to Olym-
pus was effected ; but we find him, in the Iliad, firmly
filed there ; and all the mansions, furniture, ornaments,
?
pus was effected ; but we find him, in the Iliad, firmly
filed there ; and all the mansions, furniture, ornaments,
?
Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
voc
TOl
serous nations of . he land (1,19). From his account,
at well as from Herodotus (1, 94), it would appear
that the Umbri were already settled in Italy long be-
fore the arrival of the Tyrrhenian colony. To the
Greeks they were known under the name of '0/t6piKoi,
a word which they supposed to be derived from 6/i-
6poc, under the idea that they were a people sared
from an unusual deluge. (Plin. , I. c. --Solin. , 6. )
Dionysius has farther acquainted us with some partic-
ulars respecting the Umbri, which he derived from
Zenodotus, a Greek of Troezene, who had written a
history of this people. This author appears to have
considered the Umbri an indigenous race, whose pri-
mary seat was the country around Keate, a district
which, according to Dionysius, was formerly occupied
by the Aborigines. Zenodotus was also of opinion
that the Sabmes were descended from the umbri.
Connected with the origin of the ancient Umbri,
there is another question not unworthy our attention.
It was confidently staled by Cornelius Bocchus, a Ro-
man writer quoted by Solinus (c. 8. --Serv. ad -En. ,
13, 753) and Isidorus (Orig. , 8, 2), that the Umbri
were of the same race with the ancient Gauls. This
opinion has been rejected, on the one hand, by Cluvcri-
us and Maffei, while it has served, on the other, as a
foundation for the systems of Frcret and BardeUi, who
contend for the Celtic origin of the Umbri. --On the
rise of the Etrurian nation, the Umbrian name began
to decline. They were forced to withdraw from the
right bank of the Tiber, while nearly the whole of
northern Italy fell under the power of their more en-
terprising and warlike neighbours, though an ancient
Greek historian makes honourable mention of the val-
our of the Umbri. (Nie. Damasc, ap. Slob. , 7, 89. )
It was then, probably, that the Tuscans, as we are told,
possessed themselves of three hundred towns previous-
4y occupied by the Umbri. (Plin, 3, 5. ) A spirit of ri-
valry was still kept up, however, between the two na-
tions; as we are assured by Strabo that, when either
made an expedition into a neighbouring district, the
t her immediately directed its efforts to the same
quarter. (Strub. , 22G. ) Both nations, however, had
sock to contend with a formidable foe in the Gauls
whe Invaded Italy; and, after vanquishing and expell-
ing the Tuscans from the Padus, penetrated still far-
ther, and drove the Umbri from the shores of the
Adriatic into the mountains. These were the Seno-
nes, who afterward defeated the Romans on the banks
of the AUia, and sacked their city. The Umbri, thus
reduced, appear to have offered but little resistance to
the Romans; nor is it improbable that this politic
people took advantage of their differences with the
Etruscans to induce them to remain neuter while
they were contending with the latter power. The
submission of Southern Umbria appears to have taken
place A. U. C. 446 (Liv. , 9, 41). The northern and
maritime parts were reduced after the total extirpation
of the Scnones, about twenty-five years afterward.
(Cramer'* Ane. Italy, vol. 1, p. 251, seqq. --Compare
Nicbuhr's Roman History, vol. 1, p. 119, seqq. ,
Cambridge transl. )
Unelli, a people of Gallia Lugdunensia Secunda,
whose country formed part of the Traetus Armoricus,
end answers to that part of modern Normandy in which
ire Valognes, Coutanccs, and Cherbourg, in the de-
partment de la Manchc. Their capital, at first, was
Crociatonom, answering to the modern Valognes.
? ? Afterward, however, their chief city was Constantini
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? U K A.
Voloubses, a name common to many of the kings
of 1'arihia, who made war against the Koman emper-
? ra. (Vid. Parthia. )
Volsci, a people of Latium, along the coast below
Antium. No notice appears to be taken by any Latin
writer of the origin of this people. According to Ca-
to, they occupied the country of the Aborigines (ap. -
Priscun. , 5), and were at one time subject to the
Etruscans. (Id. , ap. Sere. , Mti. , 11, 667. ) We
? earn from Titinnius, an old comic writer quoted by
Festus (. v >>. Oscum), that (he Volsci had a peculiar
idiom distinct from the Oscan and Latin dialects.
They used the Latin characters, however, both in their
inscriptions ard on their coin. Notwithstanding the
small extent of country which they occupied, reaching
only from Antium to Terracina, a line of coast of
about fifty miles, and little more than half that dis-
tance from the sea to the mountains, it swarmed with
cities filled with a hardy race, destined, says the Ro-
man historian, as it were by fortune, to train the Ro-
man soldier to arms by their perpetual hostility. (Lit. ,
6, 21. ) The Volsci were first attacked by the second
Tarquin, and war was carried on afterward between
the two nations, with short intervals, for upward of
two hundred years (lav. , 1, 53); and though this ac-
coui t is no doubt greatly exaggerated by Livy, and
the numbers much overrated, enough will remain to
prove that this part of Italy was at that time far more
populous and better cultivated than at present. (Cra-
mer's Anc. Italy, vol. 2, p. 82. )
Voltumn. e Fanum, a spot in Etruria where the
general assembly of tho Etrurians was held on solemn
occasions. (Lie. , 4, 23. --Id. , 5,17. ) Some trace of
the ancient name is preserved in that of a church
called Santa Maria in Volturno. (Lanxi, vol. 2, p.
