No More Learning

Jupiter transformed them into
lions. The Manual seemed to use the word as a generic term, with the
implication that Melanion became a lion and Atalanta became a lioness,
and it seemed to imply that Jupiter desired to punish them with a less
attractive existence. Ovid afterwards accepted both ideas and made
them clearer. The Manual indicated that Melanion and Atalanta were
transformed somewhere in Arcadia. This idea may imply recollection of
actual lions in prehistoric Greece (cf. Death of Hercules, Bk. 9).
The story of Atalanta which afterwards was repeated by Hyginus
included a similar transformation of Hippomenes and Atalanta. This
version differed in the circumstances. The lovers were traveling from
the scene of the race to the residence of Hippomenes. Their journey
took them near an area on Mt. Parnassus which was sacred to Jupiter.
In visiting it their original intention was to offer a sacrifice. This ac-
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK TEN
count specified that Jupiter transformed them into a lion and a lioness.
It assigned a different purpose for the change -- to prevent them from
ever repeating the offense. It then explained mistakenly that lions never
mate with their kind. Other mythographers added, also mistakenly, that
lions mate only with leopards. In the Ibis, Ovid mentioned the trans-
formation of Hippomenes into a lion.
Propertius called the victorious suitor Milanion and spoke of his
winning Atalanta by assiduous courtship. He noted that Milanion
helped her first in the pursuit of dangerous animals and then in a battle
with two centaurs, in the course of which he received a painful wound.
Although Propertius did not mention the race, he probably thought of
it as the final test. Ovid followed this version in his Art of Love.
Both the Catalogues and the Manual attributed the three apples
to Venus, but said nothing about their nature. An Alexandrian author
whom we cannot identify appears to have added that Venus aided the
successful youth with apples of solid gold, which came from the Garden
of the Hesperides. To this idea Vergil alluded in the Sixth Eclogue.
In the Metamorphoses, Ovid had told of the Arcadian Atalanta as
a huntress loved by Meleager (Bk. 8), and he had given examples of
assiduous courtship in the tales of Hyacinthus and Adonis. He thought
it best to have Venus tell of the Boeotian Atalanta, daughter of Schoe-
neus, and to begin with the subject of the race. By this means he also
avoided any problem of historical time. Venus recounted an isolated tale
of the indefinite past.
Although Ovid took his outline from the Manual, he invented a
close relation between the two parts of the tale. According to the Man-
ual, Schoeneus had urged his daughter to marry. Ovid imagined that
she visited an oracle to inquire about a suitable husband. The god bade
her avoid marriage and added, with true oracular obscurity, that she
was not destined to escape but was to live after losing herself.
Frightened by the answer, she heeded the part that she understood.
She avoided marriage and retired to live in the dark forest. When
suitors followed her, she arranged for the ordeal of the race. Regard-
ing its nature, Ovid agreed with the Catalogues and the Greek artists.
He described the race as conducted in the usual manner and implied
that Atalanta had some one else inflict the penalty, after the finish.
Evidently he imagined the race as occurring near some town and as
attracting many spectators. He seemed to have in mind athletic events
of his own time and to imitate them, even in the irrelevant detail of
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? HIPPOMENES AND ATALANTA
showing the winner crowned with a wreathe. He imagined a circular
course, about which he may have supposed that the contestants ran sev-
eral times. The total distance was considerable, requiring not only
speed but endurance.
Following the Manual, Ovid observed that many suitors contended
for Atalanta. He spoke at first as if she ran only on one occasion, but
later he agreed with the Manual that there were a number of such occa-
sions. The Manual had left it ambiguous whether Atalanta contended
with more than one suitor at a time. Ovid gave the impression that at
least in one race she contended with a number. Just before this race, he
said, the hero arrived.
Ovid called the youth Hippomenes. He imagined him as a stranger
unacquainted with Atalanta, who chanced to be near the place and who
attended out of curiosity. This gave Ovid an opportunity to empha-
size the girl's charm. At first, he said, Hippomenes called the suitors
foolish for risking their lives to get a wife. But, when Atalanta ap-
peared, Hippomenes withdrew his rash opinion. Recalling the work of
Greek artists, Ovid observed that Atalanta laid aside her clothing; and,
recalling the Catalogues, he noted that she wore colored ribbons, which
fluttered at her knees and ankles. He declared that Atalanta, the swift
racer, had a beauty like that of Venus, an idea which would seem im-
probable. Hippomenes began to fear lest one of the other youths might
win the race. He decided that, if all of them should fail, he would try
his own fortune.
