No More Learning

the understanding in the sphere of experience. Following
the analogy of the notions of reality, substance, causality, and
necessity, cogitate being, which possesses all these attri butes in the highest degree; and, as this idea the offspring
of my reason alone, cogitate this being as self-subsistent reason, and as the cause of the universe operating means
of ideas of the greatest possible harmony and unity. Thus abstract all conditions that would limit my idea, solely for the purpose of rendering systematic unity possible the world of empirical diversity, and thus securing the widest possible exten sion for the exercise of reason in that sphere. This am enabled to do, regarding all connections and relations in the world of sense, as t/they were the dispositions of su preme reason, of which our reason but faint image. then proceed to cogitate this Supreme Being conceptions
which have, properly, no meaning or application, except in the world of sense. But as am authorised to employ the transcendental hypothesis of such being relative respect alone, that as the substratum of the greatest possiiile unity
experience, -- may attribute to being which regard as distinct from the world, such properties as belong solely to the sphere of sense and experience. For do not desire, and am not justified in desiring, to cognize this object of my idea, as
exists itself for possess no conceptions sufficient for
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this task, those of reality, substance, causality, nay, evet that of necessity in existence, losing all significance, and he- coming merely the signs of conceptions, without content and without applicability, when I attempt to carry them beyond the limits of the world of sense. I cogitate merely the re lation of a perfectly unknown being to the greatest possible systematic unity of experience, solely for the purpose of em ploying it as the schema of the regulative principle which directs reason in its empirical exercise.
It is evident, at the first view, that we cannot pre-suppose the reality of this transcendental object, by means of the con ceptions of reality, substance, causality, and so on ; because these conceptions cannot be applied to anything that is dis tinct from the world of sense. Thus the supposition of a Supreme Being or cause is purely relative ; it is cogitated only in behalf of the systematic unity of experience ; such a being
s but a something, of whose existence in itself we have not the east conception. Thus, too, it becomes sufficiently manifest, why we required the idea of a necessary being in relation to objects given by sense, although we can never have the least
conception of this being, or of its absolute necessity.
And now we can clearly perceive the result of our transcen
? dental dialectic, and the proper aim of the ideas of pure reason, --which become dialectical solely from misunderstand ing and inconsiderateness. Pure reason in fact, occupied with itself, and not with any object. Objects are not presented to to be embraced in the unity of an empirical
conception only the cognitions of the understanding that are pre
sented to for the purpose of receiving the unity of rational conception, that of being connected according to principle. The unity of reason the unity of system and this systematic unity not an objective principle, extending its dominion over objects, but subjective maxim, extending its authority over the empirical cognition of objects. The systematic connection which reason gives to the empirical
of the understanding, not only advances the extension of that employment, but ens nres its correctness, and thus the principle of systematic unity of this nature also objective, although only in an indefinite respect (pri? tcipitim raffum). not, however, constitutive principle, deter mining an object to which directly relates merely
employment
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regulative principle or maxim, advancing and strengthening t lie empirical exercise of reason, by the opening up of new paths of which the understanding is ignorant, while it never conflicts with the laws of its exercise in ihe sphere of experience.
But reason cannot cogitate this systematic unity, without at the same time cogitating an object of the idea -- an object that cannot be presented in any experience, which contains no concrete example of a complete systematic unity. This being (ens rationis ratiocinate) is therefore a mere idea, and is not assumed to be a thing which is real absolutely and in itself. On the contrary, it forms merely the problematical foundation of the connection which the mind introduces among the phee- nomena of the sensuous world. We look upon this con nection, in the light of the above-mentioned idea, as if it drew its origin from the supposed being which corresponds to the idea. And yet all we aim at is the possession of thk idea as a secure foundation for the systematic unity of experience --a unity indispensable to reason, advantageous to the under* standing, and promotive of the interests of empirical cognition.
We mistake the true meaning of this idea, when we regard it as an enouncement, or even as a hypothetical declaration of the existence of a real thing, which we are to regard as the origin or ground of a systematic constitution of the universe. On the contrary, it is left completely undetermined what the nature or properties of this so-called ground may be. The
' idea is merely to be adopted as a point of view, from which this unity, so essential to reason and so beneficial to the under standing, may be regarded as radiating. In one word, this transcendental thing is merely the schema of a regulative principle, by means of which Reason, so far as in her lies, extends the dominion of systematic unity over the whole sphere of experience.
The first object of an idea of this kind is the Ego, con sidered merely as a thinking nature or soul. If I wish to investigate the properties of a thinking being, I must in terrogate experience. But I find that I can apply none of the categories to this object, the schema of these cate gories, which is the condition of their application, being given only in sensuous intuition. But I cannot thus attain to
the cognition of a systematic unity of all the phenomena ? v the internal &en<<e. Instead, therefore of an empirical
417
? ? ? ? 418 TRANSCENDENTAL DIALECTIC.
