolute
resistance to the unifying legislation and administrative
action of the imperial sovereignty. Bismarck decided,
with the enthusiastic support of the National Liberals,
the Progressives and Radicals, to crush the Clerical oppo-
sition. Herr von Falk became Minister of Education in
1872, and between that date and 1876 a series of measures
generally known as' The May Laws' (from the date of the
first important batch of May 15, 1873) was passed in the
Prussian Landtag. The Jesuits were expelled; civil
marriage was made compulsory; the Catholic Bureau in
the Ministry of Education was suppressed; the inspection
of schools was withdrawn from the Roman priesthood and
placed under the control of State inspectors; priests were
forbidden to abuse ecclesiastical punishments, e. g. ex-
communication: all ecclesiastical seminaries were placed
under State control; every priest before being permitted
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? 316
BISMARCK
to exercise office in the church was required to be educated
in a German university and to pass an examination in
German history, philosophy, literature, and classics; all
exercise of spiritual office by unauthorised persons was
punishable by loss of civic rights, and the State was
empowered to withhold from recalcitrant bishops the
payment of the State endowment.
These legislative powers were enforced by drastic
executive action. Cardinal Ledochowski, Archbishop of
Posen, was fined, imprisoned, and then dismissed from his
bishopric. The Archbishop of Cologne and the Bishops
of Trier and Paderborn were imprisoned, and by 1876
more than one thousand three hundred parishes had ho
recognised and 'loyal' Roman Catholic priest. Thousands
of Roman Catholics had been fined or imprisoned, while
the Roman Catholics throughout the Empire refused to
recognise the validity of the penal legislation, and were in
open revolt. Germany, in fact, was rent into two bitterly
opposed camps. The ferocity of the contending parties
can only be appreciated by a prolonged study of the con-
temporary literature, the pamphlets, and the caricatures
that flooded Germany from the Baltic to the Alps. 'Do
not fear,' Bismarck had exclaimed (May 14,1872),' we will
not go to Canossa either in body or in spirit. ' The declara-
tion, with its reference to the Investiture Contest with
Gregory vn. , rang through Germany. And in thousands
of German homes, even to-day, portraits of the Chancellor,
with these words as their motto, can be seen in a place
of honour. 'I am,' Bismarck proudly claimed, 'from the
Garonne to the Vistula, from the Baltic to the Tiber, the
best-hated man in all Europe. ' At Kissingen in 1874
Kullmann, a half-witted journeyman, who belonged to the
Catholic society of Salzwedel, attempted to assassinate the
Chancellor on the ground that he had insulted his party,
the Centre. 'You may push away the man from you as
you like,' Bismarck said to the Centre in the Reichstag,
'but he himself clings tightly to your coat-tails'; and
the uproar that followed the taunt was a miniature of the
internal situation in Germany.
Bismarck's decision to crush the Clerical Centre was
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR 317
momentous. 1 After 1878 he argued that he was not
responsible for the policy of the Kulturkampf, nor for the
May Laws and their execution. The argument will not
stand the test of facts nor of probability. In 1872, 1873,
and 1875 ne spoke repeatedly both in the Reichstag and
the Prussian Landtag in defence of the coercive legislation
and of the general policy of Prussia and the Empire in the
controversy. He complained bitterly in private letters
to Roon of the desertion of the Conservative party in
the 'Catholic controversy'; he was responsible for the
appointment of Falk, and supported him until 1878 against
the attacks in Court circles. It is, in the absence of all
corroborative evidence to the contrary, impossible to
believe that Bismarck as Chancellor and Minister-President
would have allowed a subordinate colleague to embark
Prussia and the Empire by legislation and administrative
action in a life-and-death struggle, which involved the most
delicate and fundamental issues of high policy at home and
abroad, without his complete concurrence. It is demon-
strable that the correspondence between the Emperor and
the Pope, which stated very tersely the Prussian attitude,
was on the Emperor's side drafted by Bismarck; the with-
drawal of the German mission from the Curia--the rupture,
in fact, of diplomatic relations--was Bismarck's act, and in
the negotiations after 1878 Bismarck assumed that the
May Laws would not be withdrawn unless the Vatican
made substantial concessions. The later assertion (in 1878
and repeated in his Memoirs) that he regarded the struggle
as mainly a recrudescence of the chronic problem of
Poland was an afterthought, and the blame subsequently
laid on Falk, as the author of the mischief and the failure,
was a characteristic trait of ingratitude. A scapegoat had
to be found, and Falk, the hero of the National Liberals
and Radicals, served the convenient purpose of exculpating
the Chancellor and affronting the parties with which
Bismarck broke between 1878 and 1879.