Ovid described Atalanta's appearance in running. He spoke of her
hair as tossed over her white shoulders and of a flush that suffused her
tender skin. He likened it to the hue which a purple awning reflects
over a marble court. This illustration from Roman life of Ovid's day
was neither happy in itself nor appropriate for Venus to use in the prim-
itive times of Adonis. Atalanta won the race, and the young men with
groans paid the penalty.
Then Hippomenes boldly challenged Atalanta to race with him.
He declared that she would incur no disgrace, whatever the result, for
his father was Megareus of Onchestus and his great grandfather was
Neptune, and he was worthy of his divine origin. Ovid probably found
this ancestry in the work of an Alexandrian predecessor. Theocritus
and Catullus had hinted that Atalanta felt willing to be vanquished by
Hippomenes. Ovid imagined that she loved him at first sight. He
showed her, like many of his other heroines, debating the problem in a
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK TEN
soliloquy, and he imagined that Venus was able to repeat every word.
In the case of Atalanta the soliloquy was less effective than usual, for a
number of reasons. In the beginning of the speech, Ovid allowed the
reader to suppose that her words were addressed to Hippomenes. For a
simple, athletic maiden vacillation seemed out of character. And Ovid
increased the difficulty by allowing her words to sound weak and silly.
In the course of her meditation Atalanta praised the girlish beauty of
Hippomenes and even desired that he might win, but declared that for
her, marriage was forbidden by an evil fate. Ovid observed that she was
so naive as to love without realizing it.
While she pondered the matter, her father and the other spectators
called insistently for the race. Apparently no one thought it unfair to
have her run twice in so short a time. Hippomenes prayed Venus to
favor the love that she herself had kindled. Venus heard with approval.
Ovid gave a new account of the golden apples. In the middle part of
Cyprus lay a district rich in copper and in fertility of soil, which was
called the Field of Tamasus. It was sacred to Venus. Philostephanus
appears to have added that in the field was a tree with golden apples.
Ovid imagined that here Venus gathered the fruit. He described the tree
as itself golden, like the tree of the Hesperides (Bk. 4). When Hippo-
menes prayed to Venus, he said, the goddess chanced to be carrying
three of the apples. Without revealing herself to anyone else, she gave
them to Hippomenes and told him their use.
In describing the race Ovid recalled the work of epic poets and
especially the Iliad and the Aeneid. As in Vergil's account of the boat
race, the signal was given with a trumpet. The Iliad had mentioned
certain horses of Erichthonius, whose father was the North Wind, and
had told how they would run over standing grain without breaking down
the ears or would run over the topmost waves of the hoary sea. Apol-
lonius had told how the Argonaut Euphemus used to run over the waves
of the gray sea, not wetting his swift feet but just dipping the tips of
his toes. Vergil, recalling both the Iliad and Apollonius, had attributed
similar lightness and swiftness to Camilla. But he stated the idea more
cautiously. She might have flown over the tops of standing grain and
not bruised the tender ears or sped over the mid sea, poised on the swell-
ing wave, and not dipped her swift feet in the flood. Ovid ascribed the
same ability to his hero and heroine. But in stating the thought he was
even more cautious than Vergil, and he reversed the order of ideas. You
would think, he said, that Hippomenes and Atalanta could run over the
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? HIPPOMENES AND ATALANTA
sea with dry feet or pass lightly over the ripened heads of standing
grain.
The Catalogues had shown Schoeneus favorable to Hippomenes.
Perhaps for this reason Ovid imagined the spectators in general as
favoring him. He showed them urging him on, and he echoed the words
which Vergil had shown Mnestheus using to his oarsmen in the boat
race. Ovid described this encouragement as welcome not only to Hip-
pomenes but also to Atalanta. He declared that often she delayed pass-
ing the youth; and, contrary to probability, he added that, while run-
ning with extraordinary swiftness, she gazed long at his face, then reluc-
tantly drew ahead of him.
Ovid imagined that, so far as possible, Hippomenes relied on his
fleetness of foot and that, repeatedly, after falling behind, he overtook
Atalanta. But, when he still was far from the goal, his strength began
to fail; and dry, panting breath came from his weary throat. In this
last detail Ovid once more echoed Vergil's account of the boat race.