conception of what the soul really is, reason takes the conception of the empirical unity of ell thought, and, by
cogitating this unity as unconditioned and primitive, con structs the rational conception or idea of a simple substance
which is in itself unchangeable,
and in connection with other real things external to it ; in one word, it constructs the idea of a simple self-subsistent intelligence. But the real aim of reason in this procedure is the attainment of principles of systematic unity for the ex planation of the phenomena of the soul. That reason desires to be able to represent all the determinations of the internal sense, as existing in one subject, all powers as deduced from one fundamental power, all changes as mere varieties in the condition of being which permanent and always the same, and all phenomena in space as entirely different in their nature from the procedure of thought. Essential simpli city (with the other attributes predicated of the Ego) re
garded as the mere schema of this regulative principle
not assumed that the actual ground of the properties of the soul. For these properties may rest upon quite different grounds, of which we are completely ignorant; just as the above predicates could not give us any knowledge of the soul as in itself, even we regarded them as valid in respect of
inasmuch as they constitute mere idea, which cannot be represented in cuncreto. Nothing but good can result from
psychological idea of this kind, we only take proper care not to consider as more than an idea that we regard
as valid merely in relation to the employment of reason,
the sphere of the phenomena of the soul. Under the guidance of this idea, or principle, no empirical laws of cor poreal phenomena are called in to explain that which phenomenon of the internal sense alone no windy hypo theses of the generation, annihilation, and palingenesis of souls are admitted. Thus the consideration of this object of the internal sense kept pure, and unmixed with heteroge neous elements while the investigation of reason aims at reducing all the grounds of explanation employed this sphere of knowledge to single principle. All this best effected, nay, cannot be effected otherwise than by means of such schema, which requires us to regard this ideal thing
as an actual existence. The psychological idea therefore meaningless and inapplicable, except as the schema of ieg>>
possessing personal identity,
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lative conception. For, if I ask whether the soul is not really of a spiritual nature, --it is a question which has no meaning. From such a conception has been abstracted, not merely all corporeal nature, but all nature, that all the predicates of possible experience and consequently, all the conditions which enable us to cogitate an object to this conception have
But, these conditions are absent, evident that the conception meaningless.
The second regulative idea of speculative reason the con ception of the universe. For nature properly the only object presented to us, in regard to which reaaon requires regulative principles. Nature twofold -- thinking and cor poreal nature. To cogitate the latter in regard to its internal possibility, that to determine the application of the cate gories to no idea required -- no representation which transcends experience. In this sphere, therefore, an idea impossible, sensuous intuition being our only guide while, in the sphere of psychology, we require the fundamental idea (I), which contains a priori certain form of thought, namely, the unity of the Ego. Pure reason has therefore nothing left but nature in general, and the completeness of conditions in na ture in accordance with some principle. The absolute totality of the series of these conditions an idea, which can never be fully realized in the empirical exercise of reason, while service able as rule for the procedure of reason in relation to that
totality. requires us, in the explanation of given pheno mena (in the regress or ascent in the series), to proceed, as the series were infinite in itself, that were prolonged in
disappeared.
? while, on the other hand, where reason
indefinitum
regarded as itself the determining cause (in the region of free dom), we are required to proceed as we had not before us an object of sense, but of the pure understanding. In this latter case, the conditions do not exist in the series of pheno- mena, but may be placed quite out of and beyond and the series of conditions may be regarded as had an absolute beginning from an intelligible cause. All this proves that the coamological ideas are nothing but regulative principles, and not constitutive and that their aim not to realize an actual
totality in such series. The full discussion of this subjccJ will be found in its proper place in the chapter on the anti nomy of pure reason.
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The third idea of pure reason, containing the hypothesis of a being which is valid merely as a relative hypothesis, is that of the one and all-sufficient cause of all cosmological series, in other words, the idea of God. We have not the slightest ground absolutely to admit the existence of an object corre sponding to this idea ; for what can empower or authorize us to affirm the existence of a being of the highest perfection -- a being whose existence is absolutely necessary, merely be cause we possess the conception of such a being? The answer -- the existence of the world which renders this hypothesis necessary. But this answer makes perfectly evident, that the idea of this being, like all other speculative ideas, essentially nothing more than demand upon reason that shall regulate the connection which and its subor dinate faculties introduce into the phsenomena of the world
principles of systematic unity, and consequently, that shall regard all plienomena as originating from one all-em bracing being, as the supreme and all-sufficient cause. From this plain that the only aim of reason in this procedure the establishment of its own formal rule for the extension of its dominion in the world of experience that does not aim at an extension of its cognition beyond the limits of experi ence and that, consequently, this idea does not contain any constitutive principle.
? The highest formal unity, which based upon ideas alone,
the unity of all things-- unity in accordance with an aim
or purpose and the speculative interest of reason renders
necessary to regard all order in the world, as originated from the intention and design of supreme reason. This principle unfolds to the view of reason the sphere of expe rience new and enlarged prospects, and invites to connect the phsenomena of the world according to teleological laws, and in this way to attain to the highest possible degree of sys tematic unity. The hypothesis of supreme intelligence, as the sole cause of the universe --an intelligence which lias for us no more than an ideal existence, accordingly always of the greatest service to reason. Thus, we presuppose, relation to the figure of the earth (which round, but some what flattened at the poles),* or that of mountains or seas,
? The advantage! which circular form, in the case of the earth, hai ? vex every other, are well known. But few are aware that the slight
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wise designs on the part of an author of the universe, we cannot fail to make, by the light of this supposition, a great number of interesting discoveries. If we keep to this hypo thesis, as a principle which is purely regulative, even erro- cannot be very detrimental. For, in this cnse, error can have no more serious consequences than that, where we expected to discover a teleological connection (nexus finalia), only a me chanical or physical connection appears. In such a case, we merely fail to find the additional form of unity we expected, but we do not lose the rational unity which the mind requires in its procedure in experience. But even a miscarriage of this sort cannot affect the law in its general and teleological rela tions. For although we may convict an anatomist of an error, when he connects the limb of some animal with a certain
purpose ; it is quite impossible to prove in a single case, that any arrangement of nature, be it what it may, is entirely with out aim or design. And thus medical physiology, by the aid
of a principle presented to it by pure reason, extends its very limited empirical knowledge of the purposes of the different parts of an organized body so far, that it may be asserted with the utmost confidence, and with the approbation of all reflect ing men, that every organ or bodily part of an animal has its use and answers a certain design. Now, this is a supposition, which, if regarded as of a constitutive character, goes much farther than any experience or observation of ours can justify.