In 1874 Bismarck told the Reichstag that since 1862 his
1 Under-Secretary von Thile told Lord Odo Russell in 1872 'that Bismarck's
determination to raise the storm and fight the Church was so sudden that he
and Bismarck's private secretaries could mark the day and hour of 4the change
that came over him like an inspiration. '
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? BISMARCK
previsions and forecasts in all the great issues had been
wonderfully accurate. The remark had a side reference
to the KulturkampJ. But in 1871 Bismarck plainly mis-1
calculated. The diplomacy with which he had hitherto
crossed swords successfully had not had the traditions,
skill, fertility in resource, and pertinacity of the Vatican.
The Roman Curia could and did pull many wires through-
out Europe, and it could afford to wait. It had no capital
that could be stormed, leaving the defence impotent. Its
capital was everywhere, planted in the consciences of
millions of its communion. Heads can be cut off, but the
obedience of heart and will cannot be enforced by prison
or the guillotine. Bullets or wristcuffs cannot kill ideas.
The extermination of the faithful is not the same thing as
the extirpation of a faith. Indeed, the seven years from
1871 to 1878 were an instructive object-lesson in the limits
of power even when exercised by a State with the executive
strength of Prussia. In the constitutional conflict in 1862
Bismarck had rightly assumed that the Liberals would not
raise barricades, defy the laws, or refuse to pay taxes, and
that, if they did, the whiff of grapeshot would settle the
first outbreak. In 1872 he apparently calculated that the
Catholics would either not resist, or, if they did, would soon
surrender to a rigorous coercion. He was completely
mistaken. When Cardinal Archbishops, with the applause
of their congregations, defied the law and went to prison,
the State as Power could only, as Windthorst remarked,
bring in the guillotine--if it dared. For when a State by
its own action converts law-breakers into martyrs for con-
science it loses the sympathy of the law-abiding. The
average German began to think as Pepys did when he saw
oppressed Dissenters going to prison under the Clarendon
code: 'I would to God they would conform or not be so
well catch'd. ' Universal suffrage proved a terrible weapon
in the hands of the Centre party. At the general election
of 1874 the National Liberals increased their numbers to
over one hundred and fifty, but the Clericals polled
a million and a half votes and returned not sixty but
ninety-one members.
Bismarck therefore had to face a
National Liberal party stronger than ever and more
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR 319
indispensable to the government, and a Centre opposi-
tion enormously encouraged by its success.
It was in the nature of things that on both sides the
struggle should extend far beyond the limits foreseen in
1871: and the simple original issue, whether the Vatican
should or should not constrain opponents of the Decrees
to obedience, was by 1876 converted into an illimitable
controversy on the functions, basis, character, and ends of
civil government and its relation to ecclesiastical authority;
it threatened to divide Germany into two great con-
fessional camps, Protestant and Catholic, and to throw
back the newly born Empire of 1871 into the maelstrom
of Charles v. and the epoch of the Reformation, with the
passions of mediaeval Guelph and Ghibelline, and of Empire
and Papacy superimposed. In the welter of conflict the
secession and formation of the 'Old Catholics,' a tiny hand-
ful of the combatants, became a neglected by-issue. The
fiery support of religious and political Protestantism, and
of die powerful secularist intellectuals who desired to see a
complete separation of Church and State in every German
State, and the extirpation of denominational endowment
and teaching, was fatal to Liberal Catholicism. The issues
raised by Vaticanism became an assault in many quarters
on the Roman Catholic Church: and the cry of ' Los von
Rom ' and the establishment of a German national Catholic
Church on Febronian lines, independent of the Papacy,
aided the Papal effort to represent 'the May Laws' as a
Diocletian persecution, led by Bismarck into whom Satan
had entered.
To the Papacy, indeed, the Kulturkampf proved to
be an unqualified blessing. In 1871 and 1872 the anti-
infallibility movement within the Roman Communion was
a grave danger. But with an unerring eye the directors of
Vatican policy seized the weapon of their adversaries and
turned it against them. They closed the Roman Catholic
ranks as far as possible, and shifted the issue from the
narrower field of ' the May Laws' to a trial of strength
between the Roman Church as a whole and its opponents
spiritual or secular. The more eagerly did those oppo-
nents mass for attacks on a broad front, the broader the
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BISMARCK
front on which the Vatican deployed its counter-attacks.