107-- Cramer's Anc. Italy, vol. 2, p. 223. )
Volsinidm. Vid. Vulsinii.
VolubTlis, a city in Mauritania Tingitana, between
Tocolosida and Aquas Dacicto, in a. fruitfu) part of the
country. It is now Walili. (Itin. Ant. ,23. -- Mela,
3, . 10. )
Volumnia, the wife of Coriolanus. (Liv. , 2, 40. )
Vopiscus, one of the writers of the Augustan His-
tory. He was a native of Syracuse, and contemporary
with Trcbellius Pollio, having flourished towards the
close of the third and in the early part of the fourth
century. His father and grandfather lived on terms
of intimacy with the Emperor Dioclesian. In the year
291 or 292, the prefect of Rome, Junius Tiberianua,
prevailed upon Vopiscus to write a life of Aurelian,
wlfich no Latin historian had as yet taken up. He
supplied him with various materials from the private
papers of that prince, and also from the Ulpian library.
Among the books consulted by him, Vopiscus names
some Greek works. This biography was followed by
the lives of Tacitus, Florian, Probus, Firmus, Satur-
ninus, Proculus, Bonosus, Carus, Numerian, and Ca-
rinas. Flavius Vopiscus is distinguished from his
brethren in the Augustan collection by possessing more
of order and method: the letters and official papers,
moreover, which he has inserted in his history, impart
a considerable value to the work. As to style, how-
ever, he is on a level with the other writers in tho Au-
gustan History. He states, in his life of Aurelian, his
intention of writing the life of Apollonius of Tyana, a
project which he never executed. His works are giv-
en in the Histories Augusta Scripiores. (Scholl,
Hiil. Lit. Rom. , vol. 3, p. 156. )
? ? Urania, the muse of Astronomy, usually represent-
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? VUl
VUL
roiled mercenaries after the firat Punic war. {DM.
Sic. . 20, 54. --Polyb. , 1, 83, 88. ) The punishment
inflicted bv the Carthaginians on the people of Utica,
an the quelling of this rebellion, probably drew more
closely the connexion between the two cities ; at least
Scipio besieged Utica in vain during the second Punic
war. At the beginning of the third Punic contest,
however, the inhabitants of Ulica regarded it as the
safer course to separate their interests from those of
Carthage. They gave themselves up, therefore, vol-
untarily to the power of Rome, and this latter state
had now a firm foothold for the prosecution of all her
ambitious plans in relation to Africa. (J'ulyb. , 36, I. )
As some recompense to the TJticenses for the valuable
aid they had afforded during the war, the Romans, at
its close, bestowed upon them a large portion of the
territory immediately adjacent to Carthage (Appian,
Bell. Pun. , c. 135); and Utica was now, and remain-
ed as long as Carthage continued in ruins, the first city
of Africa in point of importance, and the aeat ol the
proconsul. And yet it never became a very flourish-
ing city, since in all the civil wars of the Romans de-
tachments of one party or the other invariably landed
near this place, and fought many of their battles here.
Thus, it was near Utica that Pompey defeated the op-
ponents of Sylla (Orotius, 5, 21); here, too, Curio
contended for Cesar, and, not long after, Caesar's op-
ponents selected' Utica as the chief aeat of the war.
The issue was an unfortunate one for the republican
party, and Cato (hence called Uticemis) found here a
death by his own hand. Hitherto Utica had remained
a free city, with its old constitution, and hence llir-
tius speaks of its senate. (Auct. , Bell. Afr. , c. 87,
90. ) Augustus declared the place a Roman colony.
(Dio Can. , 49, 16-- Plin. , 5, 4. ) It still, however,
retained, in some measure, its early constitution, and
hence is styled by Aulus Gellius a municipium (16,13).
At a later period, Utica was regarded, after Carthage,
the latter having been rebuilt, as the second in Africa.
Ulica had no harbour, but safe roads in front of the
town. Its ruins are to be seen at the present day near
Porlo Farina. (Mannert, Geogr. , vol. 10, pt. 2, p.
288, >>tqq. )
Vui. canai. ia. festivals in honour of Vulcan, brought
to Rome from Praenestc, and observed in tho month of
August. The streets were illuminated, fires kindled
everywhere, and animals thrown into the flames, as a
sacrifice to the deity. ( Varro, h. L. , 5, 3. --Plin. ,
18, 13. )
Vulcani Insula. Vid. AZoUte (Insula), and Li-
para.
Vdlcanus, the god of fire, the same with the He-
phaestus ("HdiuBToc) of the Greeks. Hephaestus, the
Olympian artist, is in Homer the son of Jupiter and
Juno. {II, 1, 572,578. ) According to Hesiod, how-
ever, he was the son of Juno alone, who was unwill-
ing to be outdone by Jupiter when he had given birth
to Minerva. (Theog. , 927 ) He was born lame, and
his mother was so shocked at the sight of him that
she flung him from Olympus. The Ocean-nymph Eu-
rynome and the Nereid Thetis saved and concealed
him in a cavern beneath tho Ocean, where, during
nine years, he employed himself in manufacturing for
them various ornaments and trinkets. (II. , 18, 394,
icqq. ) We are not informed how his returi.
to Olym-
pus was effected ; but we find him, in the Iliad, firmly
filed there ; and all the mansions, furniture, ornaments,
? ? and arms of the Olympians were the work of his hands.