Hence it is evident that it is nothing more than a regulative principle of reason, which aims at the highest degree of syste matic unity, by the aid of the idea of a causality according to design in a supreme cause --a cause which it regards as the highest intelligence.
If, however, we neglect this restriction of the idea to a purely regulative influence, reason is betrayed into numerous errors. For it has then left the ground of experience, in which
flattening at the poles, which gives it the figure of a spheroid, is the only cause which prevents the elevations of continents or even of moun tains, perhaps thrown up by some internal convulsion, from continually altering the position of the axis of the earth --and that to some consider able degree in a short time. The great protuberance of the earth under the equator serves to overbalance the impetus of all other masses ot earth, and thus to preserve the axis of the earth, so far as we can ob serve, in its present position. And yet this wise arrangement has bees
unthinkingly explained from the equilibrium of the formerly fluid mass.
? ? ? ? ' 422
TBAJtSCEKDENTAI, DIALECTIC.
? lone are to be found the criteria of truth, and has ventured into the region of the incomprehensible and unsearchable, on the heights of which it loses its power and collectedness, because it has completely severed its connection with experience.
The first error which arises from our employing the idea of a Supreme Being as a constitutive (in repugnance to the very nature of an idea), and not as a regulative principle, is the error of inactive reason (ignava ratio*). We may so term every principle which requires us to regard our investigations of nature as absolutely complete, and allows reason to cease its inquiries, as if it had fully executed its task. Thus the psycho logical idea of the Ego, when employed as a constitutive principle for the explanation of the phsenomena of the soul, and for the extension of our knowledge regarding this sub ject oeyond the limits of experience --even to the condition of the soul after death, is convenient enough for the purposes of pure reason, but detrimental and even ruinous to its in terests in the sphere of nature and experience. The dogma tising spiritualist explains the unchanging unity of our per sonality through all changes of condition from the unity of a thinking substance, the interest which we take in things and events that can happen only after our death, from a con sciousness of the immaterial nature of our thinking subject, and so on. Thus he dispenses with all empirical investiga tions into the cause of these internal phsenomena, and with
all possible explanations of them upon purely natural
grounds ; while, at the dictation of a transcendent reason,
he passes by the immanent sources of cognition in experience, greatly to his own ease and convenience, but to the sacrifice
of all genuine insight and intelligence. These prejudicial
? become still more evident, in the case of the dogmatical treatment of our idea of a Supreme Intelligence, and the theological system of nature (physico-theology) which is falsely based upon it. For, in this case, the aims which
? This was the term applied by the old dialecticians to a sophistical argument, which ran thus : If it is your fate tu die of this disease, you will die, whether you employ a physician or not. Cicero says that this modi; of reasoning has received this appellation, because, if followed, it puts an end to the employment of reason in the affairs of life. For a
similar reason I have applied this designation to the sophistical argument of pure reason,
consequences
? ? ? OF THE NATIlBAIi DIALECTIC OF HUMAK REABON. 423
We observe in nature, and often those which we merely fancy to exist, make the investigation of causes a very easy task, by directing us to refer such and such phenomena imme diately to the unsearchable will and counsel of the Supreme Wisdom, while we ought to investigate their causes in the ge neral laws of the mechanism of matter. We are thus re commended to consider the labour of reason as ended, whet, we have merely dispensed with its employment, which ii guided surely and safely, only by the order of nature and the series of changes in the world--which are arranged according to immanent and general laws. This error may be avoided, if we do not merely consider from the view-point of final aims certain parts of nature, such as the division and struc ture of a continent, the constitution and direction of certain mountain- chains, or even the organisation existing in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, but look upon this system atic unity of nature in a perfectly general way, in relation to the idea of a Supreme Intelligence. If we pursue this advice, we lay as a foundation for all inveitigation the conformity to aims of all phenomena of nature in accordance with universal laws, for which no particular arrangement of nature is exempt, but only cognised by us with more or less difficulty ; and we possess a regulative principle of the systematic unity of a tcleological connection, which we do not attempc to anticipate or predetermine. All that we do, and ought to do, is to follow out the physico-mechanical connection in nature ac cording to general laws, with the hope of discovering, sooner or later, the teleological connection also. Thus, and thus only, can the principle of final unity aid in the extension of the employment of reason in the sphere of experience, with out being in any case detrimental to its interests.
The second error which arises from the misconception of the principle of systematic unity is that of perverted reason (perversa ratio, uartfot vp&npm rationid). The idea of systematic unity is available as a regulative principle in the connection of phsenomena according to general natural laws ; and, how far soever we have to travel upon the path of expe rience to discover some fact or event, this idea requires us to believe that we have approached all the more nearly to the completion of its use in the sphere of nature, although that completion can never be attained. Bat this error reverse* tlx
? ? ? ? 424 TRANSCENDENTAL DIALECTIC.
of reason. We begin by hypostatising the prin ciple of ayatematic unity, and by giving an anthropomorphic determination to the conception of a Supreme Intelligence, and then proceed forcibly to impose aims upon nature. Thus not only does teleology, which ought to aid in the completion of unity in accordance with general laws, operate to the de struction of its influence, but it hinders reason from attaining its proper aim, that the proof, upon natural grounds, of the existence of supreme intelligent cause. For, we can not presuppose supreme finality in nature a priori, that
as essentially belonging to nature, how can we be directed to endeavour to discover this unity, and, rising gradually through its different degrees, to approach the supreme per fection of an author of all-- perfection which
necessary, and therefore cognizable a priori The regulative principle directs us to presuppose systematic unity absolutely, and, consequently, as following from the essential nature of things -- but only as unity
procedure
? of nature, not merely cognized priori, although only in an
empirically, but presupposed
determinate manner. But
foundation of supreme ordaining Being, the unity of nature
insist on basing nature upon the
in effect lost. For, in this case, quite foreign and un essential to the nature of things, and cannot be cognized from the general laws of nature. And thus arises vicious cir cular argument, what ought to have been proved having been presupposed.