Windthorst proved himself a consummate tactician and a
polished debater. He placed large issues in sonorous
phrases before the electorate in the programmes of the
Clerical Centre--freedom of conscience, the independence
of religion, the liberty of the individual German to worship
as reason led him, an Empire based on justice (Justitia funda-
mentum regnorum), taken from the mediaeval law books--and
by provocative taunts he understood how to seduce Con-
servatives, Liberals, Radicals, and Progressives into violent
indiscretions. It required courage to stand up to Bismarck,
but Windthorst smilingly removed the gloves and took and
gave telling punishment with a finished equanimity.
The results by 1878 were disquieting. Lord Odo
Russell's dispatches from 1873-77 indicate Bismarck's de-
pression, irritation, and anxiety. The Clericals had built
up a powerful and extraordinarily well-organised party;
they had ample funds, an influential press, and a network of
local machinery. It was the Kulturkampf which enabled
the Centre to become in Bismarck's lifetime the best
drilled, most obedient, and strongest single party in
Germany. They drew their strength from every class--
from cardinals and Polish magnates to the industrial
democracy in the old ecclesiastical principalities. The
stronger the executive action against them, the stronger
they reacted against it. The disciplining of Germany for
two generations told immensely in their favour. The
Clericals, and later the Social Democrats, had in the
German voter a man who had been drilled in a great mili-
tary machine, to whom obedience to command was life.
Given an organiser, a party with a real cause had organis-
able material ready to hand in the German electorate.
The Roman Church was an organisation already made.
Windthorst enjoyed its matchless and unlimited support.
The decadence of National Liberalism after 1878 is largely
accounted for by the absence of an intelligible cause, the
halting and contradictory language of its spokesmen, and
its dependence on a reservoir in a single social stratum, the
middle class. The Clerical party had none of these patent
defects.
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR 321
The ministerial conduct of the fight was vitiated also by
serious blunders. The punitive measures against the
inferior clergy--the hard-working priest of the village and
small town--threw hundreds of parishes, ignorant of the
deeper issues of Vaticanism, into opposition. The govern-
ment made no effort to enlist the sympathy of educated
Catholicism with the cause of freedom of opinion. Instead
of concentrating on the narrower issue of Vaticanism and
assisting the German hierarchy, placed in a grave perplexity
between two allegiances and influenced by a genuine anti-
pathy to the more profound consequences in the Decrees
and by a patriotic reluctance to defy the law binding on
German citizens; instead of trying to find a compromise for
the bishops coerced by Rome and menaced by the State;
instead of rallying the Catholic laity to the support of its
episcopate in the struggle with the Curia, the government
struck right and left at high and low with the indiscrimina-
tion of brute strength. Falk fought with the ability of a
trained lawyer who assumes that a juristic answer, expressed
in well-drafted legislation, and backed by executive action,
can settle every problem of life and conduct. Bismarck left
the law to Falk, the administration to the Home Office,
and thought of the higher politics alone. The limitations
in his statecraft were at once exposed. This was not a
case where ' one hand could wash the other. ' The subtle
yet deep intellectual and moral implications in the contro-
versy did not interest him, nor had he the time, the inclina-
tion, or the accumulated knowledge to master them. And,
as with Napoleon 1. in his struggle with the Papacy, the
ingrained contempt for ideas as ideas, for 'ideologues,' and
for men to whom ideas have a more inspiring import than
material force warped his judgment and blinded his in-
tuition. To Bismarck, as to Napoleon, the Church was a
necessity of an ordered life, but its action and position must
be strictly correlated to the ends prescribed by reasons of
State. In the Kulturkampf Bismarck found himself in
deeper water than his strength and skill could manage.
He was to repeat the experience in the struggle with
Social Democracy.
The shrewd Thiers predicted in 1873 that 'the iron
B. X
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? $22
BISMARCK
Chancellor' would find himself in the position described
in a story of Napoleon 1. 'Sire,' said a wag,' the enemy
has lost thousands of men. ' 'Yes,' replied Napoleon,' but
I have lost the battle. ' At Varzin in 1877 Bismarck was
ruefully reflecting that hundreds of priests had been driven
from their altars, but that he was on the point of losing the
battle.
For twelve months in the solitude of his estate the
Chancellor calculated and probed. The Emperor was
very unhappy, for he was at war with a third of his Empire.
'We have made enough concessions to Liberalism,' he
kept on fretfully repeating. The Empress, the powerful
Radziwills who represented at Court the Polish cause, the
Crown Prince's circle, and the Conservatives who after
1876 had closed their split, were in different ways and for
different reasons pressing for a cessation of the struggle.
