In many of the later
buildings
the general effect of the
enriched portions—that is, of the doorways and chancel arches—does not
differ very much from that of ordinary Norman buildings.
enriched portions—that is, of the doorways and chancel arches—does not
differ very much from that of ordinary Norman buildings.
O'Hanlon - Lives of the Irish Saints - v8
lxv.
, " Writers of
i. ,
478 LIVES 0* THE IRISH SAINTS. [August 31.
Lindisfarnewereofanunpretendingcharacter. TheearlieragesofChristianity could not command the subsidiary to pious emotion, which church architecture afterwards afforded; yet, sanctity was imparted to the meanest building
became better established, and when the
the zeal and devotion of the
the materials used in construction were of a more lasting character than
through
worshippers.
wood. 31 However, as
Christianity
ravages of wars had ceased, there can hardly be a doubt, but that stone build-
ings were designed to replace those perishable structures, especially in
Northumbria. Andastheprimitiveandsmall,althoughsolidlyconstructed,
stonechurchesofIrelandhadeventhenanexistenceformodels it seems ;
probable, that the early stone buildings of the Scottish monks at Lindisfarne were of such a type. Although not referable to the time of St. Aidan, still
the ruins of a later monastery upon Holy Island betoken great antiquity. The arches in general are often stated to be strictly Saxon. 32 The pillars
which
short and 2* There massy.
them are
architecture, although
is, strictly speak-
support no Saxon
ing,
to designate a style of building, which appears to have had its origin in Ire- land, and to have been introduced by the Irish missionaries. In England, the building art of the Romans25 formed a basis for their indigenous archi- tecture; but, in ecclesiastical structures, their earliest stone churches in the
30 See Dean Henry Hart Milman's " His-
tory of Christianity, from the Birth of Christ to the Abolition of Paganism in the
Roman Empire," vol. iii. , book iv. , chap. »v-» P« 373- Newand revised edition, Lon- don, 1875, cr- 8vo.
Built ere the art was known, By pointed aisle, and shafted stalk, The arcades of an alleyed walk,
" —"Marmion. " Canto ii. , sect, ix. , x.
strong, 2*
such a term has been used frequently
To emulate in stone.
21 "
In the beginning of every mission,
among the people where Christianity had
not been previously established, the first
churches were usually plain and unadorned
to serve a temporary purpose, as also ad-
mitting of ready construction and without
considerable labour or expense having been
undertaken. The greater number of churches
founded by St. Patrick in Ireland were pro-
bably of such description. When stone
most abounded, that material was more
freely used than wood ; while the existing
ruined structures that still remain, from very
primitive times, show them to have been Oriental nations, as also by the Greeks.
rude in shape and design, almost as the Fine copper-plate engravings of the ground- houses then occupied by the people. The plans, elevations, sections, exteriors and
writer's missionary experience has recalled his frequent ministrations, in the plain and primitive log-churches, of necessity erected in the backwoods of America.
interiors, shapes, pillars, doors and adorn- ments, of those temples, are presented, with detailed descriptions, especially in tome ii. , premiere partie, liv. ii. , chap. i. to xxi. , pp. 45 to 127. The domestic architecture of the Romans is illustrated, in tome iii. , pre- miere partie, of the same work, liv. iii. ,
81
See Rev. Courtenay Moore's "Chroni-
cles of St. Colman, and of St. Colman's,
Farahy, Diocese of Cloyne," p. 6.
23
This accepted notion of the existing chap. xiv. to xvi. , pp. 125 to 135 ; as also,
ruins being of Saxon architecture is probably taken from Sir Walter Scott's poetic descrip- tion :—
"A solemn huge and dark-red pile, Placed on the margin of the isle.
ancient civic structures, preserved and in ruins, in liv. v. , chap. ii. to v. , pp. 176 to 182. Again, the baths of the Romans are
shown in the same volume, seconde partie, liv. i. , chap. i. to v. , pp. 201 to 212 ; also, their theatres and amphitheatres
20 Nor is it that likely
84 See George Gilbert Scott's Essay on theHistoryofEnglishChurchArchitecture," chap, ii. , p. 44. London, 1881, 4to.
25 For the antiquarian, this subject is pre- sented in a fashion the most intelligible, by the learned Benedictin Maurist, Dom Ber- nard de Montfaucon, in his most valuable work, "L'Antiquite Expllquee, et repre- sentee, en Figures," where he treats about their most ancient pagan temples, supposed to have had their origin from the Egyptians, and to have been modelled on the style thence borrowed by the Phoenicians and other
In Saxon strength that abbey frowned, in liv. ii. , chap. i. to ix. , pp. 231 to
With massive arches broad and round, That rose alternate, row and row,
On ponderous columns, short and low,
262 ; with plans of their circus and hippo-
drome, liv. iii. , chap. i. to iii. , pp. 273 to 280. In tome iv. are to be found their tri-
August 31. ] LIVES OF THE IRISH SAINTS. 479
northwereformedonIrishmodels. ThebuildingswhichtheRomansleft in the country, and the tnos Romanus brought in by the Roman missionaries in the seventh century, as also the new style brought in by the Normans in the eleventh, were all distinct forms of Roman influence. English ecclesiastical architecture borrowed nothing from any works either of the Saxons before or after they came into Britain, nor from the Britons before the Romans came. It seems probable, that the ancient Christian Britons
26
had erected stone churches, in the very primitive times ; but, it
is specially noticed, that their peculiar manner was to erect wooden churches. The Roman basilica was the type of structure, which had
been adopted most generally, in the building of early Christian temples, and extending to Gaul, it was introduced into Ireland during the fifth and sixth centuries, with some distinctive peculiarities of detail.