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? XA
XAN
A agastan History. He has the title of J'/r Clarissi-
mus, which indicates that he was a senator. Vulcii-
lius lived under Dioclesian, and proposed to himself
to write a history of all the Roman emperors; we
have from him, however, only the life of Avidius Cas-
? iiu. Some manuscripts even assign this biography
><i Spartianus.
VULSINII or VOLSINII, and also VCLSINIUM orVoL-
? INIUM, a city of Etruria, situate on the northern shore
of the Lacus Vulsiniensis. It is generally allowed to
rank among the first cities of the country. An account
of its early contest with Rome is to be found in Livy
(5, 31). About the time of the war against Pyrrhus,
Vulsinii, which the Roman writers represent as a most
opulent and flourishing place, becomes so enervated by
its wealth and luxury as to allow its slaves to over-
throw the constitution, and give way to the most un-
bridled licentiousness and excess, till at last the citi-
zens were forced to seek for that protection from Rome
which they could not derive from their own resources.
The rebels were speedily reduced, and brought to con-
dign punishment. (Vol. Max. ,8, 1. --Flor. , 1, 21. --
Oi-iis , 4, 5. ) As a proof of the ancient prosperity of
Vulsinii, it is stated by Pliny, on the authority of Me-
trodorus Scepsius, that it possessed, when taken by
the Romans, no leas than 2000 statues. (/'//<<. , 34,
7. ) From Livy we learn that the Etruscan goddess
Nortia was worshipped there, and that it was custom-
ary to mark the years by fixing nails in her temples
(7, 3). Vulsinii, at a later period, is noted as the
birthplace of Scjanus. (Tac. , Ann. , 4, 1. ) It is now
BoUena. (Cramer'i Anc. Italy, vol. 1, p. 221, segq. )
VULTURNBM, a town of Campania, at the mouth of
the river Vulturnus, and on the left bank. It is now
Castel di Vnil a i nn. The origin of this city was prdb-.
ably Etruscan, but we do not find it mentioned in his-
tory until it became a Roman colony, A. U. C. 558.
'Lir, 34,45. ) According to Frontinus, a second col-
ony was sent thither by Caesar. Festus includes it
? mong the prefecture. (Cramer's Anc. Italy, vol.
a, p 145. )
VULTORMJS, I. a river of Campania, now Volturno,
rising among the Apennines, in the territory of Samni-
um, and discharging its waters into the lower sea.
At its mouth stood the town of Vulturnum. . The
modern name is the Volturno. A magnificent bridge,
. with a triumphal arch, was thrown over this river by
Dornitian when he caused a road to be constructed
from Sinuessa to Puleoli; a work which Statius has
undertaken to eulogize in some hundred lines of in-
different poetry. (Sylv. , 4, 3. --Cramer'* Anc. Italy,
vol. 2, p. 144. )--II. A name applied by the Latin
writers ', i the southeast wind, and answering to the
Greek Evpovonf. (Aul. Gell. , 2, 22. --Vitruv , 1, 6. )
UXANTIS, an island off the coast of Gaul, now
Ushant. (Itin. Hierot. , 509. )
UXEU. ODUNUM, a city in Aquitanic Gaul, in the ter-
ritory of the Cadurci; now Pueche d'litolon. (C<cs. ,
B. G. , 8, 32. )
Uxli, a mountaineer race occupying the ranges that
run on each side of the river Orontes, and separate
Pcrsis from Susiana. They were predatory in their
haliits. (Diod. , 27, 67. --Arrian, Ind , 3, 18. --Plin. ,
K 27. )
X.
XANTHIPPE (SavOiirmi), less correctly XANTIPPK,
the wife of Socrates, represented by many of the an-
? ? cient writers as a perfect termagant. It is more than
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? XEN
XES
wrote a History of Lydia in four books. Suidas cites
ihe second Dionysius of Halicarnassus also quotes
this work, and speaks of the author, in terras of high
commendation. (Ant. Rum. , vol. 1, p. 22, ed Rciskt. )
The Lydiaca are quoted by Parthemus, in Stephanus
of Byzantium, and probably by the scholiast on Apol-
lonius Rhodius : by Hephasslion also (p. 14, ed. Gait/. ).
The fragments of Xanthus are given by Creuzer in
his "Historic orum Gracorum Anliquiss. Frogmen-
fa," Heidelb. , 1806, 8vo, p. 148, seqq. (Mus. Crit. ,
vol. 2, p. 109, seqq. )
Xenoclks, an Athenian tragic poet, ridiculed by
Aristophanes, and yet the conqueror of Euripides on
one occasion (Olym. 91. 2, B. C. 415). He was of
dwarfish stature, and son of the tragic poet Carcinus.