Strong Protestants argued that the State as Power might
apply to the Lutheran Church the Erastian control applied
to the Roman Catholics. The Conservatives hated the
alliance with National Liberalism. The Centre might be
intolerant and superstitious, but it stood for authority and
social order, for religion and the Christian State, and not
for secularism and a godless education. Bismarck's sup-
port of the law imposing civil marriage in the Empire--a
recantation of the principles he had laid down from 1847-
51--was denounced as a lamentable apostasy, forced on him
by Liberalism. The governing class pressed for a return
to a Conservative policy. In a word, the pressure in all
the quarters most influential with the Crown was exerted
against the Bismarckian regime from 1871 to 1877.
Bismarck felt the pressure, and lashed out perpetually at
the insolence of the critics. But he recognised that the
whole internal and parliamentary situation was crumbling
into chaos. The financial position was critical. The
unified Empire was proving to be very costly. The system
of 'matricular contributions' to the Imperial revenue
from the federated States was a burden that aggravated
Particularism. The failure to nationalise the raflways cut
off a valuable Imperial revenue. New taxation was im-
peratively needed. The government required a large
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR 323
expanding income, removed as far as possible from the
control of the Reichstag. There was only one method
available--indirect taxation by a tariff. Failure to provide
the necessary Imperial revenue, except by trenching on the
funds of the federated States, would inevitably cause a
demand for a reduction of military expenditure. Yet, a
comprehensive tariff meant a complete departure from
the Free-Trade system. Would the Liberals--would
Germany--agree to that?
Since 1873 a series of commercial crises, aided by a wave
of speculation and ' bubble companies' and the artificial
inflation caused by the milliards of the French indemnity
swept over Germany. Bankruptcies became as familiar
as funerals. German industry was hard pressed by inter-
national, and especially British, competition. The manu-
facturing interests cried out for protection, and the for-
mation in 1876 of a ' central union of German Industrials'
(Central Verband deutscher Industrieller) on a Protectionist
basis was a significant symptom. The industrial revolu-
tion, that had been coming for a generation, developed
after 1871 with impressive rapidity. It was to convert
Germany in thirty years into a second workshop of the
world, in which the need of raw material and of expanding
export markets, the rise of an industrial ' proletariat,' in-
creasing with every decade at a remarkable rate, and the
establishment of ' the grand industry,' were to be the de-
cisive characteristics. The middle class was throwing up
an industrial aristocracy drawn from the captains of in-
dustry--the financier, the manufacturer, the director of
interlocking syndicates, cartels and companies--whose
interests were those of a capitalistic society, freed from
the interference of Parliament. Could not this new
Schlotjunkertum--'theJunkers of the chimneys' that turned
the romantic banks of the fabled Rhine into the Lancashire
and Midlands of Germany-- be allied with the old agrarian
Junkertum in the struggle with individualist Liberalism
inspired by Cobden, Mill, and the British? With 1877
agricultural depression set in all over Europe, caused by the
raising of the European margin of cultivation in conse-
quence of competition in agricultural produce from the
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? 3H
BISMARCK
two Americas and the cheapness and facilities of oceanic
transit. Rents fell as prices fell. Agrarian Junkertum
was being hard hit; no less serious was the future of
German agriculture, on which the structure of Prussian
society was based and the supply of the best recruits for
the army depended. Had Bismarck read Adam Smith he
would have agreed that for Germany defence was more
important than opulence, and defence meant the whole
system of government and the governing class.
The Kulturkampf had thrown much more than Vatican-
ism into the crucible. Socialist Democracy, fed by the
industrial revolution, and watered by the political con-
fusion, was reproducing itself in the tissues, fibres, and
blood stream of the social and political organism with the
rapidity of the anthrax bacillus in an appropriate culture.
The Gotha programme of Social Democracy in 1875 re-
wrote the Eisenach programme of 1869 in italics: the
realisation of its aims was as deadly to the agrarian Junkers
as to the capitalist class; its secularism menaced Catholic
Clericals, Lutherans, and Calvinists with complete impar-
tiality. In 1874 the two Socialist members of the Reichstag
of 1871 had become 9, in 1877 12, representing half a million
votes, a third of the Centre vote. If it were not crushed,
what would Socialist Democracy be in 1887? Bismarck's
survey in short--the survey of a statesman who based his
policy on 'ponderable' realities--suggested a complete
change of system; and already in 1876 Roon, so often the
conservative periscope, hinted from his retirement that con-
servatives could begin to fatten the calf for the prodigal son
of Junkertum, emaciated by the husks of Liberalism.