In Ireland, which formed no part of the Roman world, pilgrims or visitors
may have brought Roman architectural ideas, but these hardly supplied actualRomanmodels. Toofrequentlyhavetheround-headeddoor-waysand windows in early Irish Churches been considered as of Norman origin solely,
2 althoughdisplayingfeaturesvaryinginotherways ? but,inreality,bothstyles
28 which
umphal arches, in premiere partie, liv. vi. , illustrations of ancient ports, fortresses, chap, viii. , pp. 169 to 172 ; in seconde phares or lighthouses and octagonal towers,
are derived from the Romans. The Irish Churches and
come down to the English Conquest of the twelfth century, besides their other national peculiarities, exhibit in point of mere form an independent variety, with features of its own, distinguishing it from the Romanesque of
partie of the same tomer are shown their
chap. i. to vii. , pp. 119 to 147, The whole of tome v. of this great series is taken up with descriptions and illustrations of funereal
bridges in various parts of their provinces,
liv. i. , chap. i. to v. , pp. 177 to 190, and their
aqueducts, chap, ix. , x. t pp. 198 to 202. monuments, urns and tombs of the Greeks
Tome v. , premiere partie, is altogether de- voted to the illustration of their tombs, fune-
ral monuments, inscriptions and memorials of the dead; while in the seconde partie are illustrations of a similar character referring to the Egyptians, to the Gauls, Germans, and other barbarous people, liv. i. , chap. i. tox. ,pp. 173to201. IntheSupple-
ment au Livre de — et L'Antiquite Expliquee
"
and Romans, as also, of others in the different
provinces of the Empire, in Gaul, Germany, Britain, in Sarmatia, Denmark, Scythia, and otherplaces. Thebriefsynopsisofcontents
here presented only refers, however, to the various forms and applications of ancient architecture ; other varied matters and objects of antiquity are treated, likewise, in
detail, and in a clear manner for the student's comprehension.
Representee en Figures
great 26
published long afterwards by the same writer—we find in tome ii. an account of the Grecian temples, in liv. ii. , chap. i. to viii. , pp. 18 to 47 and
regarding the Gaulish temples, at chap. i. to vii. , pp. 216 to 238. In tome iii. of this
An instance is furnished by Venerable Bede, where Ninian built Candida Casa, " ibi ecclesiamde lapide, insolito Britonibus
;
in liv. viii. we have remarks and engravings
—" Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum," lib. iii. , chap. iv. , pp. 272,
Supplement, are delineations and descrip-
tions of ancient houses, and those belonging
to the Gauls and Germans, in liv. ii. , chap,
viii. , pp. 63, 64 ; while liv. vi. is devoted
to ancient buildings, columns and city gates,
chap. i. tov. ,pp. 144to158; whileliv. vii.
treats of baths and fountains, with architec-
tural representations, chap, i. , iv, pp. 159 to
169. In tome iv. of the Supplement are cells of the monks, a—nd usually associated descriptions and plates representing arches with a round tower. " Rev. Dr. George T.
"
chap. i. to iv. , pp. 66 to 79 ; while in liv. Church. " A History of Ireland and Irish
v. , are accounts of bridges, aqueducts, mili- Christianity, from the Anglo-Norman Con- tary columns, with their inscriptions, chap. quest to the Dawn of the Reformation, sect. i. to ix. , pp. 88 to 118 j as also in liv. vi. , xv. , p. 351. London, 1889, 8vo.
of triumph and their adornments in liv. iv. , Stokes'
Ireland and the Anglo-Norman
more, fecerit. "
;
monasteries,
273.
27 See George Wilkinson's Practical
" Geology and Ancient Architecture of Ire-
land," sect, vi. , p. 108. London, 1845, 8vo. 28 "The Celtic Monastery is in every instance a collection of small, square, stone- roofed churches, without any architectural adornments, enclosed within a cashel or fortification, wherein were the stone or mud
48o LIVES OF THE IRISH SAINTS. [August 31.
or 2' The Normandy, Germany, Italy, Aquitaine.
churches to appear
early
have been very numerous ; but at present, the far greater proportion can only
be traced by tradition, and by site, the original buildings having been quite obliterated. However, the most ancient stone churches in Ireland were oblong,
generally of small dimensions, of rude and solid construction, void of archi-
tectural ornament, having sharply pointed gables, square-headed doors and windows,withhorizontallintelsofalongsinglestonelaidoverthem. Like
the Egyptians and Greeks, the arch was unused by the builders, at first ; but at length, circularly headed door-ways and windows were introduced, of no great dimensions, it is true, but often ornamented with effective zig-zag
mouldings, and sculptures of figures, rudely designed and executed. The Roman forms seem to have been understood, and very generally adopted from the seventh to the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Several existing remains of such churches are still to be seen. While we admire in Grecian
architecture grace and elegance of design with regularity of form, and variety
of detail , it is remarkable that the springing of arches, on a large or small
scale, is wanting. The Roman builders were the first to introduce the arch
into their public and private buildings, and hence it may be considered
characteristic of their peculiar style of architecture. In Ireland, we have a
continuous succession of native biddings from pagan times 3° and
from the early Christian period until the twelfth century. Of these,
the latter examples are, of course, largely influenced by foreign models ;
but here alone in Christendom, do we see a native round-arched
construction developing itself out of an earlier entablature construction. **
Hence, that assimilated style has been very properly designated the Irish
Romanesque.
In many of the later buildings the general effect of the
enriched portions—that is, of the doorways and chancel arches—does not
differ very much from that of ordinary Norman buildings. But there is often
a special character in the ornaments used. The jambs have frequently a
very distinct character, which seems also to have made its way into some
buildings in North Wales. Above all, there is the sloping of the sides of the
2
doorways,3 so eminently characteristic of the Irish buildings, and which is
manifestly a native tradition handed on from earlier native buildings. " It may be questioned, whether the rich Irish Romanesque of the eleventh and twelfth centuries may be considered a Roman style influenced by native tradition, or a native style influenced by Roman models. If we take into
29 See that magnificently illustrated work, "Notes on Irish Architecture," by Edwin, Third Earl of Dunraven, edited by Margaret Stokes, vol. ii. , part iv. , concluding essay, chap. vi. "Of the Romanesque oflreland," pp. 189 to 205.
