"Object and Method in
Rhetorical
Criticism: From Wichelns to Leff and McGee.
The Public Work of Rhetoric_nodrm
"
60. Aristotle, On Rhetoric, 3. 7. 9.
61. Longinus, On the Sublime, 22. 1.
62. Dionysius, Critical Essays, 8.
63. Aeschines, "Against Ctesiphon," 3. 99. As Hesk notes, Aeschines' complaint distin-
guishes two levels or types of deceit: the detectable and the undetectable. Hesk, Decep- tion and Democracy, 238.
64. This is different from what Hesk calls "the rhetoric of anti-rhetoric," which con- sists of explicit attacks on the deceptiveness of speech, or one's opponent's speech, rather than the denial of one's own rhetoric. Hesk, Deception and Democracy.
65. Julius Caesar, III: ii.
66. Plutarch, Moralia, 17.
67. Herzog, Cunning, 95.
68. Sprat, History, Sect. 20.
69. Consigny has also made this point, noting that such "seemingly neutral dis-
course" is usually hegemonic. Consigny, "Rhetorical Concealment. "
70. Lanham, Electronic Word, 110; see also his discussion of the work of zoologist Richard Alexander, who aimed to explain why "hypocrisy evolved as the primary hu-
man attribute" (58).
71. Burke, Rhetoric of Motives, 22. 72. Herzog, Cunning, 121.
73. Ibid. , 84, 121.
Should We Name the Tools? 35
36 Carolyn R. Miller
74. Hariman, "Status," 44.
75. Ibid. , 48.
76. Gaonkar, "Idea of Rhetoric"; see also Cahn's discussion of rhetoric's disciplinary
status, "Rhetoric of Rhetoric. "
77. Booth, Rhetoric of Rhetoric, 149.
78. Hesk, Deception and Democracy, 203-4. 79. Ibid. , 227ff.
80. Schloemann, "Entertainment. " 81. Ibid. , 144.
82. Lanham, Electronic Word.
83. Garsten, Saving Persuasion, 2.
Works Cited
Aeschines. "Against Ctesiphon. " In Aeschines. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1919.
Alcidamas. On the Sophists. Translated by Larue Van Hook. Classical Weekly 12, no. 12. http://classicpersuasion. org/pw/alcidamas/alcsoph1. htm (accessed July 23, 2008). Translated by Charles Darwin Miller, http://www. perseus. tufts. edu/hopper/text? doc =Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:speech=3.
Andersen, Oivind. "Lingua Suspecta: On Concealing and Displaying the Art of Rhetoric. " Sumbolae Osloenses 71 (1996): 68-86.
Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated by G. A. Kennedy. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Ballif, Michelle. Seduction, Sophistry, and the Woman with the Rhetorical Figure, Rhetorical Philosophy and Theory. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2001.
Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Rhetoric: The Quest for Effective Communication, Black- well Manifestos. Malden, Mass. : Blackwell, 2004.
Burke, Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969. Cahn, Michael. "The Rhetoric of Rhetoric: Six Tropes of Disciplinary Self-Constitution. " In The Recovery of Rhetoric: Persuasive Discourse and Disciplinarity in the Human Sci- ences, edited by R. H. Roberts and J. M. M. Good, 61-84. Charlottesville: University
of Virginia Press, 1993.
Campbell, George. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. 1776. Edited by Lloyd F. Bitzer. Reprint,
Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. 1963.
Cherwitz, Richard A. "Rhetoric as 'a Way of Knowing': An Attenuation of the Episte-
mological Claims of the 'New Rhetoric. '" Southern Speech Communication Journal 42
(1977): 297-319.
Cicero, Marcus Tullius. Brutus. Translated by G. L. Hendrickson. Loeb Classical Library.
Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1939.
------. De Inventione, De Optimo Genere Oratorum, Topica. Translated by H. M. Hummell.
Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1949.
------. De Oratore. Translated by H. Rackham. 2 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge,
Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1942.