In the Pax, Aristophanes applies the term /ir/xavoSi^ac
to the family. From the scholiast it appears that Xen-
ocles was celebrated for introducing machinery and
stage-shows, especially in the ascent or descent of his
gods. (Theatre of the Greeks, 3d ed. , p. 66. )
Xenocrates, I. an ancient philosopher, born at
Chalcedon in the 95th Olympiad, B. C. 400. H first
attached himself to /Eschines, but afterward became
a disciple of Plato, who took much pains in cultivating
his genius, which was naturally heavy. Plato, com-
paring him with Aristotle, who was also one of his
pupils, called the former a dull ass, who needed the
spar, and the latter a mettlesome horse, who required
the curb. His temper was,glooiny, his aspect severe,
and his manners little tinctured with urbanity. These
material defects his master took great pains to cor-
rect, frequently advising him to sacrifice to the Gra-
- ces; and tlfc pupil was patient of instruction, and
knew how to value the kindness of his preceptor. He
compared himself to a vessel with a narrow orifice,
which receives with difficulty, but firmly retains what-
ever is put into it. So affectionately was Xenocrates
* attached to his master, that when Dionysius, in a vio-
lent fit of anger, threatened to find one who should cut
iff his head, he said, "Not before he has cut off this,"
ajointing to his own. As long as Plato lived, Xenoc-
rates was one of his most esteemed disciples; after
his death he closely adhered to his doctrine; and, in
the second year of the hundred and tenth Olympiad,
B. C. 339, he took the chair in the Academy as the
auccessor of Speusippus. Aristotle, who, about this
time, returned from Macedonia, in expectation, as it
should seem, of filling the chair, was greatly disap-
pointed and chagrined at this nomination, and imme-
diately instituted a school in the Lyceum, in opposi-
tion to that of the Academy where Xenocrates con-
tinued to preside till his death. Xenocrates was cel-
ebrated among the Athenians, not only for his wisdom,
but also for his virtues. (Val. Max. , 2, 10. --Cie. , ad
Alt. , 2, 16. -- Diog. Laert. , 4, 7. ) So eminent was
his reputation for integrity, that when he was called
upon to give evidence in a judicial transaction, in
which an oath was usually required, the judges unan-
imously agreed that his simple asseveration should be
taken, as a public testimony to his merit. Even
Philip of Macedon found it impossible to corrupt
him. When he was sent, with several others, upon
an embassy to that prince, he declined all private in-
tercourse with him, that he might escape the tempta-
tion of a bribe. Philip afterward said, that of all those
who had come to him on embassies from foreign
states, Xenocrates was the only one whose friendship
? ? he had not been able to purchase. (Diog. Laert. , 4,
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? XEN
tuei taught that if there ever had been a time when
nothing existed^ nothing ucr. ikl ever have existed.
That whatever is, always has been from eternity, with-
out deriving its existence from any prior principle;
that nature is one and without limit; that what is one
is similar in all its part*, else it would be many; that
the one infinite, eternal, and homogeneous universe
is immutable and incapable of change; that God is
one incorporeal eternal being, and, like the universe,
tpherical in form; that he is of the same nature with
the universe, comprehending all things within himself;
is intelligent, and pervades aii things, but bears no re-
semblance to human nature either in body or mind.
(Enjidfs History of Philosophy, vol. 1, p. 414. )
XENOPHON, I. a celebrated Athenian, son of Gryl-
lus, distinguished as an historian, philosopher, and
commander, born at Ercheia, a borough of the tribe
^Ege'is, B. C. 445. (Letronne, Biogr. Univ. , vol. 51,
p. 370. ) Xenophon was unquestionably one of the
most respectable characters among the disciples of
Socrates. He strictly adhered to the principles of his
master in action as well as opinion, and employed phi-
losophy, not to furnish him with the means of osten-
tation, but to qualify him for the offices of public and
private life. While he was a youth, Socrates, struck
with the comeliness of his person (for he regarded a
fair form as a probable indication of a well-propor-
tioned mind), determined to admit him into the num-
ber of his pupils. Meeting him by accident in a nar-
row passage, the philosopher put forth his staff across
the path, and, slopping him, asked where those things
were to be purchased which are necessary to human
life. Xenophon appearing at a loss for a reply ! " this
unexpected salutation, Socrates proceeded to ask him
where honest and good men were to be found. Xcn-
aphon still hesitating, Socrates said to him, "Follow
me, and learn. " From that time Xenophon became a
disciple of Socrates, and made a rapid progress in that
moral wisdom for which his master was so eminent.
Xenophon accompanied Socrates in the Peloponnesian
war, and fought courageously in defence of his coun-
try. It was at the battle of Delium, in the early part
of this war, that Socrates, according to some accounts,
saved the life of his pupil. In another battle, also
fought in Boeotia, but of which history has preserved
no trace, Xenophon would seem to have been made
prisoner by the enemy; for Philostratus (Vit. Soph. ,
1, 12) informs us that he. attended the instructions of
Prodicus of Ceos while he was a prisoner in Boeotia.
How his time was employed during the period which
preceded his serving in the army of Cyrus is not as-
certained; it is more than probable, however, that he
was'engaged during the interval in several campaigns,
since the skill and experience displayed in conducting
the retreat of the Ten Thousand presuppose a familiar
acquaintance with the art of war. At the age of forty-
three or forty-four years, he was invited by Proxenus
the BoDOtian, formerly a disciple of Gorgias of Leon-
tini, and one of Xenophon's intimate friends, to en-
ter into the service of Cyrus the younger, the brother
of Artaxerxes Mnemon of Persia. Xenophon consult-
ed Socrates in relation to this step, and the philoso-
pher disapproved of it, being apprehensive lest his old
pupil might incur the displeasure of the Athenians by
pining a prince who had shown himself disposed to
aid the Lacedemonians in their war against Athens.