30 For some of the most characteristic
many of the extremely antique Egyptian buildings, and also in some of the Grecian structures.
33 The peculiar features of the Irish eccle- siastical style may well be studied, from its earliest period to its ultimate developments in the photographs and description occurring in ' ' NotesonIrish
specimens,
reader is referred to
with minute the
Architecture," by Edwin, Third Earl of Dunraven, edited by Margaret tecture," by Edwin, Third Earl of Dunraven. Stokes. See vol. i. , part i. , sect. ii. Early
"
descriptions, Notes on Irish Archi-
Edited by Margaret Stokes, vol. i. , part i. Stone Buildings without cement, sect. i. Pagan Forts, pp. 1 to 25.
Christian Monasteries, part ii. , sect. i. Churches without Chancels, sect. ii. Churches with Chancels, pp. 26 to 127,
3* Illustrations of some very ancient vol. ii. , part iii. , sect. i. Detached Belfries,
churches, having round-headed door-ways sect. ii. Belfries attached to Churches,
and windows, may be seen in George part iv. Irish Romanesque, sect. i. Build-
"
Wilkinson's
Practical Geology and Ancient ings with double stone Roofs, Early Twelfth
Architecture of Ireland," sect, v. , Early Century Churches, and concluding Essay,
Churches, pp. 93 to 101.
33 No doubt, the sloping sides of doors
tapering upwards may be exemplified, in
with Appendices. The accompanying de- criptions evince a thorough appreciation of the whole subject.
August 31. ] LIVES OF THE IRISH SAINTS. 481
account the plan and arrangement of buildings, as well as their actual style, therecanbenodoubtthatthelatteristhetruerdescription. IntheNorman style, until quite its latest stage, the smaller buildings as a rule appear to have beenricherthanthelarger. Thegreaterectionsinamannerdisdainornament. The tendency is to approach more and more to the buildings of other countries, until we at last find structures of late Romanesque character, which die away into something not very different from ordinary Transition. The Danish incursions had a deterrent influence on the progress of style in Irish ecclesiastical architecture; while the latest known erection of Mellifont Abbey, before the Anglo-Norman Invasion, was modelled and executed in great part by French brothers of the —Cistercian Order. Afterwards, the
pointed perpendicular, or Gothic style which received a development so magnificent on the Continent and in England—began to find its way into Ireland, yet on a restricted scale, and everywhere inferior both in taste and execution. 34 Churches, which might be called large in England or France, are not to be found in Ireland. Even the two cathedral churches in Dublin rankwiththesmallestoftheirownclassinEngland. Theotherchurches, chiefly cathedral or monastic, which seem large by comparison with the primitive standard, are very small compared with any churches elsewhere in England,orinthenortherncountriesontheEuropeanContinent. Norare these latter at all approached in grandeur and regularity of design.
The circumstances of the time hardly allowed the early Irish missionaries in Northumbria to develop such forms in the churches which were first erected there ; but soon however Benedict Biscop, and Wilfrid, with the help of masons from France, were enabled to fashion buildings of dressed and polished stone, as exemplified in the case of York, where a large church of this description replaced the small wooden structure of Paulinus, as also at Ripon and at Hexham, where similar improvements were effected.
According to the Irish customs, Aidan established a community of monks
atLindisfarne; andhethereunitedthepracticeofmonasticobservances,
with duties of the episcopal calling. 35 We have already alluded to the special mode for observing Easter, which prevailed in the early Irish and British Churches, with the conflict of opinion and practice in the Eastern and Western Churches, on this much debated 6 the Fathers
subjects Although
of the Council of Nice, held in 325, passed a decree to regulate the time for its celebration on the first Sunday, after the spring full moon, thus departing from the Jewish custom ;37 still difficulties arose in determining the precise day, and these do not appear to have been wholly settled, even in the Western Church, until after the arrival of St. Patrick in Ireland. 38 We may
34 On this subject, the reader may consult tomed to celebrate their Pasch on the four- "
Thomas Bell's Essay on the Origin and teenth day of their month of Nisan. See
Progress of Gothic Architecture, with refer- ence to the Ancient History and present State of the Remains of such Architecture in Ireland," &c. Dublin, 1829, 8vo.
35 See Le Comtede Montalembert's " Les
Moines d'Occident," tome iv. , liv. xiii. ,
chap. i. y. p. 22.
36 See the Fourth Volume of this work, at
the 18th of April, Art. i. Life of St. Lase-
rian, Bishop and Patron of Leighlin Diocese, chap. iii.
37 The Jews commenced their year with the month called Nisan, which corresponded in part with our month of March and in part with our month of April. They were accus-
"
riarum, Conciliorum el Canonum invicem
collatorum," &c, sect. 5, p. 123.
38 Thus Pope St. Leo I. , who sat in the
chair of St. Peter from A. D. 440 to 461, en-
gaged St. Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, to calculate the Easter, and to communicate his researches to the Apostolic See for further use. He also consulted Paschasius, Bishop of Lilyb^e, on the same subject, A. D. 444; and both agreed, that it should fall on the twenty-third of April, the following year, Again, he charged Paschasius to cause learned men to calculate Easter-Day for the year 455, as he found a difficulty in admitting the
Cabassutius,
Notitia Ecclesiastica Histo-
IH
4»2 LIVES OF THE IRISH SAINTS. [August 31,
take it for granted, that this holy Apostle introduced there the usage for cele- brating Easter, which prevailed on the Continent, when his remarkable mis-
sionary career opened ; nor were other efforts made to cause any change, until long after his death. The disturbed state of affairs in the Roman Empire,
and the difficulty of communicating with or taking cognizance of the Irish and British Churches by the Sovereign Pontiffs, most probably occasioned the Paschal question 39 to be left in abeyance in these islands, until prescription had sanctioned the traditions coming down from their first missionaries, while vene- ration and respect for established discipline and customs were long sustained by their successors with characteristic Celtic tenacity. 4° Moreover, they were not wholly acquainted with the discussions and decrees respecting this impor-
1
tant matter, that were in force on the Continent of Europe. *
Venerable Bede charges them with having kept Easter contrary to the cus- tom of the Universal Church. While Aidan lived, however, that observance was patiently tolerated by all men, they being sensible, that he was a holy and just man, who could not be expected to keep Easter, contrary to the usageofthosewhosenthimfromIona. *2 Moreover,hewaslovedandvene- rated by those who thought and acted differently from him regarding the Paschal celebration, in all ranks and conditions of the Church. ^ Again, the special mode of wearing the tonsure seems to have been everywhere peculiar
calculation of Theophilus of Alexandria,
which was the one then generally accepted.