Consigny, Scott. Gorgias: Sophist and Artist. Edited by T. W. Benson. Studies in Rhetoric
and Communication. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001.
------. "Rhetorical Concealment. " Paper read at Theory of Rhetoric: An Interdiscipli-
nary Conference, Minneapolis, Minn. , 1979.
Cronje? , J. V. "The Principle of Concealment (to Lathein) in Greek Literary Theory. " Acta
Classica 36 (1993): 55-64.
David, Marian. "Correspondence Theory of Truth. " In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philoso- phy, edited by E. N. Zalta. Stanford, Calif. : Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford Uni- versity, 2005. http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/truth-correspondence/ (accessed June 23, 2008).
Demosthenes. On the False Embassy. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1926. http://www. perseus. tufts. edu/hopper/text. jsp? doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0072:speech =19 (accessed July 19, 2008).
Dionysius of Halicarnassus. The Critical Essays. Translated by S. Usher. 2 vols. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1974.
Gaonkar, Dilip Parameshwar. "The Idea of Rhetoric in the Rhetoric of Science. " In Rhetorical Hermeneutics: Invention and Interpretation in the Age of Science, edited by A. G. Gross and W. M. Keith, 25-85. Albany: SUNY Press, 1997.
------.
"Object and Method in Rhetorical Criticism: From Wichelns to Leff and McGee. " Western Journal of Speech Communication 54 (1990): 290-316.
Garsten, Bryan. Saving Persuasion: A Defense of Rhetoric and Judgment. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 2006.
Gorgias. "Encomium of Helen. " In Aristotle, on Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse, edited by G. A. Kennedy, 283-88. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Hariman, Robert. "Status, Marginality, and Rhetorical Theory. " Quarterly Journal of Speech 72 (1986): 38-54.
Hawhee, Debra. Bodily Arts: Rhetoric and Athletics in Ancient Greece. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004.
Herzog, Don. Cunning. Princeton, N. J. : Princeton University Press, 2006.
Hesk, Jon. Deception and Democracy in Classical Athens. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 2000.
Kastely, James L. Rethinking the Rhetorical Tradition: From Plato to Postmodernism. New
Haven, Conn. : Yale University Press, 1997.
Kerferd, G. B. The Sophistic Movement. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1980.
Lanham, Richard A. The Electronic Word: Democracy, Technology, and the Arts. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1993.
Longinus. On the Sublime. Translated by J. A. Arieti and J. M. Crossett. Vol. 21, Texts and
Studies in Religion. New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1985.
Miller, Carolyn R. "The Aristotelian Topos: Hunting for Novelty. " In Rereading Aristotle's
Rhetoric, edited by A. G. Gross and W. Keith, 130-46. Carbondale: Southern Illinois
University Press, 2000.
Ong, Walter J. Fighting for Life: Contest, Sexuality, and Consciousness. Ithaca, N. Y. : Cornell
University Press, 1981.
Paradis, James. "Bacon, Linnaeus, and Lavoisier: Early Language Reform in the Sciences. "
In New Essays in Technical and Scientific Communication: Research, Theory, Practice, edited by P. V. Anderson, R. J. Brockmann, and C. R. Miller, 200-224. Farmingdale, N. Y. : Baywood, 1983.
Plato. The Collected Dialogues. Edited by E. Hamilton and H. Cairns. Princeton, N. J. : Princeton University Press, 1961.
Plett, Heinrich F. "Shakespeare and the Ars Rhetorica. " In Rhetoric and Pedagogy: Its His- tory, Philosophy, and Practice. Essays in Honor of James J. Murphy, edited by W. B. Horner and M. Leff, 243-59. Mahway, N. J. : Lawrence Erlbaum, 1995.
Plutarch. Moralia. Translated by G. Tullie. Boston: Little, Brown, 1878.
Should We Name the Tools? 37
38 Carolyn R. Miller
Poulakos, John. Sophistical Rhetoric in Classical Greece. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1997.
Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria. Translated by H. E. Butler. 4 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1920.