To take the regulative principle of systematic
nature for constitutive principle, and to hypostatise and make cause out of that which properly the ideal ground of the consistent and harmonious exercise of reason, involves reason in inextricable embarrassments. The investigation of nature pursues its own path under the guidance of the chain of natural causes, in accordance with the general laws of nature, and ever follows the light of the idea of an author of the universe --not for the purpose of deducing the finality, which constantly pursues, from this Supreme Being, but to attain to the cognition of his existence from the finality which seeks in the existence of the phenomena of nature, and, possible, in that of all things --to cognize this being, consequently, as absolutely necessary. Whether this latter
purpose succeed or not, the idea and must always be true
absolutely
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one, and its employment, when merely regulative, must always be accompanied by truthful and beneficial results.
Complete unity, in conformity with aims, constitutes abso lute perfection. But if we do not find this unity in the nature of the things which go to constitute the world of ex perience, that of objective cognition, consequently in the universal and necessary laws of nature, how can we infer from this unity the idea of the supreme and absolutely necessary perfection of primal being, which the origin of all cau
The greatest systematic unity, and consequently teleological unity, constitutes the very foundation of the pos sibility of the most extended employment of human reason. The idea of unity therefore essentially and iudissolubly connected with the nature of our reason. This idea legislative one and hence very natural that we should assume the existence of legislative reason corresponding to
sality
? from which the systematic unity of nature -- the object of the operations of reason -- must be derived.
In the course of our discussion of the antinomies, we stated
that always possible to answer all the questions which pure reason may raise and that the plea of the limited na ture of our cognition, which unavoidable and proper in many questions regarding natural phsenomena, cannot in this case be admitted, because the questions raised do not relate to the nature of things, but are necessarily originated the nature of reason itself, and relate to its own internal constitu tion. We can now establish this assertion, which at first sight appeared so rash, in relation to the two questions in which reason takes the greatest interest, and thus complete our dis cussion of the dialectic of pure reason.
then, the question asked, in relation to transcendental theology first, whether there anything distinct from the world, which contains the ground of cosmical order and con nection according to general laws? The answer Ccr-
After what has been said of the psychological idea of the Ego and its proper employment as regulative principle of the operations of reason, need not enter into details regarding the transcendental illu sion which the systematic unity of all the various phenomena of the internal sense hypostatised. The procedure in this case very simi lar to that which hat heen discussed our remarks on the theological ideal
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tainly. For the world is a sum of phenomena ; there must therefore be some transcendental basis of these phenomena, that basis cogitable the pare understanding alone. tecondly, the question asked, whether this being sub stance, whether of the greatest reality, whether ne cessary, and so forth answer that this question
utterly without meaning. For all the categories which aid me in
forming conception of an object, cannot be employed except in the world of sense, and are without meaning, when not ap
plied to objects of actual or possible experience. Out of this sphere, they are not properly conceptions, but the mere marks or indices of conceptions, which we may admit, although they cannot, without the help of experience, help us to un derstand any subject or thing. If, thirdly, the question whether we may not cogitate this being, which distinct from the world, in analogy with the objects of experience The answer undoubtedly, but only as an ideal, and not as real object. That we must cogitate only as an unkuown substratum of the systematic unity, order, and finality of the world -- unity which reason must employ as the regulative principle of its investigation of nature. Nay, more, we may admit into the idea certain anthromorphic elements, which are promotive of the interests of this regulative principle. For no more than an idea, which does not relate directly to being distinct from the world, but to the regulative prin ciple of the systematic unity of the world, means, however, of schema of this unity -- the schema of Supreme Intel ligence, who the wisely-designing author of the universe. What this basis of cosnucal unity may be in itself, we know not--we cannot discover from the idea we merely know how we ought to employ the idea of this unity, in relation to the
systematic iperation of reason in the sphere of experience. But, will be asked again, can we on these grounds, admit the existence of wise and omnipotent author of the world?
Without doubt and not only so, but we must assume the ex istence of such being. But do we thus extend the limits of our knowledge beyond the field of possible experience By no means. For we have merely presupposed something, of which we have no conception, which we do not know as
in itself but, in relation to the systematic disposition of the universe, which we must presupoose in all our observation
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nature, we have cogitated this unknown being in analogy witli an intelligent existence (an empirical conception), that is to say, v,e have endowed it with those attributes, which, judging from the nature of our own reason, may contain the ground of such a systematic unity. This idea is therefore
valid only relatively to the employment in experience of our reason. But if we attribute to it absolute and objective vali dity, we overlook the fact that it is merely an ideal being that we cogitate ; and, by setting out from a basis which is not determinable by considerations drawn from experience, we place ourselves in a position which incapacitates us from ap plying this principle to the empirical employment of reason.
conception and hypothesis in my investigations into the world and nature? Yes, for this very purpose was the idea established by reason as a fundamental basis. But may I re gard certain arrangements, which seemed to have been made in conformity with some fixed aim, as the arrangements of design, and look upon them as proceeding from the divine will, with the intervention, however, of certain other particular arrange
ments disposed to that end ?