of May, and not on the xv. as some thought,
i. e. , on the 24th of April, and not on the
to the latter, it should fall on the See Abbe " Histoire Eccle- According 17th. Fleury's
viii. Kalends of May, or on the twenty-fourth of April, which seemed to Pope Leo incon- sistent with the received opinion, that Easter Sunday ought not be earlier than the 22nd of March, or later than the 21st of April. In the year 453, Pope Leo had written to the Emperor Marcien, praying him to engage the most learned persons to examine the ques- tion, so that Easter might be celebrated on the same day in all churches. The Emperor sent an envoy and wrote accordingly to St. Proterius of Alexandria, that he might satisfy the Pope. A long epistle was returned, in which he represents, that Easter ought not to be celebrated by Christians, on the fourteenth day of the moon, on the first month, as prac- tised by the Jews, but on the Sunday follow- ing it, which should be the twenty-first day. And there ought to be no hesitation, on that account, to celebrate Easter in the second month ; for this was not to be counted from
siastique," tome vi. , liv. xxvi. , sect, liii. , p. 241, liv. xxvii. , sect, li. , p. 353, liv. xxviii. , sect. 1. , pp. 463 to 465.
39 This subject is admirably treated by Very Rev. Matthew Kelly, D. D. , in a review of
the equinoctial day, the twenty-first of March, Kelly's but from the day of the new moon after the
equinox. Proterius sustained such opinion
by citing many examples ; and he concluded, that the calculation of Theophilus was sound, and that Easter of the eighth Indiction, that is, of the year 455, ought to be celebrated the twenty-ninth day of Pharmouthi, the viii. Kalends of May, or the 24th of April. Yield- ing to the authority of St. Proterius, rather than to his reasoning, and to avoid the diver- sities of the Easter celebration, Pope Leo wrote a letter to all the bishops of Gaul and Spain, dated July 28th, 454, in which he directed them, that the following Paschal Festival should be held on the viii. Kalends
11
The Testimony of St. Patrick against the
false Pretensions of Rome to Primitive Anti-
quity in Ireland," by Henry J. Monck
Mason, LL. D. , Dublin, 1846. That article is headed "The Church of St. Patrick, "and
it appeared in the Dublin Review, 1846. In the course of his observations, the Rev. Dr.
Kelly states,
"
Columbanus grounds his ad-
herence to the Irish cycle on the exemption
of Ireland from the ecclesiastical laws of the
RomanEmpire, and roundly asserts, in a
letter to Pope Boniface, that the authority of
Rome in Ireland was not founded on any
prestige of the imperial mistress of the world,
nor on the laws of emperors, but on much
higher grounds. "—Very Rev. Dr. Matthew
"
Dissertations chiefly on Irish Church History," edited by the Rev. D.
M'Carthy, D. D. , Art. v. , p. 264.
40 See the Second Volume of this work, at
the 24th of February, Art. i.
41
In illustration of this view, the reader is referred to the discussion between St. Wil- frid and St. Colman, as furnished in the pre- sent volume, at the 8th of August, Art. i. St. Colman, Bishop of Lindisfarne, and Ancho- rite of Inis-Boffin, County of Mayo, chap. i.
42 See Venerable Bede's " Historia Eccle- siastica Gentis Anglorum," lib. iii. , cap. xxv. , pp. 360 to 363.
43 See Bishop Tanner's H Bibliotheca Bri- tannico-Hibernica," p. 13.
Wherefore,
August 31. ] LIVES OF THE IRISH SAINTS. 483
to the Celtic race ; namely, shaving all the hair in front of a line drawn from ear to ea*, and it was distinguished from the Roman manner, which was formed by shaving the top of the head alone. 44 Not only had the former ecclesiastical fashion in the Irish and Scottish Churches/5
This minor matter afterwards
prevailed British, but even in those of Brittany 46 and Spain. *?
become a of 8 until in subject controversy;*
fine,
the Celtic to the yielded
Roman custom.
Already we have alluded to the rules and mode of living, introduced by
the great St. Columkille/9 when he had gathered around him the community of Celtic monks at Iona, and who looked up to him as their superior and guide. Such was the veneration entertained by their successors for the great founder of that institute, and so well had its traditions been observed, that no deviation from his discipline had been allowed to his disciples. Wherefore, Aedan brought to Lindisfarne the usages that prevailed at Hy. Fasting and abstinence were enjoined, and these were observed with great rigour. 5° Thus we learn, that excepting Sundays, the fast of Lent was kept until evening on other days. Then, no other substance was taken save a little bread, one hen egg, and a small quantity of milk* mixed with water. 51 In his time, many religious men and women, inspired by his example, adopted the custom of fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays, till the ninth hour
2
throughout the year, except during the fifty days after Easter. 5
The See of Lindisfarne was occupied by St. Aidan from a. d. 635 to 651 ;53 thus he exercised the functions of its bishop for almost seventeen years. 54 While there, he introduced and observed monastic rule, as well as his com- munity, for all were monks. Moreover, this was quite in accordance with the mode of life approved by Pope St. Gregory himself, in the direction already given to St. Augustine, his missionary in England. 55 Being first
44 See Rev. Dr. G. T. Stokes' " Ireland
and the Anglo-Norman Church. " A History of Ireland and Irish Christianity from the
Anglo-Norman Conquest to the Dawn of the Reformation," lect. xv. , p.