Reddy, Michael J. "The Conduit Metaphor--a Case of Frame Conflict in Our Language About Language. " In Metaphor and Thought, edited by A. Ortony, 164-201. 1979. Reprint, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Rhetorica Ad Herennium. 1981. Translated by H. Caplan. Loeb Classical Library. Cam- bridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1981.
Roochnik, David. Of Art and Wisdom: Plato's Understanding of Techne. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996.
Schloemann, Johan. "Entertainment and Democratic Distrust: The Audiences's Atti- tudes towards Oral and Written Oratory in Classical Athens. " In Epea and Grammata: Oral and Written Communication in Ancient Greece, edited by I. Worthington and J. M. Foley, 133-46. Leiden: Brill, 2002.
Sprat, Thomas. History of the Royal Society of London, for the Improving of Natural Knowl- edge. London: J. Martyn at the Bell, 1667.
Tannen, Deborah. The Argument Culture: Stopping America's War of Words. New York: Bal- lentine Books, 1998.
Taylor, Archer. "The History of a Proverbial Pattern. " De Proverbio: An Electronic Journal of International Proverb Studies 2, no. 1 (1996). http://www. deproverbio. com/DPjournal //DP,2,1,96/PROVERBIAL_PATTERN. html (accessed September 24, 2006).
Toulmin, Stephen. Cosmopolis: The Hidden Agenda of Modernity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
Zerba, Michelle. "The Frauds of Humanism: Cicero, Machiavelli, and the Rhetoric of Imposture. " Rhetorica 22, no. 3 (2004): 215-40.
? Power, Publics, and the Rhetorical Uses of Democracy
Candice Rai
"The Rhetoric must lead us through the Scramble, the Wrangle of the Market Place, the flurries and flare-ups of the Human Barnyard, the Give and Take, the wavering line of pressure and counter pressure, the Logomachy, the onus of ownership, the Wars of Nerves, the War. "1
In this essay, I argue that rhetorics, specifically rhetorics of democracy, can be turned on their head, picked up and used to support diametrically opposed agendas. I understand democratic rhetorics as comprised of a tangled discur- sive web of commonplace myths, symbols, stock tales, and contradictory blue- prints for the good life that we collectively associate with democracy. This includes the arsenal of topoi that embody democratic ideals, such as freedom, equality, and liberty. The flexible uses of democratic rhetoric is possible be- cause its topoi function as persuasive rhetorical engines that proliferate mean- ing and mobilize action by activating discourse already circulating in the social imagination. Kenneth Burke referred to such topoi as "god-terms" be- cause they are capable of "transcending brute objects" and of doing the work of gods by providing the "ground of all possibility; substance . . . truth . . . ideal, plan, purpose. "2 I contend that the "public sphere," one of democracy's core topoi, crystallizes the hopes and ideals, as well as the limits and contra- dictions, of liberal democracy. The public sphere is predicated on the power- ful faith that rational deliberation among private citizens about matters of public concern will produce a more inclusive, empathetic, and just society. The sheer moral force of these promised public goods is capable of obscuring gaps between democratic ideals and material realities, eliding the inherent contradictions within the democratic project, and legitimizing arguments that make use of democratic rhetorics, regardless of content or social consequence.
Whatever it is we imagine democracy to mean, we can be sure that our neighbors will have a very different understanding. That both conflicting claims, mine and my neighbor's, can be theoretically legitimate within a single
40 Candice Rai
democratic framework means that determining the content of "democracy" might be more a matter of raw power and rhetorical savvy than about whose argument is more rational, just, or better equipped to secure public goods and increase neighborliness. Since democratic ideals can inspire action toward very different ends, it is dangerous to equate democracy with social justice or to presume that democracy alone can mitigate human suffering and violence, and further, it suggests that democratic politics cannot be comprehended strictly from a god's-eye view.