It was not only in foreign policy that Bismarck's pro-
longed silences caused apprehension. From the woods
and glades of Varzin came rumours that rippled from the
lobbies of the Reichstag to the portico of the Vatican. Two
obstacles--the Kulturkampf and the National Liberals--
barred a bold bid for the governing classes of a future,
rather than the present, Germany, by a new, comprehen-
sive and constructive policy--a policy of pourboires and
power. To Bismarck more than any man the road to
Canossa, the white shirt and shivering in the snow of
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? THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR 325
Henry iv. , were hateful. But if the Papacy would share
the shirt, forgo the snow and trudge half-way to meet
him, a joint Canossa might be found at Kissingen or some
other resort where foreign diplomatists cured their souls
while they washed their bodies. If the Centre could be
secured it would vote solidly and manoeuvre at command
like a regiment. As for ' the May Laws' and Falk, 'we
can always,' as Bismarck said to Augustenburg in 1864,
'wring the necks of the chickens we have ourselves hatched. '
The National Liberals were tremendously powerful--
one hundred and fifty votes in the Reichstag--and they
could rely in Liberal issues on the Progressives and
Radicals. The Liberal bloc was at present the master of
the situation, and intended to remain so. They held the
road to Canossa or Protection in force. A hint came from
Varzin. Bennigsen went to the lion's den and returned.
When Bismarck came back to Berlin in the spring of
1878 it was clear what had happened. He had offered
office to the Nationalist Liberal leader, but on condition
of support in a new policy, vaguely outlined. 'I desired,'
wrote Bismarck, in his Memoirs (ii. 198), ' sincerely to per-
suade him, as I expressed it, to jump into my boat and
help me steer; I was drawn up by the landing-stage and
waiting for him to embark. ' Bennigsen indicated that, if
places were also found for two or three other prominent
National Liberals, the proposal might be seriously con-
sidered. Bismarck refused. There was room for Bennig-
sen in the King's Council, but not for Forckenbeck, or
Stauffenberg or any one else. Bennigsen then refused
for himself and the others. When the Emperor, inspired
by the Conservatives and soldiers, angrily remonstrated
against this trafficking with Liberalism behind his Imperial
and Prussian back, Bismarck was able to assure him, with
perfect truth, that the last thing he desired was to ask his
Majesty to confer office on National Liberals. Bismarck
had hoped to split the Liberals by detaching Bennigsen and
the right of the party. Bennigsen desired to introduce
Parliamentary government--'a ministry a la Gladstone,'
which as in Great Britain would be representative of the
strongest party in the Legislature and make the policy of
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BISMARCK
the future. The negotiation, however, was a complete
failure. But while Bennigsen did not get office, Bismarck
gave the coup de gr&ce to the last effort to introduce the
system of responsible party government into the govern-
ment of the Empire. It only remained now to crush the
National Liberals.
It is commonly said that the Bismarckian policy in the
Kulturkampf ended in a complete defeat--proved by the
recantation of the next ten years. Three comments, how-
ever, are essential in this connection. First, the Liberal
parties which passed and upheld ' the May Laws ' and the
principles underlying them never recanted nor repented.
On the contrary, they opposed and lamented, with good
reason, the Chancellor's surrender. Secondly, the Vatican
in 1878 was as tired of the struggle as Bismarck. It had not
been defeated, but it had failed so far to secure amendment,
much less the repeal, of ' the May Laws. ' By 1878 the
danger of serious schism within the Roman Communion
had vanished. Ninety-nine Catholics out of a hundred
accepted the Vatican Decrees, but the Roman Church in
Germany was crippled by the Falk code. Had the
National Liberals come into office, determined to fight
to a finish, the Vatican would not have had an alliance to
sell which gave it so commanding a position in the nego-
tiations that followed the death of Pio Nono and the ac-
cession of Leo xii1. There is every reason to suppose that
a strong National Liberal ministry could have continued
the struggle and imposed a very different compromise to
that dictated from Rome and accepted by Bismarck.
Thirdly, Bismarck deliberately sacrificed victory in the
Kulturkampf to victory in other issues, more important
in his judgment. What those issues were the next twelve
years revealed (see p. 451). The turning-point in the
making of Imperial Germany was reached in 1878. The
Germany of 1890 was essentially the product of Bismarck's
policy in these twelve years imposed on the results pre-
viously achieved. But Bismarck was able to evade the
Liberal ultimatum and accomplish the vital transition to
the new era, only because the Reichstag was not a govern-
ment-making, policy-making organ. The adroitness and
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