i. ,
478 LIVES 0* THE IRISH SAINTS. [August 31.
Lindisfarnewereofanunpretendingcharacter. TheearlieragesofChristianity could not command the subsidiary to pious emotion, which church architecture afterwards afforded; yet, sanctity was imparted to the meanest building
became better established, and when the
the zeal and devotion of the
the materials used in construction were of a more lasting character than
through
worshippers.
wood. 31 However, as
Christianity
ravages of wars had ceased, there can hardly be a doubt, but that stone build-
ings were designed to replace those perishable structures, especially in
Northumbria. Andastheprimitiveandsmall,althoughsolidlyconstructed,
stonechurchesofIrelandhadeventhenanexistenceformodels it seems ;
probable, that the early stone buildings of the Scottish monks at Lindisfarne were of such a type. Although not referable to the time of St. Aidan, still
the ruins of a later monastery upon Holy Island betoken great antiquity. The arches in general are often stated to be strictly Saxon. 32 The pillars
which
short and 2* There massy.
them are
architecture, although
is, strictly speak-
support no Saxon
ing,
to designate a style of building, which appears to have had its origin in Ire- land, and to have been introduced by the Irish missionaries. In England, the building art of the Romans25 formed a basis for their indigenous archi- tecture; but, in ecclesiastical structures, their earliest stone churches in the
30 See Dean Henry Hart Milman's " His-
tory of Christianity, from the Birth of Christ to the Abolition of Paganism in the
Roman Empire," vol. iii. , book iv. , chap. »v-» P« 373- Newand revised edition, Lon- don, 1875, cr- 8vo.
Built ere the art was known, By pointed aisle, and shafted stalk, The arcades of an alleyed walk,
" —"Marmion. " Canto ii. , sect, ix. , x.
strong, 2*
such a term has been used frequently
To emulate in stone.
21 "
In the beginning of every mission,
among the people where Christianity had
not been previously established, the first
churches were usually plain and unadorned
to serve a temporary purpose, as also ad-
mitting of ready construction and without
considerable labour or expense having been
undertaken. The greater number of churches
founded by St. Patrick in Ireland were pro-
bably of such description. When stone
most abounded, that material was more
freely used than wood ; while the existing
ruined structures that still remain, from very
primitive times, show them to have been Oriental nations, as also by the Greeks.
rude in shape and design, almost as the Fine copper-plate engravings of the ground- houses then occupied by the people. The plans, elevations, sections, exteriors and
writer's missionary experience has recalled his frequent ministrations, in the plain and primitive log-churches, of necessity erected in the backwoods of America.
interiors, shapes, pillars, doors and adorn- ments, of those temples, are presented, with detailed descriptions, especially in tome ii. , premiere partie, liv. ii. , chap. i. to xxi. , pp. 45 to 127. The domestic architecture of the Romans is illustrated, in tome iii. , pre- miere partie, of the same work, liv. iii. ,
81
See Rev. Courtenay Moore's "Chroni-
cles of St. Colman, and of St. Colman's,
Farahy, Diocese of Cloyne," p. 6.
23
This accepted notion of the existing chap. xiv. to xvi. , pp. 125 to 135 ; as also,
ruins being of Saxon architecture is probably taken from Sir Walter Scott's poetic descrip- tion :—
"A solemn huge and dark-red pile, Placed on the margin of the isle.
ancient civic structures, preserved and in ruins, in liv. v. , chap. ii. to v. , pp. 176 to 182. Again, the baths of the Romans are
shown in the same volume, seconde partie, liv. i. , chap. i. to v. , pp. 201 to 212 ; also, their theatres and amphitheatres
20 Nor is it that likely
84 See George Gilbert Scott's Essay on theHistoryofEnglishChurchArchitecture," chap, ii. , p. 44. London, 1881, 4to.
25 For the antiquarian, this subject is pre- sented in a fashion the most intelligible, by the learned Benedictin Maurist, Dom Ber- nard de Montfaucon, in his most valuable work, "L'Antiquite Expllquee, et repre- sentee, en Figures," where he treats about their most ancient pagan temples, supposed to have had their origin from the Egyptians, and to have been modelled on the style thence borrowed by the Phoenicians and other
In Saxon strength that abbey frowned, in liv. ii. , chap. i. to ix. , pp. 231 to
With massive arches broad and round, That rose alternate, row and row,
On ponderous columns, short and low,
262 ; with plans of their circus and hippo-
drome, liv. iii. , chap. i. to iii. , pp. 273 to 280. In tome iv. are to be found their tri-
August 31. ] LIVES OF THE IRISH SAINTS. 479
northwereformedonIrishmodels. ThebuildingswhichtheRomansleft in the country, and the tnos Romanus brought in by the Roman missionaries in the seventh century, as also the new style brought in by the Normans in the eleventh, were all distinct forms of Roman influence. English ecclesiastical architecture borrowed nothing from any works either of the Saxons before or after they came into Britain, nor from the Britons before the Romans came. It seems probable, that the ancient Christian Britons
26
had erected stone churches, in the very primitive times ; but, it
is specially noticed, that their peculiar manner was to erect wooden churches. The Roman basilica was the type of structure, which had
been adopted most generally, in the building of early Christian temples, and extending to Gaul, it was introduced into Ireland during the fifth and sixth centuries, with some distinctive peculiarities of detail.