Yes, you may Jo so ; but at the same time you must regard it as indifferent, whether it is asserted that divine wisdom has disposed all things in confor mity with his highest aims, or that the idea of supreme wisdom is a regulative principle in the investigation of nature, and at the same time a principle of the systematic unity of nature according to general laws, even in those cases where we are unable to discover that unity. In other words, it must be perfectly indifferent to you, whether you say, when you have discovered this unity -- God has wisely willed it so, or, nature has wisely arranged this. For it was nothing but the systematic unity, which reason requires as a basis for the in vestigation of nature, that justified you in accepting the idea of a supreme intelligence as a schema for a regulative princi ple ; and, the farther you advance in the discovery of design and finality, the more certain the validity of your idea. But, as the whole aim of this regulative principle was the dis covery of a necessary and systematic unity in nature, we nave, in so far as we attain this, to attribute our success to the idea of a Supreme Being ; while, at the same time, we cannot, without involving ourselves in contradictions, overlook '. In
? But, it will be asked further, can I make any use of this
? ? ? 428 nUNSCENDBNTAL DIALECTIC! .
general laws of nature, as it was in reference to them alone that this idea was employed. We cannot, I say, overlook the general laws of nature, and regard this conformity to aims observable in nature as contingent or hyperphysical in its origin ; inasmuch as there is no ground which can justify us in the admission of a being with such properties distinct from and above nature. All that we are authorized to assert is, that this idea may be employed as a principle, and that the properties of the being which is assumed to correspond to it may be regarded as systematically connected in analogy with the causal determination of phenomena.
For the same reasons we are justified in introducing into the idea of the supreme cause other anthropomorphic elements (for without these we could not predicate anything of
we may regard as allowable to cogitate this cause R3 being with understanding, the feelings of pleasure and displeasure, and faculties of desire and will corresponding to these. At the same time, we may attribute to this being infinite perfection -- perfection which necessarily transcends that which our knowledge of the order and design in the world would authorize us to predicate of it. For the regulative law of systematic unity requires us to study nature on the suppo sition that systematic and final unity in infinitum every where discoverable, even in the highest diversity. For, although we may discover little of this cosmical perfection, belongs to the legislative prerogative of reason, to require us always to seek for and to expect while must always be beneficial to institute all inquiries into nature in accord ance with this principle. But evident that, this idea of supreme author of all, which place as the founda
tion of all inquiries into nature, do not mean to assert the existence of such being, or that have any knowledge of its existence and, consequently, do not really deduce any thing from the existence of this being, but merely from its idea, that to say, from the nature of things in this world, in accordance with this idea. certain dim consciousness of the true use of this idea seems to have dictated to the philo sophers of all times the moderate language used them regarding the cause of the world. We find them employ ing the expressions, wisdom and care of nature, and divine
? wisdom, as synonymous, -- nay, purely speculative discus*
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? of tat NatUbaA DiAJUfcrtic of humak beasoK. 429
iions, preferring the former, because it does not carry the ap pearance of greater pretensions than such as we are entitled to make, and at the same time directs reason to its proper field of action --nature and her phenomena.
Thus, pure reason, which at first seemed to promise us nothing less than the extension of our cognition beyond the limits of experience, is found, when thoroughly examined, to contain nothing but regulative principles, the virtue and function of which is to introduce into our cognition a higher degree of unity than the understanding could of itself. These principles, by placing the goal of all our struggles at so great a distance, realise for us the most thorough connection between the different parts of our cognition, and the highest degree of systematic unity. But, on the other hand, if misunder stood and employed as constitutive principles of transcendent cognition, they become the parents of illusions and contradic tions, while pretending to introduce us to new regions of knowledge.
Thus all human cognition begins with intuitions, proceeds from thence to conceptions, and ends with ideas. Although it possesses in relation to all three elements, a priori sources of cognition, which seemed to transcend the limits of all
a thorough-going criticism demonstrates, that speculative reason can never, by the aid of these elements, pass the bounds of possible experience, and that the proper destination of this highest faculty of cognition, is to employ all methods, and all the principles of these methods, for the purpose of penetrating into the innermost secrets of nature, by the aid of the principles of unity, (among all kinds of which teleological unity is the highest), while it ought not
to attempt to soar above the sphere of experience, beyond which there lies nought for us but the void inane. The criti cal examination, in our Transcendental Analytic, of all the propositions which professed to extend cognition beyond the sphere of experience, completely demonstrated that they can only conduct us to a possible experience. If we were not distrustful even of the clearest abstract theorems, if we were not allured by specious and inviting prospects to escape from the constraining power of their evidence, we might
? experience,
? ? ? 430 tBAHSClNDENfAL DIALECTIC.
spare ourselves the laborious examination of all the dia lectical arguments which a transcendent reason adduces in support of its pretensions; for we should know with the most complete certainty that, however honest such professions might be, they are null and valueless, because they relate to a kind of knowledge to which no man can by any possibility attain. But, as there is no end to discussion, if we cannot discover the true cause of the illusions by which even the wisest are deceived, and as the analysis of all our transcendent cognition into its elements is of itself of no slight value as a psychological study, while it is a duty incumbent on every philosopher, --it was found necessary to investigate the dialec tical procedure of reason in its primary sources. And as the inferences of which this dialectic is the parent, are not only deceitful, but naturally possess a profound interest for hu manity, it was advisable at the same time, to give a full ac count of the momenta of this dialectical procedure, and to deposit it in the archives of human reason, as a warning to all future metaphysicians to avoid theee causes of speculative error.
? ? ? ? n.
TRANSCENDENTAL DOCTRINE OY METHOD.