I situate these arguments, therefore, within fieldwork conducted between 2005 and 2008 in Uptown, a gentrifying Chicago neighborhood, to consider how stakeholders use democratic rhetorics to argue about the future of their neighborhood. 3 I begin by discussing the public sphere, as the conceptual model of democracy, arguing that although the transcendent ideals repre- sented in the model are capable of inspiring conviction and action, the sub- stance of these ideals remains elusive until they are put to use in concrete situations. I then examine the uses of democratic rhetoric in debates over affordable housing in Uptown to consider how democratic rhetorics are used to support very different investments.
One can travel to Uptown's central hub from downtown Chicago by taking the redline train due north for five miles to the Wilson stop. Since its annexa- tion to the city in 1889, Uptown has served as a port of entry for African, Latin American, Asian, and European immigrants and refugees; African Ameri- can and white Appalachian migrants from the South; and Native Americans displaced by the Relocation Act of 1956. 4 An economically and ethnically diverse population crosses paths while going about their business on Wilson Avenue. The neighborhood's population ranges from the very affluent to the very poor--with people in the upper quintillion of income sharing blocks with people in the lowest. Visitors would immediately face the material evi- dence of gentrification as they left the train: a new condominium flashes its bronze facade next door to the Wilson Hotel, infamous for housing transient "undesirables. "
In the heart of Uptown, there is a five-acre empty lot known simply as Wil- son Yard, which stands literally at the crossroads of affluence and decay. There is nothing particularly striking about the lot: it lies sandwiched between the El train and a strip of hodgepodge businesses. The lot made its public debut in 1996 when a fire destroyed a repair shop owned by the Chicago Transit Authority (CTA). The controversial public debates over what to build in this lot have been ongoing since 1997 when the CTA sold the land to the city, prompting Uptown's alderman Helen Shiller to initiate a community-driven, "democratic" planning process to collectively design a project at Wilson Yard. 5 The eventual outcome was to represent the will of the people and stand as a material monument to the ability of inclusive dialogue in the public sphere to create the greatest good for all.
Power, Publics, and the Rhetorical Uses of Democracy 41
The hotly contested Wilson Yard plan includes a Target, street-level retail, and two ten-story publicly subsidized affordable apartment buildings. One building includes ninety-nine units for low-income seniors, and the other-- which lies at the center of this controversy--will house eighty-four units for households making no more than 60 percent of the area median income. 6 Beginning in 1998, dozens of organizations and hundreds of Uptown stake- holders have evoked democratic rhetoric in public discourse and at commu- nity meetings to justify and support arguments both for and against affordable housing at Wilson Yard;7 to both slander and support public officials; and to both legitimate and blast the processes of gentrification. I am interested here in how two such different investments--one claiming that creating affordable housing on behalf of those at risk of being displaced by gentrification is demo- cratic, and the other claiming that such a move is undemocratic because it favors the poor, silences the voices of property owners, and unjustly reappro- priates taxes--could both be supported using democratic rhetoric. Many peo- ple are invested in Uptown, just not in the same outcomes. To help elucidate these investments, I turn to a description of the contention at Wilson Yard, and to a consideration of how competing publics in Uptown illustrate the theoretical and practical contradictions within the democratic project.
Democratic Theory, Power, and the Limits of the Public Sphere Trope
By analyzing Uptown's emergent public in action, one bears witness to what Chantal Mouffe calls the "paradox of democracy. " Mouffe articulates this "paradox" as the incompatibility between political liberalism (which fore- grounds a politics of liberty and individual rights) and democracy (which foregrounds a politics of equality). Arguing that this paradox is an inherent and valuable feature of democracy, she advocates "agonistic pluralism," a poli- tics that secures contestation as a permanent and foundational condition of democracy. In rejecting the possibility of "establishing a consensus without exclusion," agonistic pluralism calls for the maintenance of democratic insti- tutions and processes that keep "democratic contestations alive. "8 Compelling in theory, "agonistic pluralism" presents serious limitations in the material world where concrete, timely, and compromised decisions must finally be made. In Uptown, something must be developed at Wilson Yard despite what could be an infinite debate over what should be built.