In Ireland, which formed no part of the Roman world, pilgrims or visitors
may have brought Roman architectural ideas, but these hardly supplied actualRomanmodels. Toofrequentlyhavetheround-headeddoor-waysand windows in early Irish Churches been considered as of Norman origin solely,
2 althoughdisplayingfeaturesvaryinginotherways ? but,inreality,bothstyles
28 which
umphal arches, in premiere partie, liv. vi. , illustrations of ancient ports, fortresses, chap, viii. , pp. 169 to 172 ; in seconde phares or lighthouses and octagonal towers,
are derived from the Romans. The Irish Churches and
come down to the English Conquest of the twelfth century, besides their other national peculiarities, exhibit in point of mere form an independent variety, with features of its own, distinguishing it from the Romanesque of
partie of the same tomer are shown their
chap. i. to vii. , pp. 119 to 147, The whole of tome v. of this great series is taken up with descriptions and illustrations of funereal
bridges in various parts of their provinces,
liv. i. , chap. i. to v. , pp. 177 to 190, and their
aqueducts, chap, ix. , x. t pp. 198 to 202. monuments, urns and tombs of the Greeks
Tome v. , premiere partie, is altogether de- voted to the illustration of their tombs, fune-
ral monuments, inscriptions and memorials of the dead; while in the seconde partie are illustrations of a similar character referring to the Egyptians, to the Gauls, Germans, and other barbarous people, liv. i. , chap. i. tox. ,pp. 173to201. IntheSupple-
ment au Livre de — et L'Antiquite Expliquee
"
and Romans, as also, of others in the different
provinces of the Empire, in Gaul, Germany, Britain, in Sarmatia, Denmark, Scythia, and otherplaces. Thebriefsynopsisofcontents
here presented only refers, however, to the various forms and applications of ancient architecture ; other varied matters and objects of antiquity are treated, likewise, in
detail, and in a clear manner for the student's comprehension.
Representee en Figures
great 26
published long afterwards by the same writer—we find in tome ii. an account of the Grecian temples, in liv. ii. , chap. i. to viii. , pp. 18 to 47 and
regarding the Gaulish temples, at chap. i. to vii. , pp. 216 to 238. In tome iii. of this
An instance is furnished by Venerable Bede, where Ninian built Candida Casa, " ibi ecclesiamde lapide, insolito Britonibus
;
in liv. viii. we have remarks and engravings
—" Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum," lib. iii. , chap. iv. , pp. 272,
Supplement, are delineations and descrip-
tions of ancient houses, and those belonging
to the Gauls and Germans, in liv. ii. , chap,
viii. , pp. 63, 64 ; while liv. vi. is devoted
to ancient buildings, columns and city gates,
chap. i. tov. ,pp. 144to158; whileliv. vii.
treats of baths and fountains, with architec-
tural representations, chap, i. , iv, pp. 159 to
169. In tome iv. of the Supplement are cells of the monks, a—nd usually associated descriptions and plates representing arches with a round tower. " Rev. Dr. George T.
"
chap. i. to iv. , pp. 66 to 79 ; while in liv. Church. " A History of Ireland and Irish
v. , are accounts of bridges, aqueducts, mili- Christianity, from the Anglo-Norman Con- tary columns, with their inscriptions, chap. quest to the Dawn of the Reformation, sect. i. to ix. , pp. 88 to 118 j as also in liv. vi. , xv. , p. 351. London, 1889, 8vo.
of triumph and their adornments in liv. iv. , Stokes'
Ireland and the Anglo-Norman
more, fecerit. "
;
monasteries,
273.
27 See George Wilkinson's Practical
" Geology and Ancient Architecture of Ire-
land," sect, vi. , p. 108. London, 1845, 8vo. 28 "The Celtic Monastery is in every instance a collection of small, square, stone- roofed churches, without any architectural adornments, enclosed within a cashel or fortification, wherein were the stone or mud
48o LIVES OF THE IRISH SAINTS. [August 31.
or 2' The Normandy, Germany, Italy, Aquitaine.
churches to appear
early
have been very numerous ; but at present, the far greater proportion can only
be traced by tradition, and by site, the original buildings having been quite obliterated. However, the most ancient stone churches in Ireland were oblong,
generally of small dimensions, of rude and solid construction, void of archi-
tectural ornament, having sharply pointed gables, square-headed doors and windows,withhorizontallintelsofalongsinglestonelaidoverthem. Like
the Egyptians and Greeks, the arch was unused by the builders, at first ; but at length, circularly headed door-ways and windows were introduced, of no great dimensions, it is true, but often ornamented with effective zig-zag
mouldings, and sculptures of figures, rudely designed and executed. The Roman forms seem to have been understood, and very generally adopted from the seventh to the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Several existing remains of such churches are still to be seen. While we admire in Grecian
architecture grace and elegance of design with regularity of form, and variety
of detail , it is remarkable that the springing of arches, on a large or small
scale, is wanting. The Roman builders were the first to introduce the arch
into their public and private buildings, and hence it may be considered
characteristic of their peculiar style of architecture. In Ireland, we have a
continuous succession of native biddings from pagan times 3° and
from the early Christian period until the twelfth century. Of these,
the latter examples are, of course, largely influenced by foreign models ;
but here alone in Christendom, do we see a native round-arched
construction developing itself out of an earlier entablature construction. **
Hence, that assimilated style has been very properly designated the Irish
Romanesque.
In many of the later buildings the general effect of the
enriched portions—that is, of the doorways and chancel arches—does not
differ very much from that of ordinary Norman buildings. But there is often
a special character in the ornaments used. The jambs have frequently a
very distinct character, which seems also to have made its way into some
buildings in North Wales. Above all, there is the sloping of the sides of the
2
doorways,3 so eminently characteristic of the Irish buildings, and which is
manifestly a native tradition handed on from earlier native buildings. " It may be questioned, whether the rich Irish Romanesque of the eleventh and twelfth centuries may be considered a Roman style influenced by native tradition, or a native style influenced by Roman models. If we take into
29 See that magnificently illustrated work, "Notes on Irish Architecture," by Edwin, Third Earl of Dunraven, edited by Margaret Stokes, vol. ii. , part iv. , concluding essay, chap. vi. "Of the Romanesque oflreland," pp. 189 to 205.
30 For some of the most characteristic
many of the extremely antique Egyptian buildings, and also in some of the Grecian structures.