He advised him, however, to visit Delphi, and consult
the god about his intended scheme.
TOl
serous nations of . he land (1,19). From his account,
at well as from Herodotus (1, 94), it would appear
that the Umbri were already settled in Italy long be-
fore the arrival of the Tyrrhenian colony. To the
Greeks they were known under the name of '0/t6piKoi,
a word which they supposed to be derived from 6/i-
6poc, under the idea that they were a people sared
from an unusual deluge. (Plin. , I. c. --Solin. , 6. )
Dionysius has farther acquainted us with some partic-
ulars respecting the Umbri, which he derived from
Zenodotus, a Greek of Troezene, who had written a
history of this people. This author appears to have
considered the Umbri an indigenous race, whose pri-
mary seat was the country around Keate, a district
which, according to Dionysius, was formerly occupied
by the Aborigines. Zenodotus was also of opinion
that the Sabmes were descended from the umbri.
Connected with the origin of the ancient Umbri,
there is another question not unworthy our attention.
It was confidently staled by Cornelius Bocchus, a Ro-
man writer quoted by Solinus (c. 8. --Serv. ad -En. ,
13, 753) and Isidorus (Orig. , 8, 2), that the Umbri
were of the same race with the ancient Gauls. This
opinion has been rejected, on the one hand, by Cluvcri-
us and Maffei, while it has served, on the other, as a
foundation for the systems of Frcret and BardeUi, who
contend for the Celtic origin of the Umbri. --On the
rise of the Etrurian nation, the Umbrian name began
to decline. They were forced to withdraw from the
right bank of the Tiber, while nearly the whole of
northern Italy fell under the power of their more en-
terprising and warlike neighbours, though an ancient
Greek historian makes honourable mention of the val-
our of the Umbri. (Nie. Damasc, ap. Slob. , 7, 89. )
It was then, probably, that the Tuscans, as we are told,
possessed themselves of three hundred towns previous-
4y occupied by the Umbri. (Plin, 3, 5. ) A spirit of ri-
valry was still kept up, however, between the two na-
tions; as we are assured by Strabo that, when either
made an expedition into a neighbouring district, the
t her immediately directed its efforts to the same
quarter. (Strub. , 22G. ) Both nations, however, had
sock to contend with a formidable foe in the Gauls
whe Invaded Italy; and, after vanquishing and expell-
ing the Tuscans from the Padus, penetrated still far-
ther, and drove the Umbri from the shores of the
Adriatic into the mountains. These were the Seno-
nes, who afterward defeated the Romans on the banks
of the AUia, and sacked their city. The Umbri, thus
reduced, appear to have offered but little resistance to
the Romans; nor is it improbable that this politic
people took advantage of their differences with the
Etruscans to induce them to remain neuter while
they were contending with the latter power. The
submission of Southern Umbria appears to have taken
place A. U. C. 446 (Liv. , 9, 41). The northern and
maritime parts were reduced after the total extirpation
of the Scnones, about twenty-five years afterward.
(Cramer'* Ane. Italy, vol. 1, p. 251, seqq. --Compare
Nicbuhr's Roman History, vol. 1, p. 119, seqq. ,
Cambridge transl. )
Unelli, a people of Gallia Lugdunensia Secunda,
whose country formed part of the Traetus Armoricus,
end answers to that part of modern Normandy in which
ire Valognes, Coutanccs, and Cherbourg, in the de-
partment de la Manchc. Their capital, at first, was
Crociatonom, answering to the modern Valognes.
? ? Afterward, however, their chief city was Constantini
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? U K A.
Voloubses, a name common to many of the kings
of 1'arihia, who made war against the Koman emper-
? ra. (Vid. Parthia. )
Volsci, a people of Latium, along the coast below
Antium. No notice appears to be taken by any Latin
writer of the origin of this people. According to Ca-
to, they occupied the country of the Aborigines (ap. -
Priscun. , 5), and were at one time subject to the
Etruscans. (Id. , ap. Sere. , Mti. , 11, 667. ) We
? earn from Titinnius, an old comic writer quoted by
Festus (. v >>. Oscum), that (he Volsci had a peculiar
idiom distinct from the Oscan and Latin dialects.
They used the Latin characters, however, both in their
inscriptions ard on their coin. Notwithstanding the
small extent of country which they occupied, reaching
only from Antium to Terracina, a line of coast of
about fifty miles, and little more than half that dis-
tance from the sea to the mountains, it swarmed with
cities filled with a hardy race, destined, says the Ro-
man historian, as it were by fortune, to train the Ro-
man soldier to arms by their perpetual hostility. (Lit. ,
6, 21. ) The Volsci were first attacked by the second
Tarquin, and war was carried on afterward between
the two nations, with short intervals, for upward of
two hundred years (lav. , 1, 53); and though this ac-
coui t is no doubt greatly exaggerated by Livy, and
the numbers much overrated, enough will remain to
prove that this part of Italy was at that time far more
populous and better cultivated than at present. (Cra-
mer's Anc. Italy, vol. 2, p. 82. )
Voltumn. e Fanum, a spot in Etruria where the
general assembly of tho Etrurians was held on solemn
occasions. (Lie. , 4, 23. --Id. , 5,17. ) Some trace of
the ancient name is preserved in that of a church
called Santa Maria in Volturno. (Lanxi, vol. 2, p.