60. Aristotle, On Rhetoric, 3. 7. 9.
61. Longinus, On the Sublime, 22. 1.
62. Dionysius, Critical Essays, 8.
63. Aeschines, "Against Ctesiphon," 3. 99. As Hesk notes, Aeschines' complaint distin-
guishes two levels or types of deceit: the detectable and the undetectable. Hesk, Decep- tion and Democracy, 238.
64. This is different from what Hesk calls "the rhetoric of anti-rhetoric," which con- sists of explicit attacks on the deceptiveness of speech, or one's opponent's speech, rather than the denial of one's own rhetoric. Hesk, Deception and Democracy.
65. Julius Caesar, III: ii.
66. Plutarch, Moralia, 17.
67. Herzog, Cunning, 95.
68. Sprat, History, Sect. 20.
69. Consigny has also made this point, noting that such "seemingly neutral dis-
course" is usually hegemonic. Consigny, "Rhetorical Concealment. "
70. Lanham, Electronic Word, 110; see also his discussion of the work of zoologist Richard Alexander, who aimed to explain why "hypocrisy evolved as the primary hu-
man attribute" (58).
71. Burke, Rhetoric of Motives, 22. 72. Herzog, Cunning, 121.
73. Ibid. , 84, 121.
Should We Name the Tools? 35
36 Carolyn R. Miller
74. Hariman, "Status," 44.
75. Ibid. , 48.
76. Gaonkar, "Idea of Rhetoric"; see also Cahn's discussion of rhetoric's disciplinary
status, "Rhetoric of Rhetoric. "
77. Booth, Rhetoric of Rhetoric, 149.
78. Hesk, Deception and Democracy, 203-4. 79. Ibid. , 227ff.
80. Schloemann, "Entertainment. " 81. Ibid. , 144.
82. Lanham, Electronic Word.
83. Garsten, Saving Persuasion, 2.
Works Cited
Aeschines. "Against Ctesiphon. " In Aeschines. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1919.
Alcidamas. On the Sophists. Translated by Larue Van Hook. Classical Weekly 12, no. 12. http://classicpersuasion. org/pw/alcidamas/alcsoph1. htm (accessed July 23, 2008). Translated by Charles Darwin Miller, http://www. perseus. tufts. edu/hopper/text? doc =Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:speech=3.
Andersen, Oivind. "Lingua Suspecta: On Concealing and Displaying the Art of Rhetoric. " Sumbolae Osloenses 71 (1996): 68-86.
Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated by G. A. Kennedy. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Ballif, Michelle. Seduction, Sophistry, and the Woman with the Rhetorical Figure, Rhetorical Philosophy and Theory. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2001.
Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Rhetoric: The Quest for Effective Communication, Black- well Manifestos. Malden, Mass. : Blackwell, 2004.
Burke, Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969. Cahn, Michael. "The Rhetoric of Rhetoric: Six Tropes of Disciplinary Self-Constitution. " In The Recovery of Rhetoric: Persuasive Discourse and Disciplinarity in the Human Sci- ences, edited by R. H. Roberts and J. M. M. Good, 61-84. Charlottesville: University
of Virginia Press, 1993.
Campbell, George. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. 1776. Edited by Lloyd F. Bitzer. Reprint,
Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. 1963.
Cherwitz, Richard A. "Rhetoric as 'a Way of Knowing': An Attenuation of the Episte-
mological Claims of the 'New Rhetoric. '" Southern Speech Communication Journal 42
(1977): 297-319.
Cicero, Marcus Tullius. Brutus. Translated by G. L. Hendrickson. Loeb Classical Library.
Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1939.
------. De Inventione, De Optimo Genere Oratorum, Topica. Translated by H. M. Hummell.
Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1949.
------. De Oratore. Translated by H. Rackham. 2 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge,
Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1942.
Consigny, Scott. Gorgias: Sophist and Artist. Edited by T. W. Benson. Studies in Rhetoric
and Communication. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001.
