) or from classes at the
California
Labor School, and that there is no reason to suppose that men from the United Seaman's Service or new members of the I.
Adorno-T-Authoritarian-Personality-Harper-Bros-1950
82 Los Angeles Women 130 ?
75 Employment Service Men Veterans 55 .
72 Maritime School Men 165 ?
62
Over-all: Form 40 999 ? 77
Over-all: All Forms 2150 . 53 . 73
~n obtaining the over-all group means, the individual group means were not weighted by N,
bThis group of Oregon service Club Men received a short questionnaire form containing only the F scale and half of the PEC scale,
cFbr the correlations of F with PEC in the Psychiatric Clinic groups, the number of women was 45, the number of men 29, due to a substitution of forms.
dThese F-PEC correlations are based on both Fbrms 40 and 45. Since it was con- sidered highly unlikely that the presence or absence of 5 E items would affect the correlation of F and PEC, the two forms are taken together in order to have the advantage of the larger N's. The total N is 106 for the Employment service Men Veterans, 343 for the Maritime School Men,
ein Fbrm 40, it will be recalled, only the "A" half of the 10-item E seale was used.
N F. A-S F. E
F. PEC
. 52 ? 45 ? 54 ? 65
. 54
. 29 ? 49
. 43 . 29 . 22
. 34
. 52
. 53 ? 59 . 71 ? 60 ? 70 . 72 ? 58 . 61 ? 62 ? 39
. 61 . 52
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
correlation between E and F would be very high indeed. 8 This is not to say, however, that E and F for all practical purposes measure the same thing. A correlation of ? 775 means that about two-thirds of the subjects who score in the high quartile on the one scale, score in the high quartile on the other, and that there are practically no reversals, i. e. , cases in which a subject is high on one scale but low on the other. If one wished to use the F scale alone in order to single out subjects who were practically certain to be highly ethnocentric, i. e. , in the high quartile on the present E scale, it would be necessary for him to limit himself to those scoring at the very highest extreme on F, perhaps the top I o per cent. As pointed out earlier, there are reasons why some discrepancy between the two scales should be expected. Surely there are some individuals who have the kind of susceptibility to fascist propaganda with which the F scale is concerned but who for one reason or another tend to inhibit expressions of hostility against minority groups (sub- jects high on F but low on E). And we have good reason to believe that there are other people who rather freely repeat the cliches of ethnocentrism- perhaps in accordance with the climate of opinion in which they are living- without this being expressive of deep-lying trends in their personalities (sub- jects high on E but low on F). Such "exceptions" will be taken up in more detail later.
It is to be noted that the correlation between F and E is slightly higher on the average in the case of groups taking Form 40 than for groups taking Form 45? This means that F correlates slightly better with the A half of the E scale than with the total E scale, and that the correlation must be still lower in the case of the B half of the scale. In several groups taking Form 45 the correlations of EA and of EB with F were calculated, in addition to the cor- relation of total E with F. The results appear in Table 1 I (VII). In each
TABLE 11 (VII)
CORRELATIONS OF THE F SCALE WITH EACH HALF AND WITH THE WHOLE OF THE E SCALE
~
San Quentin Men Prisoners Employment Service Men Veterans Maritime School Men
Testing Class Women
Mean
N
110 51 179 59
Correlations
EA-F EB? F EA+B? F
. 56 ? 45 . 59 ? 66 . 61 . 67 ? 61 . 40 . 56 ? 77 ? 66 . 79
? 65 . 53 . 65
8 The correlation coefficient which, theoretically, would result if two scales were per~ fectly reliable, i. e. , if the average obtained r were corrected for attenuation, is about . 9. This indicates a striking correspondence, though not a complete identity, of what is meas- ured by the two scales.
? MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS
group EA. F is notably higher than EB. F, and about the same as EA+B? F. It may be recalled that the A half of the scale refers to highly generalized ethnocentrism and contains no A-S items, while the B half is made up of four A-S items and one Negro item. It happened that this Negro item was a relatively poor one in the statistical sense (rank order, 5 for men, 10 for women), but this is not enough to account for the superiority of the EA. F correlations. It seems, rather, that the F syndrome is actually more closely related to general ethnocentrism than to anti-Semitism. This is in keeping with the finding, reported earlier, that in Form 78 the F scale correlated more highly with theE scale than with the A-S scale. Although anti-Semitism is still to be understood primarily as an aspect of general ethnocentrism, there can be no doubt but that it has some special features of its own. Some of these features are described in Chapter XVI.