107-- Cramer's Anc. Italy, vol. 2, p. 223. )
Volsinidm. Vid. Vulsinii.
VolubTlis, a city in Mauritania Tingitana, between
Tocolosida and Aquas Dacicto, in a. fruitfu) part of the
country. It is now Walili. (Itin. Ant. ,23. -- Mela,
3, . 10. )
Volumnia, the wife of Coriolanus. (Liv. , 2, 40. )
Vopiscus, one of the writers of the Augustan His-
tory. He was a native of Syracuse, and contemporary
with Trcbellius Pollio, having flourished towards the
close of the third and in the early part of the fourth
century. His father and grandfather lived on terms
of intimacy with the Emperor Dioclesian. In the year
291 or 292, the prefect of Rome, Junius Tiberianua,
prevailed upon Vopiscus to write a life of Aurelian,
wlfich no Latin historian had as yet taken up. He
supplied him with various materials from the private
papers of that prince, and also from the Ulpian library.
Among the books consulted by him, Vopiscus names
some Greek works. This biography was followed by
the lives of Tacitus, Florian, Probus, Firmus, Satur-
ninus, Proculus, Bonosus, Carus, Numerian, and Ca-
rinas. Flavius Vopiscus is distinguished from his
brethren in the Augustan collection by possessing more
of order and method: the letters and official papers,
moreover, which he has inserted in his history, impart
a considerable value to the work. As to style, how-
ever, he is on a level with the other writers in tho Au-
gustan History. He states, in his life of Aurelian, his
intention of writing the life of Apollonius of Tyana, a
project which he never executed. His works are giv-
en in the Histories Augusta Scripiores. (Scholl,
Hiil. Lit. Rom. , vol. 3, p. 156. )
? ? Urania, the muse of Astronomy, usually represent-
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? VUl
VUL
roiled mercenaries after the firat Punic war. {DM.
Sic. . 20, 54. --Polyb. , 1, 83, 88. ) The punishment
inflicted bv the Carthaginians on the people of Utica,
an the quelling of this rebellion, probably drew more
closely the connexion between the two cities ; at least
Scipio besieged Utica in vain during the second Punic
war. At the beginning of the third Punic contest,
however, the inhabitants of Ulica regarded it as the
safer course to separate their interests from those of
Carthage. They gave themselves up, therefore, vol-
untarily to the power of Rome, and this latter state
had now a firm foothold for the prosecution of all her
ambitious plans in relation to Africa. (J'ulyb. , 36, I. )
As some recompense to the TJticenses for the valuable
aid they had afforded during the war, the Romans, at
its close, bestowed upon them a large portion of the
territory immediately adjacent to Carthage (Appian,
Bell. Pun. , c. 135); and Utica was now, and remain-
ed as long as Carthage continued in ruins, the first city
of Africa in point of importance, and the aeat ol the
proconsul. And yet it never became a very flourish-
ing city, since in all the civil wars of the Romans de-
tachments of one party or the other invariably landed
near this place, and fought many of their battles here.
Thus, it was near Utica that Pompey defeated the op-
ponents of Sylla (Orotius, 5, 21); here, too, Curio
contended for Cesar, and, not long after, Caesar's op-
ponents selected' Utica as the chief aeat of the war.
The issue was an unfortunate one for the republican
party, and Cato (hence called Uticemis) found here a
death by his own hand. Hitherto Utica had remained
a free city, with its old constitution, and hence llir-
tius speaks of its senate. (Auct. , Bell. Afr. , c. 87,
90. ) Augustus declared the place a Roman colony.
(Dio Can. , 49, 16-- Plin. , 5, 4. ) It still, however,
retained, in some measure, its early constitution, and
hence is styled by Aulus Gellius a municipium (16,13).
At a later period, Utica was regarded, after Carthage,
the latter having been rebuilt, as the second in Africa.
Ulica had no harbour, but safe roads in front of the
town. Its ruins are to be seen at the present day near
Porlo Farina. (Mannert, Geogr. , vol. 10, pt. 2, p.
288, >>tqq. )
Vui. canai. ia. festivals in honour of Vulcan, brought
to Rome from Praenestc, and observed in tho month of
August. The streets were illuminated, fires kindled
everywhere, and animals thrown into the flames, as a
sacrifice to the deity. ( Varro, h. L. , 5, 3. --Plin. ,
18, 13. )
Vulcani Insula. Vid. AZoUte (Insula), and Li-
para.
Vdlcanus, the god of fire, the same with the He-
phaestus ("HdiuBToc) of the Greeks. Hephaestus, the
Olympian artist, is in Homer the son of Jupiter and
Juno. {II, 1, 572,578. ) According to Hesiod, how-
ever, he was the son of Juno alone, who was unwill-
ing to be outdone by Jupiter when he had given birth
to Minerva. (Theog. , 927 ) He was born lame, and
his mother was so shocked at the sight of him that
she flung him from Olympus. The Ocean-nymph Eu-
rynome and the Nereid Thetis saved and concealed
him in a cavern beneath tho Ocean, where, during
nine years, he employed himself in manufacturing for
them various ornaments and trinkets. (II. , 18, 394,
icqq. ) We are not informed how his returi.
to Olym-
pus was effected ; but we find him, in the Iliad, firmly
filed there ; and all the mansions, furniture, ornaments,
? ? and arms of the Olympians were the work of his hands.