------. "Rhetorical Concealment. " Paper read at Theory of Rhetoric: An Interdiscipli-
nary Conference, Minneapolis, Minn. , 1979.
Cronje? , J. V. "The Principle of Concealment (to Lathein) in Greek Literary Theory. " Acta
Classica 36 (1993): 55-64.
David, Marian. "Correspondence Theory of Truth. " In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philoso- phy, edited by E. N. Zalta. Stanford, Calif. : Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford Uni- versity, 2005. http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/truth-correspondence/ (accessed June 23, 2008).
Demosthenes. On the False Embassy. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1926. http://www. perseus. tufts. edu/hopper/text. jsp? doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0072:speech =19 (accessed July 19, 2008).
Dionysius of Halicarnassus. The Critical Essays. Translated by S. Usher. 2 vols. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1974.
Gaonkar, Dilip Parameshwar. "The Idea of Rhetoric in the Rhetoric of Science. " In Rhetorical Hermeneutics: Invention and Interpretation in the Age of Science, edited by A. G. Gross and W. M. Keith, 25-85. Albany: SUNY Press, 1997.
------.
"Object and Method in Rhetorical Criticism: From Wichelns to Leff and McGee. " Western Journal of Speech Communication 54 (1990): 290-316.
Garsten, Bryan. Saving Persuasion: A Defense of Rhetoric and Judgment. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 2006.
Gorgias. "Encomium of Helen. " In Aristotle, on Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse, edited by G. A. Kennedy, 283-88. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Hariman, Robert. "Status, Marginality, and Rhetorical Theory. " Quarterly Journal of Speech 72 (1986): 38-54.
Hawhee, Debra. Bodily Arts: Rhetoric and Athletics in Ancient Greece. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004.
Herzog, Don. Cunning. Princeton, N. J. : Princeton University Press, 2006.
Hesk, Jon. Deception and Democracy in Classical Athens. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 2000.
Kastely, James L. Rethinking the Rhetorical Tradition: From Plato to Postmodernism. New
Haven, Conn. : Yale University Press, 1997.
Kerferd, G. B. The Sophistic Movement. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1980.
Lanham, Richard A. The Electronic Word: Democracy, Technology, and the Arts. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1993.
Longinus. On the Sublime. Translated by J. A. Arieti and J. M. Crossett. Vol. 21, Texts and
Studies in Religion. New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1985.
Miller, Carolyn R. "The Aristotelian Topos: Hunting for Novelty. " In Rereading Aristotle's
Rhetoric, edited by A. G. Gross and W. Keith, 130-46. Carbondale: Southern Illinois
University Press, 2000.
Ong, Walter J. Fighting for Life: Contest, Sexuality, and Consciousness. Ithaca, N. Y. : Cornell
University Press, 1981.
Paradis, James. "Bacon, Linnaeus, and Lavoisier: Early Language Reform in the Sciences. "
In New Essays in Technical and Scientific Communication: Research, Theory, Practice, edited by P. V. Anderson, R. J. Brockmann, and C. R. Miller, 200-224. Farmingdale, N. Y. : Baywood, 1983.
Plato. The Collected Dialogues. Edited by E. Hamilton and H. Cairns. Princeton, N. J. : Princeton University Press, 1961.
Plett, Heinrich F. "Shakespeare and the Ars Rhetorica. " In Rhetoric and Pedagogy: Its His- tory, Philosophy, and Practice. Essays in Honor of James J. Murphy, edited by W. B. Horner and M. Leff, 243-59. Mahway, N. J. : Lawrence Erlbaum, 1995.
Plutarch. Moralia. Translated by G. Tullie. Boston: Little, Brown, 1878.
Should We Name the Tools? 37
38 Carolyn R. Miller
Poulakos, John. Sophistical Rhetoric in Classical Greece. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1997.
Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria. Translated by H. E. Butler. 4 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1920.