33 The peculiar features of the Irish eccle- siastical style may well be studied, from its earliest period to its ultimate developments in the photographs and description occurring in ' ' NotesonIrish
specimens,
reader is referred to
with minute the
Architecture," by Edwin, Third Earl of Dunraven, edited by Margaret tecture," by Edwin, Third Earl of Dunraven. Stokes. See vol. i. , part i. , sect. ii. Early
"
descriptions, Notes on Irish Archi-
Edited by Margaret Stokes, vol. i. , part i. Stone Buildings without cement, sect. i. Pagan Forts, pp. 1 to 25.
Christian Monasteries, part ii. , sect. i. Churches without Chancels, sect. ii. Churches with Chancels, pp. 26 to 127,
3* Illustrations of some very ancient vol. ii. , part iii. , sect. i. Detached Belfries,
churches, having round-headed door-ways sect. ii. Belfries attached to Churches,
and windows, may be seen in George part iv. Irish Romanesque, sect. i. Build-
"
Wilkinson's
Practical Geology and Ancient ings with double stone Roofs, Early Twelfth
Architecture of Ireland," sect, v. , Early Century Churches, and concluding Essay,
Churches, pp. 93 to 101.
33 No doubt, the sloping sides of doors
tapering upwards may be exemplified, in
with Appendices. The accompanying de- criptions evince a thorough appreciation of the whole subject.
August 31. ] LIVES OF THE IRISH SAINTS. 481
account the plan and arrangement of buildings, as well as their actual style, therecanbenodoubtthatthelatteristhetruerdescription. IntheNorman style, until quite its latest stage, the smaller buildings as a rule appear to have beenricherthanthelarger. Thegreaterectionsinamannerdisdainornament. The tendency is to approach more and more to the buildings of other countries, until we at last find structures of late Romanesque character, which die away into something not very different from ordinary Transition. The Danish incursions had a deterrent influence on the progress of style in Irish ecclesiastical architecture; while the latest known erection of Mellifont Abbey, before the Anglo-Norman Invasion, was modelled and executed in great part by French brothers of the —Cistercian Order. Afterwards, the
pointed perpendicular, or Gothic style which received a development so magnificent on the Continent and in England—began to find its way into Ireland, yet on a restricted scale, and everywhere inferior both in taste and execution. 34 Churches, which might be called large in England or France, are not to be found in Ireland. Even the two cathedral churches in Dublin rankwiththesmallestoftheirownclassinEngland. Theotherchurches, chiefly cathedral or monastic, which seem large by comparison with the primitive standard, are very small compared with any churches elsewhere in England,orinthenortherncountriesontheEuropeanContinent. Norare these latter at all approached in grandeur and regularity of design.
The circumstances of the time hardly allowed the early Irish missionaries in Northumbria to develop such forms in the churches which were first erected there ; but soon however Benedict Biscop, and Wilfrid, with the help of masons from France, were enabled to fashion buildings of dressed and polished stone, as exemplified in the case of York, where a large church of this description replaced the small wooden structure of Paulinus, as also at Ripon and at Hexham, where similar improvements were effected.
According to the Irish customs, Aidan established a community of monks
atLindisfarne; andhethereunitedthepracticeofmonasticobservances,
with duties of the episcopal calling. 35 We have already alluded to the special mode for observing Easter, which prevailed in the early Irish and British Churches, with the conflict of opinion and practice in the Eastern and Western Churches, on this much debated 6 the Fathers
subjects Although
of the Council of Nice, held in 325, passed a decree to regulate the time for its celebration on the first Sunday, after the spring full moon, thus departing from the Jewish custom ;37 still difficulties arose in determining the precise day, and these do not appear to have been wholly settled, even in the Western Church, until after the arrival of St. Patrick in Ireland. 38 We may
34 On this subject, the reader may consult tomed to celebrate their Pasch on the four- "
Thomas Bell's Essay on the Origin and teenth day of their month of Nisan. See
Progress of Gothic Architecture, with refer- ence to the Ancient History and present State of the Remains of such Architecture in Ireland," &c. Dublin, 1829, 8vo.
35 See Le Comtede Montalembert's " Les
Moines d'Occident," tome iv. , liv. xiii. ,
chap. i. y. p. 22.
36 See the Fourth Volume of this work, at
the 18th of April, Art. i. Life of St. Lase-
rian, Bishop and Patron of Leighlin Diocese, chap. iii.
37 The Jews commenced their year with the month called Nisan, which corresponded in part with our month of March and in part with our month of April. They were accus-
"
riarum, Conciliorum el Canonum invicem
collatorum," &c, sect. 5, p. 123.
38 Thus Pope St. Leo I. , who sat in the
chair of St. Peter from A. D. 440 to 461, en-
gaged St. Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, to calculate the Easter, and to communicate his researches to the Apostolic See for further use. He also consulted Paschasius, Bishop of Lilyb^e, on the same subject, A. D. 444; and both agreed, that it should fall on the twenty-third of April, the following year, Again, he charged Paschasius to cause learned men to calculate Easter-Day for the year 455, as he found a difficulty in admitting the
Cabassutius,
Notitia Ecclesiastica Histo-
IH
4»2 LIVES OF THE IRISH SAINTS. [August 31,
take it for granted, that this holy Apostle introduced there the usage for cele- brating Easter, which prevailed on the Continent, when his remarkable mis-
sionary career opened ; nor were other efforts made to cause any change, until long after his death. The disturbed state of affairs in the Roman Empire,
and the difficulty of communicating with or taking cognizance of the Irish and British Churches by the Sovereign Pontiffs, most probably occasioned the Paschal question 39 to be left in abeyance in these islands, until prescription had sanctioned the traditions coming down from their first missionaries, while vene- ration and respect for established discipline and customs were long sustained by their successors with characteristic Celtic tenacity. 4° Moreover, they were not wholly acquainted with the discussions and decrees respecting this impor-
1
tant matter, that were in force on the Continent of Europe. *
Venerable Bede charges them with having kept Easter contrary to the cus- tom of the Universal Church. While Aidan lived, however, that observance was patiently tolerated by all men, they being sensible, that he was a holy and just man, who could not be expected to keep Easter, contrary to the usageofthosewhosenthimfromIona. *2 Moreover,hewaslovedandvene- rated by those who thought and acted differently from him regarding the Paschal celebration, in all ranks and conditions of the Church. ^ Again, the special mode of wearing the tonsure seems to have been everywhere peculiar
calculation of Theophilus of Alexandria,
which was the one then generally accepted.