If we regard the sum of the cognition of pure speculative reason as an edifice, the idea of which, at least, exists iu the human mind, it may be said that we have in the Transcendental Doctrine of Elements examined the materials and determined to what edifice" these belong, and what its height and stability. We have found, indeed, that, although we had purposeu to build for ourselves a tower which should reach to Heaven, the supply of materials sufficed merely for a habitation, which was spacious enough for all terrestrial purposes, and high enough to enable us to survey the level plain of experience, but that the bold undertaking designed necesaarily failed for want of materials, --not to mention the confusion of tongues,
which gave rise to endless disputes among the labourers on the plan of the edifice, and at last scattered them over all the world, each to erect a separate building for himself, according to his own plans and his own inclinations. Our present task relates not to the materials, but to the plan of an edifice ; and, as we have had sufficient warning not to venture blindly upon a design which may be found to transcend our natural powers, while, at the same time, we cannot give up the in tention of erecting a secure abode for the mind, we must pro portion our design to the material which is presented to us, and which at the same time, sufficient for all our wants.
understand, then, the transcendental doctrine of me thod, the determination of the formal conditions of com plete system of pure reason. We shall accordingly have to treat of the Discipline, the Canon, the Architectonic, and, finally, the History of pure reason. This part of our Critique will accomplish, from the transcendental point of view, what
has been usually attempted, but miserably executed, under the name of practical logic. has been badly executed,
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? 432 TBAltSCENbENtAt BOOTBtlTE OF MEtllOD.
piy, because general logic, not being limited to nny particular kind of cognition (not even to the pure cognition of the un derstanding) nor to any particular objects, it cannot, without borrowing from other sciences, do more than present merely the titles or signs of possible methods and the technical expressions, which are employed in the systematic parts of all sciences ; and
thus the pupil is made acquainted with names, the meaning and application of which he is to learn only at some future time.
TRANSCENDENTAL DOCTRINE OF METHOD.
CHAPTER FIRST.
THE DISCIPLINE OF PUKE REASON.
Negative judgments -- those which are so not merely as re gards their logical form, but in respect of their content -- are not commonly held in especial respect. They are, on the contrary, regarded as jealous enemies of our insatiable desire for knowledge ; and it almost requires an apology to induce ns to tolerate, much less to prixe and to respect them.
All propositions, indeed, may be logically expressed in a negative form ; but, in relation to the content of our cogni
tion, the peculiar province of negative judgments is solely to . prevent error. For this reason, too, negative propositions, which are framed for the purpose of correcting false cognitions where error is absolutely impossible, are undoubtedly true, but inane and senseless ; that they are reality purposeless, and for this reason often very ridiculous. Such the pro
? of the schoolman, that Alexander could not have subdued any countries without an army.
But where the limits of our possible cognition are very much contracted, the attraction to new fields of knowledge great, the illusions to which the mind subject of the most deceptive character, and the evil consequences of error of no inconsiderable magnitude, --the negative element in knowledge, which useful only to guard us against error, of far mora
position
than much of that, positive instruction which makes additions to the sum of our knowledge. The restraint which employed to repreas, and finally to extirpate the con
importance
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? Tax disciplines of PURE beason.
43d
stunt inclination to depart from certain rule*, is termed Disci pline. It is distinguished from culture, which aims at thi formation of a certain degree of skill, without attempting to repress or to destroy any other mental power, already exist ing. In the cultivation of a talent, which has given evidence of an impulse towards self-development, discipline takes a negative,* culture and doctrine, a positive part.
That natural dispositions and talents (such as imagination and wit), which ask a free and unlimited development, require in many respects the corrective influence of discipline, every one will readily grant. But it may well appear strange, that reason, whose proper duty it is to prescribe rules of discipline to all the other powers of the mind, should itself require thia
corrective. It has, in fact, hitherto escaped this humiliation, only because, in presence of its magnificent pretensions and high position, no one could readily suspect it to be capable of substituting fancies for conceptions, and words for things.
Reason, when employed in the field of experience, does not stand in need of criticism, because its principles are subjected to the continual test of empirical observations. Nor is criti cism requisite in the sphere of mathematics, where the con ceptions of reason must always be presented in concreto in pure intuition, and baseless or arbitrary assertions are discovered without difficulty. But where reason is not held in a plain track by the influence of empirical or of pure intuition, that
when employed in the transcendental sphere of pure conceptions, stands in great need of discipline, to restrain its propensity to overstep the limits of possible experience, nnd to keep from wandering into error. In fact, the utility of the philosophy of pure reason entirely of thia
corrected by particular animadversions, and the causes of these errors may be eradicated criticism. But where we find, as in the case
of pure reason, complete system of illusions and fallacies,
am well aware that, in the language of the schools, the term dim pling usually employed as synonymous with mttruction. But there are so many cases in which necessary to distinguish the notion of the former, as course of corrective training, from that of the Utter, as the communication of knowledge, and the nature of things itself demands the appropriation of the most suitable expressions for this distinction, that
ray desire that the former term should never be emploved in any other than negative signification.
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? 431 TRANSCENDENTAL DOCTRINE. Dl METHOD.
closely connected with each other and depending upon ? rand general principles, there seems to be required a peculiar and negative code of mental legislation, which, nnder the de nomination of a discipline, and founded upon the nature of reason and the objects of its exercise, shall constitute a system of thorough examination and testing, which no fallacy will be able to withstand or escape from, under whatever disguise 01 concealment it may lurk.
But the reader must remark that, in this the second division of our Transcendental Critique, the discipline of pure reason is not directed to the content, but to the method of the cog nition of pure reason. The former task has been com pleted in the Doctrine of Elements. But there is so much similarity in the mode of employing the faculty of reason, whatever be the object to which it is applied, while, at the same time, its employment in the transcendental sphere is so essentially different in kind from every other, that, without the warning negative influence of a discipline specially directed to that end, the errors are unavoidable which spring from the unskilful employment of the methods which are originated by reason bnt which are out of place in this sphere.