Reddy, Michael J. "The Conduit Metaphor--a Case of Frame Conflict in Our Language About Language. " In Metaphor and Thought, edited by A. Ortony, 164-201. 1979. Reprint, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Rhetorica Ad Herennium. 1981. Translated by H. Caplan. Loeb Classical Library. Cam- bridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1981.
Roochnik, David. Of Art and Wisdom: Plato's Understanding of Techne. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996.
Schloemann, Johan. "Entertainment and Democratic Distrust: The Audiences's Atti- tudes towards Oral and Written Oratory in Classical Athens. " In Epea and Grammata: Oral and Written Communication in Ancient Greece, edited by I. Worthington and J. M. Foley, 133-46. Leiden: Brill, 2002.
Sprat, Thomas. History of the Royal Society of London, for the Improving of Natural Knowl- edge. London: J. Martyn at the Bell, 1667.
Tannen, Deborah. The Argument Culture: Stopping America's War of Words. New York: Bal- lentine Books, 1998.
Taylor, Archer. "The History of a Proverbial Pattern. " De Proverbio: An Electronic Journal of International Proverb Studies 2, no. 1 (1996). http://www. deproverbio. com/DPjournal //DP,2,1,96/PROVERBIAL_PATTERN. html (accessed September 24, 2006).
Toulmin, Stephen. Cosmopolis: The Hidden Agenda of Modernity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
Zerba, Michelle. "The Frauds of Humanism: Cicero, Machiavelli, and the Rhetoric of Imposture. " Rhetorica 22, no. 3 (2004): 215-40.
? Power, Publics, and the Rhetorical Uses of Democracy
Candice Rai
"The Rhetoric must lead us through the Scramble, the Wrangle of the Market Place, the flurries and flare-ups of the Human Barnyard, the Give and Take, the wavering line of pressure and counter pressure, the Logomachy, the onus of ownership, the Wars of Nerves, the War. "1
In this essay, I argue that rhetorics, specifically rhetorics of democracy, can be turned on their head, picked up and used to support diametrically opposed agendas. I understand democratic rhetorics as comprised of a tangled discur- sive web of commonplace myths, symbols, stock tales, and contradictory blue- prints for the good life that we collectively associate with democracy. This includes the arsenal of topoi that embody democratic ideals, such as freedom, equality, and liberty. The flexible uses of democratic rhetoric is possible be- cause its topoi function as persuasive rhetorical engines that proliferate mean- ing and mobilize action by activating discourse already circulating in the social imagination. Kenneth Burke referred to such topoi as "god-terms" be- cause they are capable of "transcending brute objects" and of doing the work of gods by providing the "ground of all possibility; substance . . . truth . . . ideal, plan, purpose. "2 I contend that the "public sphere," one of democracy's core topoi, crystallizes the hopes and ideals, as well as the limits and contra- dictions, of liberal democracy. The public sphere is predicated on the power- ful faith that rational deliberation among private citizens about matters of public concern will produce a more inclusive, empathetic, and just society. The sheer moral force of these promised public goods is capable of obscuring gaps between democratic ideals and material realities, eliding the inherent contradictions within the democratic project, and legitimizing arguments that make use of democratic rhetorics, regardless of content or social consequence.
Whatever it is we imagine democracy to mean, we can be sure that our neighbors will have a very different understanding. That both conflicting claims, mine and my neighbor's, can be theoretically legitimate within a single
40 Candice Rai
democratic framework means that determining the content of "democracy" might be more a matter of raw power and rhetorical savvy than about whose argument is more rational, just, or better equipped to secure public goods and increase neighborliness. Since democratic ideals can inspire action toward very different ends, it is dangerous to equate democracy with social justice or to presume that democracy alone can mitigate human suffering and violence, and further, it suggests that democratic politics cannot be comprehended strictly from a god's-eye view.