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? XA
XAN
A agastan History. He has the title of J'/r Clarissi-
mus, which indicates that he was a senator. Vulcii-
lius lived under Dioclesian, and proposed to himself
to write a history of all the Roman emperors; we
have from him, however, only the life of Avidius Cas-
? iiu. Some manuscripts even assign this biography
><i Spartianus.
VULSINII or VOLSINII, and also VCLSINIUM orVoL-
? INIUM, a city of Etruria, situate on the northern shore
of the Lacus Vulsiniensis. It is generally allowed to
rank among the first cities of the country. An account
of its early contest with Rome is to be found in Livy
(5, 31). About the time of the war against Pyrrhus,
Vulsinii, which the Roman writers represent as a most
opulent and flourishing place, becomes so enervated by
its wealth and luxury as to allow its slaves to over-
throw the constitution, and give way to the most un-
bridled licentiousness and excess, till at last the citi-
zens were forced to seek for that protection from Rome
which they could not derive from their own resources.
The rebels were speedily reduced, and brought to con-
dign punishment. (Vol. Max. ,8, 1. --Flor. , 1, 21. --
Oi-iis , 4, 5. ) As a proof of the ancient prosperity of
Vulsinii, it is stated by Pliny, on the authority of Me-
trodorus Scepsius, that it possessed, when taken by
the Romans, no leas than 2000 statues. (/'//<<. , 34,
7. ) From Livy we learn that the Etruscan goddess
Nortia was worshipped there, and that it was custom-
ary to mark the years by fixing nails in her temples
(7, 3). Vulsinii, at a later period, is noted as the
birthplace of Scjanus. (Tac. , Ann. , 4, 1. ) It is now
BoUena. (Cramer'i Anc. Italy, vol. 1, p. 221, segq. )
VULTURNBM, a town of Campania, at the mouth of
the river Vulturnus, and on the left bank. It is now
Castel di Vnil a i nn. The origin of this city was prdb-.
ably Etruscan, but we do not find it mentioned in his-
tory until it became a Roman colony, A. U. C. 558.
'Lir, 34,45. ) According to Frontinus, a second col-
ony was sent thither by Caesar. Festus includes it
? mong the prefecture. (Cramer's Anc. Italy, vol.
a, p 145. )
VULTORMJS, I. a river of Campania, now Volturno,
rising among the Apennines, in the territory of Samni-
um, and discharging its waters into the lower sea.
At its mouth stood the town of Vulturnum. . The
modern name is the Volturno. A magnificent bridge,
. with a triumphal arch, was thrown over this river by
Dornitian when he caused a road to be constructed
from Sinuessa to Puleoli; a work which Statius has
undertaken to eulogize in some hundred lines of in-
different poetry. (Sylv. , 4, 3. --Cramer'* Anc. Italy,
vol. 2, p. 144. )--II. A name applied by the Latin
writers ', i the southeast wind, and answering to the
Greek Evpovonf. (Aul. Gell. , 2, 22. --Vitruv , 1, 6. )
UXANTIS, an island off the coast of Gaul, now
Ushant. (Itin. Hierot. , 509. )
UXEU. ODUNUM, a city in Aquitanic Gaul, in the ter-
ritory of the Cadurci; now Pueche d'litolon. (C<cs. ,
B. G. , 8, 32. )
Uxli, a mountaineer race occupying the ranges that
run on each side of the river Orontes, and separate
Pcrsis from Susiana. They were predatory in their
haliits. (Diod. , 27, 67. --Arrian, Ind , 3, 18. --Plin. ,
K 27. )
X.
XANTHIPPE (SavOiirmi), less correctly XANTIPPK,
the wife of Socrates, represented by many of the an-
? ? cient writers as a perfect termagant. It is more than
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? XEN
XES
wrote a History of Lydia in four books. Suidas cites
ihe second Dionysius of Halicarnassus also quotes
this work, and speaks of the author, in terras of high
commendation. (Ant. Rum. , vol. 1, p. 22, ed Rciskt. )
The Lydiaca are quoted by Parthemus, in Stephanus
of Byzantium, and probably by the scholiast on Apol-
lonius Rhodius : by Hephasslion also (p. 14, ed. Gait/. ).
The fragments of Xanthus are given by Creuzer in
his "Historic orum Gracorum Anliquiss. Frogmen-
fa," Heidelb. , 1806, 8vo, p. 148, seqq. (Mus. Crit. ,
vol. 2, p. 109, seqq. )
Xenoclks, an Athenian tragic poet, ridiculed by
Aristophanes, and yet the conqueror of Euripides on
one occasion (Olym. 91. 2, B. C. 415). He was of
dwarfish stature, and son of the tragic poet Carcinus.