Hippomenes resorted to his golden apples. As Ovid pictured the
race, this required skill. Hippomenes must throw each apple obliquely
forward at such an angle as to have it pass in front of Atalanta, attract
her attention, and then draw her away to the side. He succeeded with the
first apple, and the spectators applauded as he gained the lead. Ata-
lanta passed him again. He threw the second apple, once more with
success. But she recovered the lead.
In the foot race of the Iliad, Ulysses had prayed Athena to help
him overtake Ajax Oi'leus, and Athena had defeated Ajax -- by causing
him to slip and fall. Ovid showed Hippomenes praying to Venus, as he
threw the last apple, and Venus defeating Atalanta. When the maiden
hesitated to follow the apple, Venus constrained her to pursue it far to
the side. And that was not all. Atalanta might well have found three
apples in her hands an encumbrance, and three golden apples a consid-
erable weight. But Venus gave the last apple a preternatural heaviness.
With this advantage Hippomenes won the race.
In the reply given by the oracle, Ovid had associated Atalanta's
race with the future violation of the sanctuary. He now introduced a
further connection. He stated that Hippomenes showed no gratitude
to Venus and that Venus resolved to make him a warning example. She
incited him to profane the sanctuary. Ovid spoke of a shrine which had
been established by Echion, one of the original settlers of Thebes. It
included wooden images of several deities.
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK TEN
In telling of Medusa (Bk. 4), Ovid had observed that she profaned
a shrine of Athena. The goddess, he said, turned away her eyes in
horror, and she punished the offense by transforming Medusa's hair
into snakes and by using Medusa's head as the Aegis of her shield. Ovid
decided to imitate this tale and to associate Hippomenes and Atalanta
permanently with the offended deity.
Instead of Jupiter, he imagined the goddess Cybele. Her worship
had originated in Asia Minor, a region which Assyrian monuments and
early Greek epics had described as infested with lions. Greek authors
and artists often had imagined her as drawn in a car by two or more of
these animals, and afterwards Ovid in his account of the Trojan ships
(Bk. 14) mentioned lions as transporting her even through the air.
Lucretius and Varro had explained Cybele's lion car as representing
her power of taming even the wildest creatures. This idea Ovid noted
in the Fasti. But in his tale of Atalanta he explained the lion car as a
means of punishing Hippomenes and Atalanta, and he added that Cybele
regarded the punishment as more grievous than death. Evidently re-
calling some work of art, Ovid described the transformation in detail.
The Greek artist had shown two lions with manes. And, although Ovid
implied clearly that Atalanta became a lioness, he gave her a mane.
In later times both Landor and William Morris retold the tale of
Atalanta, taking a few circumstances from Ovid. According to Landor,
the maiden ignored the first and second apples but stopped for the third.
Petrarch in his Triumph of Love referred to Atalanta as vanquished by
three golden apples and a beautiful face, Boiardo mentioned her rac-
ing, and Shakespeare referred in As You Like It to her nimble heels.
Guido Reni treated the story in a famous painting. The subject
attracted also the French artist Paynter and the sculptors Gaspard
Coustou, de Paultre, Inj albert, and Derwent Wood.
*******
Most of the longer stories in Ovid's Tenth Book had been of early
origin and had attracted a number of Greek authors and artists. And
many of these tales had interested Ovid's Roman predecessors. But the
tales of Pygmalion and of Atalanta's metamorphosis were of Alexan-
drian origin and were little known. Of the seven lesser tales only that of
Erigone was either old or familiar. Ovid contrasted stories well known
to his Roman audience with stories which were new. Readers of medieval
times found available some earlier Roman accounts of Orpheus and
Ganymede and versions of Orpheus and Eurydice by Roman authors
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? BOOK TEN
after Ovid's time. But Ovid gave the tales of Hyacinthus and Myrrha
their fame, and he saved from oblivion the important tale of the sculptor
Pygmalion.
In choosing his material from earlier versions, Ovid made some use
of the Iliad for the tale of Ganymede and of the Catalogues for that of
Atalanta's race.