I situate these arguments, therefore, within fieldwork conducted between 2005 and 2008 in Uptown, a gentrifying Chicago neighborhood, to consider how stakeholders use democratic rhetorics to argue about the future of their neighborhood. 3 I begin by discussing the public sphere, as the conceptual model of democracy, arguing that although the transcendent ideals repre- sented in the model are capable of inspiring conviction and action, the sub- stance of these ideals remains elusive until they are put to use in concrete situations. I then examine the uses of democratic rhetoric in debates over affordable housing in Uptown to consider how democratic rhetorics are used to support very different investments.
One can travel to Uptown's central hub from downtown Chicago by taking the redline train due north for five miles to the Wilson stop. Since its annexa- tion to the city in 1889, Uptown has served as a port of entry for African, Latin American, Asian, and European immigrants and refugees; African Ameri- can and white Appalachian migrants from the South; and Native Americans displaced by the Relocation Act of 1956. 4 An economically and ethnically diverse population crosses paths while going about their business on Wilson Avenue. The neighborhood's population ranges from the very affluent to the very poor--with people in the upper quintillion of income sharing blocks with people in the lowest. Visitors would immediately face the material evi- dence of gentrification as they left the train: a new condominium flashes its bronze facade next door to the Wilson Hotel, infamous for housing transient "undesirables. "
In the heart of Uptown, there is a five-acre empty lot known simply as Wil- son Yard, which stands literally at the crossroads of affluence and decay. There is nothing particularly striking about the lot: it lies sandwiched between the El train and a strip of hodgepodge businesses. The lot made its public debut in 1996 when a fire destroyed a repair shop owned by the Chicago Transit Authority (CTA). The controversial public debates over what to build in this lot have been ongoing since 1997 when the CTA sold the land to the city, prompting Uptown's alderman Helen Shiller to initiate a community-driven, "democratic" planning process to collectively design a project at Wilson Yard. 5 The eventual outcome was to represent the will of the people and stand as a material monument to the ability of inclusive dialogue in the public sphere to create the greatest good for all.
Power, Publics, and the Rhetorical Uses of Democracy 41
The hotly contested Wilson Yard plan includes a Target, street-level retail, and two ten-story publicly subsidized affordable apartment buildings. One building includes ninety-nine units for low-income seniors, and the other-- which lies at the center of this controversy--will house eighty-four units for households making no more than 60 percent of the area median income. 6 Beginning in 1998, dozens of organizations and hundreds of Uptown stake- holders have evoked democratic rhetoric in public discourse and at commu- nity meetings to justify and support arguments both for and against affordable housing at Wilson Yard;7 to both slander and support public officials; and to both legitimate and blast the processes of gentrification. I am interested here in how two such different investments--one claiming that creating affordable housing on behalf of those at risk of being displaced by gentrification is demo- cratic, and the other claiming that such a move is undemocratic because it favors the poor, silences the voices of property owners, and unjustly reappro- priates taxes--could both be supported using democratic rhetoric. Many peo- ple are invested in Uptown, just not in the same outcomes. To help elucidate these investments, I turn to a description of the contention at Wilson Yard, and to a consideration of how competing publics in Uptown illustrate the theoretical and practical contradictions within the democratic project.
Democratic Theory, Power, and the Limits of the Public Sphere Trope
By analyzing Uptown's emergent public in action, one bears witness to what Chantal Mouffe calls the "paradox of democracy. " Mouffe articulates this "paradox" as the incompatibility between political liberalism (which fore- grounds a politics of liberty and individual rights) and democracy (which foregrounds a politics of equality). Arguing that this paradox is an inherent and valuable feature of democracy, she advocates "agonistic pluralism," a poli- tics that secures contestation as a permanent and foundational condition of democracy. In rejecting the possibility of "establishing a consensus without exclusion," agonistic pluralism calls for the maintenance of democratic insti- tutions and processes that keep "democratic contestations alive. "8 Compelling in theory, "agonistic pluralism" presents serious limitations in the material world where concrete, timely, and compromised decisions must finally be made. In Uptown, something must be developed at Wilson Yard despite what could be an infinite debate over what should be built.