In the Pax, Aristophanes applies the term /ir/xavoSi^ac
to the family. From the scholiast it appears that Xen-
ocles was celebrated for introducing machinery and
stage-shows, especially in the ascent or descent of his
gods. (Theatre of the Greeks, 3d ed. , p. 66. )
Xenocrates, I. an ancient philosopher, born at
Chalcedon in the 95th Olympiad, B. C. 400. H first
attached himself to /Eschines, but afterward became
a disciple of Plato, who took much pains in cultivating
his genius, which was naturally heavy. Plato, com-
paring him with Aristotle, who was also one of his
pupils, called the former a dull ass, who needed the
spar, and the latter a mettlesome horse, who required
the curb. His temper was,glooiny, his aspect severe,
and his manners little tinctured with urbanity. These
material defects his master took great pains to cor-
rect, frequently advising him to sacrifice to the Gra-
- ces; and tlfc pupil was patient of instruction, and
knew how to value the kindness of his preceptor. He
compared himself to a vessel with a narrow orifice,
which receives with difficulty, but firmly retains what-
ever is put into it. So affectionately was Xenocrates
* attached to his master, that when Dionysius, in a vio-
lent fit of anger, threatened to find one who should cut
iff his head, he said, "Not before he has cut off this,"
ajointing to his own. As long as Plato lived, Xenoc-
rates was one of his most esteemed disciples; after
his death he closely adhered to his doctrine; and, in
the second year of the hundred and tenth Olympiad,
B. C. 339, he took the chair in the Academy as the
auccessor of Speusippus. Aristotle, who, about this
time, returned from Macedonia, in expectation, as it
should seem, of filling the chair, was greatly disap-
pointed and chagrined at this nomination, and imme-
diately instituted a school in the Lyceum, in opposi-
tion to that of the Academy where Xenocrates con-
tinued to preside till his death. Xenocrates was cel-
ebrated among the Athenians, not only for his wisdom,
but also for his virtues. (Val. Max. , 2, 10. --Cie. , ad
Alt. , 2, 16. -- Diog. Laert. , 4, 7. ) So eminent was
his reputation for integrity, that when he was called
upon to give evidence in a judicial transaction, in
which an oath was usually required, the judges unan-
imously agreed that his simple asseveration should be
taken, as a public testimony to his merit. Even
Philip of Macedon found it impossible to corrupt
him. When he was sent, with several others, upon
an embassy to that prince, he declined all private in-
tercourse with him, that he might escape the tempta-
tion of a bribe. Philip afterward said, that of all those
who had come to him on embassies from foreign
states, Xenocrates was the only one whose friendship
? ? he had not been able to purchase. (Diog. Laert. , 4,
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? XEN
tuei taught that if there ever had been a time when
nothing existed^ nothing ucr. ikl ever have existed.
That whatever is, always has been from eternity, with-
out deriving its existence from any prior principle;
that nature is one and without limit; that what is one
is similar in all its part*, else it would be many; that
the one infinite, eternal, and homogeneous universe
is immutable and incapable of change; that God is
one incorporeal eternal being, and, like the universe,
tpherical in form; that he is of the same nature with
the universe, comprehending all things within himself;
is intelligent, and pervades aii things, but bears no re-
semblance to human nature either in body or mind.
(Enjidfs History of Philosophy, vol. 1, p. 414. )
XENOPHON, I. a celebrated Athenian, son of Gryl-
lus, distinguished as an historian, philosopher, and
commander, born at Ercheia, a borough of the tribe
^Ege'is, B. C. 445. (Letronne, Biogr. Univ. , vol. 51,
p. 370. ) Xenophon was unquestionably one of the
most respectable characters among the disciples of
Socrates. He strictly adhered to the principles of his
master in action as well as opinion, and employed phi-
losophy, not to furnish him with the means of osten-
tation, but to qualify him for the offices of public and
private life. While he was a youth, Socrates, struck
with the comeliness of his person (for he regarded a
fair form as a probable indication of a well-propor-
tioned mind), determined to admit him into the num-
ber of his pupils. Meeting him by accident in a nar-
row passage, the philosopher put forth his staff across
the path, and, slopping him, asked where those things
were to be purchased which are necessary to human
life. Xenophon appearing at a loss for a reply ! " this
unexpected salutation, Socrates proceeded to ask him
where honest and good men were to be found. Xcn-
aphon still hesitating, Socrates said to him, "Follow
me, and learn. " From that time Xenophon became a
disciple of Socrates, and made a rapid progress in that
moral wisdom for which his master was so eminent.
Xenophon accompanied Socrates in the Peloponnesian
war, and fought courageously in defence of his coun-
try. It was at the battle of Delium, in the early part
of this war, that Socrates, according to some accounts,
saved the life of his pupil. In another battle, also
fought in Boeotia, but of which history has preserved
no trace, Xenophon would seem to have been made
prisoner by the enemy; for Philostratus (Vit. Soph. ,
1, 12) informs us that he. attended the instructions of
Prodicus of Ceos while he was a prisoner in Boeotia.
How his time was employed during the period which
preceded his serving in the army of Cyrus is not as-
certained; it is more than probable, however, that he
was'engaged during the interval in several campaigns,
since the skill and experience displayed in conducting
the retreat of the Ten Thousand presuppose a familiar
acquaintance with the art of war. At the age of forty-
three or forty-four years, he was invited by Proxenus
the BoDOtian, formerly a disciple of Gorgias of Leon-
tini, and one of Xenophon's intimate friends, to en-
ter into the service of Cyrus the younger, the brother
of Artaxerxes Mnemon of Persia. Xenophon consult-
ed Socrates in relation to this step, and the philoso-
pher disapproved of it, being apprehensive lest his old
pupil might incur the displeasure of the Athenians by
pining a prince who had shown himself disposed to
aid the Lacedemonians in their war against Athens.
He advised him, however, to visit Delphi, and consult
the god about his intended scheme.