CHAPTER FIRST.
Section First.
The Discipline of Pure Reason in the sphere of D<igmatisin.
The science of Mathematics presents the most brilliant ex
ample of the extension of the sphere of pure reason without
the aid of experience. Examples are always contagious ; and they exert an especial influence on the same faculty, which na turally flatters itself that it will have the same good fortune in other cases, as fell to its lot in one fortunate instance. Hence pure reason hopes to be able to extend its empire in the trans cendental sphere with equal success and security, especially when it applies the same method which was attended with such brilliant results in the science of Mathematics. It there fore, of the highest importance for us to know, whether the method of arriving at demonstrative certainty, which termed mathematical, be identical with that which we endeavour to attain the same degree of certainty in philosophy, and which
termed in that science dogmatical*
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? Tilt DISCIPLINE OF PUUJS BEA. SON. 435
Philosophical cognition is the cognition of reason by mean* of conceptions ; mathematical cognition is cognition by means of the construction of conceptions. The construction of a conception is the presentation a priori of the intuition which corresponds to the conception. For this purpose a non-empirical intuition is requisite, which, as an intuition, is
an individual object ; while, as the construction of a concep tion (a general representation), it must be seen to be univer sally valid for all the possible intuitions which rank under that conception. Thus I construct a triangle, by the presenta tion of the object which corresponds to this conception, either by mere imagination --in pure intuition, or upon paper--in empirical intuition, in both cases completely a priori, without borrowing the type of that figure from any experience. The individual figure drawn upon paper is empirical ; but it serves, notwithstanding, to indicate the conception, even in its univer sality, because in this empirical intuition we keep our eye merely on the act of the construction of the conception, and pay no attention to the various modes of determining for example, its size, the length of its sides, the size of its angles, these not in the least affecting the essential character of the conception.
Philosophical cognition, accordingly, regards the particular only in the general"; mathematical the general in the particu lar, nay, in the individual. This done, however, entirely a priori and by means of pure reason, so that, as this indi vidual figure determined under certain universal condi tions of construction, the object of the conception, to which this individual figure corresponds as its schema, must be cogitated as universally determined.
The essential difference of these two modes of cognition consists, therefore, in this formal quality does not regard the difference of the matter or objects of both. Those thinkers who aim at distinguishing philosophy from mathematics by asserting that the former has to do with quality merely, and the latter with quantity, have mistaken the effect for the cause. The reason why mathematical cognition can relate only to
? to be found its form alone. For the con-
quantity,
ceptiou of quantities only that capable of being constructed, that presented a priori intuition while qualities cannot be given any other than an empirical intuition. Hence the
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? 436 TRANSCEND ENTAX DOCTBLNE OT METHOD.
cognition of qualities by reason is possible onlj through con
No one can find an intuition which shall correspond to the conception of reality, except in experience ; it cannot be presented to the mind a priori, and antecedently to the empirical consciousness of a reality. We can form an intuition, by means of the mere conception of of cone, without the aid of ex
ceptions.
but the colour of the cone we cannot know except from experience. cannot present an intuition of cause, except in an example, which experience offers to me. Besides, philosophy, as well as mathematics, treats of quantities as, for example, of totality, infinity, and so on. Mathematics, too, treats of the difference of lines and surfaces --as spaces
perience
? of different quality, of the continuity of extension --as quality thereof. But, although in such cases they have common object, the mode in which reason considers that object very different in philosophy from what in mathematics. The former confines itself to the general conceptions the latter can do nothing with mere conception, hastens to intuition. In this intuition regards the conception in concrete, not empirically, but in an a priori intuition, which has con structed and in which, all the results which follow from the general conditions of the construction of the conception, are
all cases valid for the object of the constructed conception.
Suppose that the conception of triangle given to phi losopher, and that he required to discover, the philoso phical method, what relation the sum of its angles bears to
right angle. He has nothing before him but the concep tion of figure enclosed within three right lines, and, conse quently, with the same number of angles. He may analyze the conception of right line, of an angle, or of the number three as long as he pleases, but he will not discover any pro perties not contained in these conceptions. But, this ques tion proposed to geometrician, he at once begins con structing triangle. * He knows that two right angles are equal to the sum of all the contiguous angles which proceed from one point in straight line and he goes on to produce
one side of his triangle, thus forming two adjacent angles which are together equal to two right angles. He then divides the exterior of these angles, drawing line parallel with the
Either in his own mind -- pure intuition, or upon paper --in em pirical intuition. -- Tr
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437
opposite side of the triangle, and immediately perceives that he has thus got an exterior adjacent angle which is equal to the in terior. Proceeding in this way, through a chain of inferences, and always on the ground of intuition, he arrives at a clear and universally valid solution of the question.
But mathematics does not confine itself to the construction of quantities (quanta), as in the case of geometry ; it occupies
itself with pure quantity also (quantitas), as in the case of algebra, where complete abstraction is made of the properties of the object indicated by the conception of quantity. In algebra, a certain method of notation by signs is adopted, and these indicate the different possible constructions of quantities, the extraction of roots, and so on. After having thus denoted the general conception of quantities, according to their different relations, the different operations by which quantity or number is increased or diminished are presented in intuition in accord ance with general rules. Thus, when ore quantity is to be divided by another, the signs which denote both are placed in the form peculiar to the operation of division ; and thus alge
bra, by means of a symbolical construction of quantity, just as geometry, with its ostensive or geometrical construction (a construction of the objects themselves), arrives at results which discursive cognition cannot hope to reach by the aid of mere conceptions.