of May, and not on the xv. as some thought,
i. e. , on the 24th of April, and not on the
to the latter, it should fall on the See Abbe " Histoire Eccle- According 17th. Fleury's
viii. Kalends of May, or on the twenty-fourth of April, which seemed to Pope Leo incon- sistent with the received opinion, that Easter Sunday ought not be earlier than the 22nd of March, or later than the 21st of April. In the year 453, Pope Leo had written to the Emperor Marcien, praying him to engage the most learned persons to examine the ques- tion, so that Easter might be celebrated on the same day in all churches. The Emperor sent an envoy and wrote accordingly to St. Proterius of Alexandria, that he might satisfy the Pope. A long epistle was returned, in which he represents, that Easter ought not to be celebrated by Christians, on the fourteenth day of the moon, on the first month, as prac- tised by the Jews, but on the Sunday follow- ing it, which should be the twenty-first day. And there ought to be no hesitation, on that account, to celebrate Easter in the second month ; for this was not to be counted from
siastique," tome vi. , liv. xxvi. , sect, liii. , p. 241, liv. xxvii. , sect, li. , p. 353, liv. xxviii. , sect. 1. , pp. 463 to 465.
39 This subject is admirably treated by Very Rev. Matthew Kelly, D. D. , in a review of
the equinoctial day, the twenty-first of March, Kelly's but from the day of the new moon after the
equinox. Proterius sustained such opinion
by citing many examples ; and he concluded, that the calculation of Theophilus was sound, and that Easter of the eighth Indiction, that is, of the year 455, ought to be celebrated the twenty-ninth day of Pharmouthi, the viii. Kalends of May, or the 24th of April. Yield- ing to the authority of St. Proterius, rather than to his reasoning, and to avoid the diver- sities of the Easter celebration, Pope Leo wrote a letter to all the bishops of Gaul and Spain, dated July 28th, 454, in which he directed them, that the following Paschal Festival should be held on the viii. Kalends
11
The Testimony of St. Patrick against the
false Pretensions of Rome to Primitive Anti-
quity in Ireland," by Henry J. Monck
Mason, LL. D. , Dublin, 1846. That article is headed "The Church of St. Patrick, "and
it appeared in the Dublin Review, 1846. In the course of his observations, the Rev. Dr.
Kelly states,
"
Columbanus grounds his ad-
herence to the Irish cycle on the exemption
of Ireland from the ecclesiastical laws of the
RomanEmpire, and roundly asserts, in a
letter to Pope Boniface, that the authority of
Rome in Ireland was not founded on any
prestige of the imperial mistress of the world,
nor on the laws of emperors, but on much
higher grounds. "—Very Rev. Dr. Matthew
"
Dissertations chiefly on Irish Church History," edited by the Rev. D.
M'Carthy, D. D. , Art. v. , p. 264.
40 See the Second Volume of this work, at
the 24th of February, Art. i.
41
In illustration of this view, the reader is referred to the discussion between St. Wil- frid and St. Colman, as furnished in the pre- sent volume, at the 8th of August, Art. i. St. Colman, Bishop of Lindisfarne, and Ancho- rite of Inis-Boffin, County of Mayo, chap. i.
42 See Venerable Bede's " Historia Eccle- siastica Gentis Anglorum," lib. iii. , cap. xxv. , pp. 360 to 363.
43 See Bishop Tanner's H Bibliotheca Bri- tannico-Hibernica," p. 13.
Wherefore,
August 31. ] LIVES OF THE IRISH SAINTS. 483
to the Celtic race ; namely, shaving all the hair in front of a line drawn from ear to ea*, and it was distinguished from the Roman manner, which was formed by shaving the top of the head alone. 44 Not only had the former ecclesiastical fashion in the Irish and Scottish Churches/5
This minor matter afterwards
prevailed British, but even in those of Brittany 46 and Spain. *?
become a of 8 until in subject controversy;*
fine,
the Celtic to the yielded
Roman custom.
Already we have alluded to the rules and mode of living, introduced by
the great St. Columkille/9 when he had gathered around him the community of Celtic monks at Iona, and who looked up to him as their superior and guide. Such was the veneration entertained by their successors for the great founder of that institute, and so well had its traditions been observed, that no deviation from his discipline had been allowed to his disciples. Wherefore, Aedan brought to Lindisfarne the usages that prevailed at Hy. Fasting and abstinence were enjoined, and these were observed with great rigour. 5° Thus we learn, that excepting Sundays, the fast of Lent was kept until evening on other days. Then, no other substance was taken save a little bread, one hen egg, and a small quantity of milk* mixed with water. 51 In his time, many religious men and women, inspired by his example, adopted the custom of fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays, till the ninth hour
2
throughout the year, except during the fifty days after Easter. 5
The See of Lindisfarne was occupied by St. Aidan from a. d. 635 to 651 ;53 thus he exercised the functions of its bishop for almost seventeen years. 54 While there, he introduced and observed monastic rule, as well as his com- munity, for all were monks. Moreover, this was quite in accordance with the mode of life approved by Pope St. Gregory himself, in the direction already given to St. Augustine, his missionary in England. 55 Being first
44 See Rev. Dr. G. T. Stokes' " Ireland
and the Anglo-Norman Church. " A History of Ireland and Irish Christianity from the
Anglo-Norman Conquest to the Dawn of the Reformation," lect. xv. , p.