Otherwise he followed predecessors of Alexandrian
and Roman times. Phanocles helped him repeatedly in the first half of
the book; Philostephanus, the Manual, and Nicander became important
in the second half. Theocritus, Euphorion, Bion, and Theodorus each
proved valuable for one or more tales. For incidents in the stories of
Eurydice, Ganymede, and Atalanta's race, and for three minor tales,
Ovid relied on Alexandrian authors whom we cannot identify. Greek
artists contributed to the stories of Orpheus calling together his audi-
ence and to both stories of Atalanta. Cinna suggested part of the tale
of Myrrha, and Vergil was a very important source in the earlier part
of the book. Ovid used his own account of Medusa for his version of
Atalanta transformed. To the Alexandrians and their Roman follow-
ers the themes of the entire book would have been congenial.
In improving this material, Ovid took suggestions from many
authors, a number of them the greatest of ancient times. The Iliad
provided him with details from the thr^e stories of Hyacinthus, Myrrha,
and Atalanta's race. Sophocles contributed to the tale of Myrrha,
Euripides to the stories of Myrrha and Pygmalion. Aratus furnished
the prologue to the tale of Ganymede. Ovid took suggestions often from
the earlier Roman poets. Horace added valuable incidents to the tales
of Eurydice and Adonis, Propertius contributed to the tales of Eury-
dice and Myrrha, Vergil offered improvements either of incident or of
phrase in almost every important tale and in the lesser narrative of Cy-
parissus. And oftener than in any previous book Ovid profited by his
own earlier work -- the Heroides, the Art of Love, and at least nine
tales of the Metamorphoses. He contrived to do this both unobtrusively
and with good effect.
In handling the chief problems of the book, Ovid was unusually
successful. He introduced novelty into the familiar tales of Ganymede
and Adonis; he reconciled conflicting versions of his predecessors in
the stories of Myrrha, Adonis, and Atalanta ; and with remarkable skill
he varied the account of Eurydice from that of Vergil and the story of
Myrrha from his own earlier tale of Byblis.
He solved also the formidable problem of giving many separate
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK TEN
tales a plausible connection. As Ovid found his material, it had no re-
lation to the proceeding books of his poem, and most of the tales had no
relation to one another. There was only a rather close connection be-
tween the two stories about Orpheus and a vague association of the tales
about Pygmalion, Myrrha, and Adonis.
Ovid invented the transition from his Ninth Book to the tales
about Orpheus and included the other important tales in a song of the
minstrel. Then he sought further connection. By contrasting one tale
with another, he related the stories of Ganymede, Hyacinthus, and the
Cerastae and Propoetides. He invented a relation between the story of
the Propoetides and that of Pygmalion, and he caused Venus to tell
Adonis the two stories about Atalanta. Ovid succeeded also in finding
an appropriate background for the minor tales. He introduced a plaus-
ible relation between his account of Orpheus assembling an audience and
the metamorphoses of Attis and Cyparissus and also between the trans-
formation of Adonis and that of Menthe, and he contrived to associate
with the dismay of Orpheus two accounts of petrifaction.
The first half of Book Ten attracted a number of later Roman
authors. The book as a whole interested men of the middle ages and the
modern period. Of the nine longer tales, seven won attention during the
centuries that followed. Of the lesser tales only two were remembered
for their own sake, those of Attis and Cyparissus. But the tale of the
Propoetides was mentioned sometimes in relation to Pygmalion.
Among authors who rarely noticed the Metamorphoses, the Tenth
Book attracted a remarkable number. They included Calpurnius Sicu-
lus, Marston, Congreve, Thomson, Fielding, Freneau, William Hazlitt,
Bulwer Lytton, and W. S. Gilbert. Petrarch, Camoens, Gray, and
Cowper made frequent allusions to this book. Single tales had an im-
portant effect first on Celtic and other medieval romance, and then on
the work of such leading authors as Chretien de Troyes, Jean de Meun,
Rousseau, Alfieri, and Hawthorne. More than one tale became impor-
tant in the poetry of Chaucer, Lope de Vega, Goethe, and William Mor-
ris. Many tales proved valuable to Spenser, Shakespeare, and Marini.
But the most persuasive effect occurred in the work of Milton. It began
with his earliest prose and still continued in his Paradise Regained.
Almost all the longer tales of the Tenth Book attracted modern
painters, and five of them attracted sculptors. But masterpieces were
few. The tale of Adonis had an interesting effect on modern science, and
the tale of Eurydice became exceedingly important in the history of
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? BIBLIOGRAPHY
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? BIBLK
Works read or consulted since
Addison, Julia DeWolp
Anthony, E. W.