Now, what is the cause of this difference in the fortune of the philosopher and the mathematician, the former of whom follows the path of conceptions, while the latter pursues that of intuitions, which he represents, a priori, in correspondence with his conceptions. The cause is evident, from what has been already demonstrated in the introduction to this Critique. We do not, in the present case, want to discover analytical propositions, which may be produced merely by analysing our conceptions --for in this the philosopher would have the ad vantage over his rival ; we aim at the discovery of synthetics, propositions--such synthetical propositions, moreover, as can be cognized a priori. I must not confine myself to that which I actually cogitate in my conception of a triangle, for this is nothing more than the mere definition ; I must try to go beyond that, and to arrive at properties which are not
contained in, although they belong to, the conception. Now, this is impossible, unless I determine the object present to
? ? ? ? 438 TRANSCENDENTAL DOCTRINE OF METHOD.
my mind according to the conditions, either of empirical, or of pure intuition. In the former case, I should have an empirical proposition (arrived at by actual measurement of the angles of the triangle), which would possess neither universality nor necessity ; but that would be of no value. In the latter, I pro ceed by geometrical construction, by means of which I collect, in a pure intuition, just as I would in an empirical intuition, all the various properties which belong to the schema of a tri angle in general, and consequently to its conception, nnd thus construct synthetical propositions which possess the attribute <<>f universality.
It would be vain to philosophize upon the triangle, that
to reflect on discursively should get no further than the definition with which had been obliged to set out. There are certainly transcendental synthetical propositions which are framed means of pure conceptions, and which form the peculiar distinction of philosophy but these do not relate to any particular thing, but to thing in general, and enounce the conditions under which the perception of may become part of possible experience. But the science of mathematics has nothing to do with such questions, nor with the question of existence in any fashion concerned merely with the properties of objects in themselves, only so far as these are connected with the conception of the objects.
In the above example, we have merely attempted to show the great difference which exbts between the discursive em ployment of reason in the sphere of conceptions, and its intui tive exercise by means of the construction of conceptions. The question naturally arises --what the cause which neces sitates this twofold exercise of reason, and how are we to discover whether the philosophical or the mathematical method which reason pursuing an argument
All our knowledge relates, finally, to possible intuitions, for these alone that present objects to the mind. An
priori or non-empirical conception contains either pure intuition --and in this case can be constructed or con
tains nothing but the synthesis of possible intuitions, which are not given priori. In this latter case, may help us to form synthetical priori judgments, but only in the discur sive method, by conceptions, not the intuitive, by means of the construc'iou of conceptions.
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? THE DISCIPLINE OF PUBE EEASON. 439
The only a priori intuition is that of the pure form of phenomena -- space and time. A conception of space and time as quanta may be presented a priori in intuition, that constructed, either along with their quality (figure), or as pure quantity (the mere synthesis of the homogeneous), by means of number. But the matter of phenomena, by which things are given in space and time, can be presented only in perception, a posteriori. The only conception which repre sents priori this empirical content of phenomena, the conception of thing in general and the a priori synthetical cognition of this conception can give us nothing more than the rule for the synthesis of that which may be contained in the corresponding posteriori perception utterly inade quate to present an priori intuition of the real object, which
must necessarily be empirical.
Synthetical propositions, which relate to things in general,
? an a priori intuition of which impossible, are transcen dental. For this reason transcendental propositions cannot be framed by means of the construction of conceptions they are a priori, and based entirely on conceptions themselves. They contain merely the rule, by which we are to seek in the world of perception or experience the synthetical unity of that which cannot be intuited a priori. But they are incom petent to present any of the conceptions which appear in them in an priori intuition these can be given only a pos teriori, experience, which, however, itself possible only through these synthetical principles.
If we are to form synthetical judgment regarding con ception, we must go beyond to the intuition in which given. If we keep to what contained in the conception, the judgment merely analytical-- merely an explanation of what we have cogitated in the conception. But can pass from the conception to the pure or empirical intuition which corresponds to it. can proceed to examine my conception in toner eto, and to cognize, either a priori or a posteriori, what find in the object of the conception. The former--a priori cognition-- rational-mathematical cognition by means of the construction of the conception the latter -- posteriori cognition-- purely empirical cognition, which does not possess the attributes of necessity and universality. Thus
may analyze the conception have of gold but gain no
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? 440 TKAKSCJSNDENTAL DOCTRINE OF METHOD.
new information from this analysis, I merely enumerate the different properties which I had couuected with the notion in dicated hy the word. My knowledge has gained iu logical clearness and arrangement, but no addition has been made to it. But if I take the matter which is indicated by this name, and submit it to the examination of my senses, I am enabled to form several synthetical --although still empirical--propo sitions. The mathematical conception of a triangle I should construct, that present priori in intuition, and in this way attain to rational-synthetical cognition. But when the transcendental conception of reality, or substance, or power
presented to my mind, find that does not relate to or indicate either an empirical or pure intuition, hut that indicates merely the synthesis of empirical intuitions, which cannot of course be given priori. The synthesis in such conception cannot proceed priori -- without the aid of expe rience --to the intuition which corresponds to the conception and, for this reason, none of these conceptions can produce determinative synthetical proposition, they can never present
more than principle of the syn thesis* of possible empirical
intuitions. transcendental proposition therefore,
thetical cognition of reason means of pure conceptions and the discursive method, and renders possible all synthetical unity in empirical cognition, though cannot present us with any intuition priori.
There thus twofold exercise of reason. Both modes have the properties of universality and an priori origin common, but are, in their procedure, of widely different cha racter.