Antoninus Liberalis
Ariosto, Lodovico
Avery, Mary Myrtle
Bacon, Janet Ruth
Baker, George Pierce
Batrachomyomachia
Billiard, R.
Boethius, A. M. S.
Braune, Julius
Bush, Douglas
Butler, H. E.
Chamberlin, H. H.
Chateaubriand, Rene de
Chinard, Gilbert
Classical Journal, 1927
Darembourg, Charles
Dennis, John
GRAPHY
he publication of the First Volume
The Classic Myths in Art
A History of Mosaics
Partheni Libellus, Antonini Liberalis
MsTqAopqicoaetov Suvayw-f^ by Ed-
gar Martini
Orlando Furioso
Use of Direct Speech in Ovid's Meta-
morphoses
The Voyage of the Argonauts
Shakespeare's Development as a Dra-
matist
French Edition by J. Berger de Xiv-
rey
L'Agriculture dans l'Antiquite d'ap-
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Consolation of Philosophy
Nonnos und Ovid
Classical Mythology and the Renais-
sance Tradition
Classical Mythology and the Roman-
tic Tradition
Post Augustan Poetry
Late Spring (A Translation of Theoc-
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Last Flowers (Translations of Mos-
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Tradition of the Trees, The (unpub-
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Atala et Rene
Quelque Origines de Bene (Publica-
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Association, March, 1928)
Articles on the Georgics and Caesar
and the Roman Poets
Dictionnaire des Antiquites Grecques
et Romaines
Miscellany Poems
877
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? BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ditmaes, Raymond L.
Ebert, Adolf
Encyclopedia Italiana, La
Encyclopedia Britannica, The
Erasmus, Desiderius
Fairbanks, Arthur
Fairclough, H. R.
Fripp, Edgar
Graf, Arturo
Grimm, Jakob L. C.
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Halliday, W. R.
Harrington, K. P.
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Reptiles of the World
Snakes of the World
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Love of Nature among the Greeks and
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Shakespeare's Use of Ovid's Meta-
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Roma nella Memoria del Medio Evo
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Lucretius and his Influence
Sappho and her Influence
Greek and Roman Folklore
Catullus and his Influence
Vergils Epische Technik
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Die Antike Tierwelt
Thiere des Classischen Altertums
Witchcraft in Old and New England
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Catulle et ses Modeles
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History of Religion
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Pascal, Carlo
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Dialogues in the Loeb Edition
The Republic by Paul Shorey
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Homer and his Influence
Tragedies by F. J. Miller
Ovid in the Metamorphoses
Shakespeare Studies
Studies of the Greek Poets
Collected Sonnets
Glossary of Greek Birds
Milton's Private Correspondence and
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? BIBLIOGRAPHY
WulaiNer, P. E. De Publii Terentii Varronis Atacini
Vita et Scriptis
Xenophon The Anabasis by W. W. Goodwin and
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The Anabasis by Paul Masqueray
Zinsser, Hans Rats, Lice, and History
*******
I take pleasure in acknowledging also the help of the following
friends, each of whom read a large part of the present volume and offered
valuable suggestions:
J. Harry Hooper,
Minister of the historic First Parish, Hingham, Massachusetts
WlNSLOW H. LOVELAND,
Professor of English at Boston University
Fred B. Lund, M. D. ,
Overseer of the Classical Department, Harvard University
Maurice W. Parker,
Dramatic Coach and Musician
Mary Richardson,
of Hingham
W. L. Richardson,
Author of Literature of the World
380
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? REVIEWS AND OPINIONS
Ovid's Metamorphoses in European Culture
VOLUME ONE, Treating Books One to Five (inclusive)
By Wilmon Brewer
The companion volume to Ovid's Metamorphoses
in blank verse, by Brookes More
The first survey to make a comprehensive study of the Metamorphoses
in relation to the entire history of western culture. Evidences of its influ-
ence are to be found in tapestry, painting, sculpture, and opera, as well
as in the work of a host of major and minor poets. -- The Evansville
Courier-J ournal.
Mr. Brewer's critique will prove an eye-opener to the average reader
of today. The influence of Ovid on European culture is definitely shown
by illustration. Here is an excellent opportunity to find profitable en-
joyment. -- The Knickerbocker.
Mr. Brewer has supplied material of much historical and critical
interest. The volume begins by telling the story of Ovid's life.