The F syndrome bears only a moderately close relation to politico- economic conservatism, the average correlation for Forms 45 and 40 being ? 57? Our interpretation is that high scores on PEC may proceed either from genuine conservatism or from pseudoconservatism, and that it is the latter which is most expressive of the personality trends which the F scale measures. This is in keeping with the finding that E, which is closely related to F, also shows only moderate correlation with PEC. The E. PEC correlation is about the same as the F. PEC correlation. It would appear that general ethnocen- trism, as measured by the present scales, is mainly an expression of those personality structures which the F scale measures; politico-economic con- servatism, while it may have this same source, may be more dependent than E upon factors in the individual's contemporary situation.
E. DIFFERENCES IN MEAN F-SCALE SCORE AMONG V ARIOUS GROUPS
W e may turn now to a consideration of the mean F-scale scores of different groups. These means have been set forth in Table 12 (VII). It is well to recall here what was stated at the beginning (Chapter I, C), that since no steps were taken to insure that each group studied was actually representa- tive of a larger section of the population, we are in no position to generalize from the present results on mean scores, however suggestive they might be.
(A large-scale community study would be necessary in order to produce a sound estimate of the relative amounts of fascist potential in different sec- tions of the general population. The F scale, we believe, is worthy to be used in such a study, though it would have to be modified somewhat in order to be suitable for groups with little education. ) It seems well to recall, too, that the group with which a subject filled out the questionnaire does not necessarily represent a group membership that is significant for the present study. The differences with which we are here concerned are not very large,
? z66
Form 78:
THE AUTHORIT ARIAN PERSONALITY ' TABLE 12 (VII)
MEAN F-SCALE SCORES OF GROUPS
TAKING THE SEVERAL FORMS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Form
Form 45:
Group
N Mean
140 3. 94 52 3. 72 40 3. 75 63 3. 43
S. D.
. 71 ? 57 . 70 . 86
? 71
. 86
. 96
. 93 . 81 . 71
. 85
. 99
. 86 1. 30 1. 01
1. 04
. 90 1. 03 1. 26 1. 22 1. 67 1. 18 1. 13 1. 17
1. 20
1. 04 . 77
. 90
Public Speaking Class Women Public Speaking Class Men Extension Class WOmen Professional Women
Over-all mean, Form 78 295
6 0 :
Univ. of Oregon Student Women 47
3. 71
Univ. of Oregon and Student Women Univ. of Oregon and
Student Men Oregon Service Club Oregon Service Club
Over-all mean, Form
Univ. of California Univ. of California
Men 68
Men (A Form only)
60 286
3. 50
3. 62
Testing Class Women
San Quentin Men Prisoners 110
Psychiatric Clinic Women Psychiatric Clinic Men
Over-all mean, Form 45
Form 40:
4. 73 71 3. 69 50 3. 82
George W ashington Univ. California Service Club Men Middle-Class Women Middle-Class Men
Women
132 3. 51 63 4. 08 154 3. 62 69 3. 69 53 3. 86 61 4. 19
3. 49 3. 68
779 3. 76
W orking-Class Women
W orking-Class Men
Los Angeles Women 130 Los Angeles Men 117
OVer-all mean, Form 40
Forms 40 and 45:
Employment Service Men Veterans 106
Maritime School Men
Over-all mean, Forms 40 and 45
3. 74 343 4. 06
449 3. 90
Over-all mean, Four Forms (78, 60, 45, 40): 2099
3. 78
3. 32 54 3. 39 57 3. 82
3. 74 60 3. 25
59
290
3. 96
? MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS
while the variability withi~ each group is marked. Only rarely is the differ- ence between two groups greater than one S. D. In our view, we should find large group differences in mean F score only when membership in a group has some psychological significance, and this does not seem to be true of most of the present groups. (A study of the F-scale score in relation to group membership factors such as those covered by page 1 of the questionnaire [income, religion, etc. ] would probably be rewarding. In view of the high correlation between F and E we should expect results generally similar to those found in the case of the latter scale, but discrepancies would be par- ticularly interesting. ) Nevertheless, some important sociological and psycho- logical differences among the present groups are known to exist-indeed some of these groups have been described as "key" groups-and, if the F scale is valid, we should expect differences in mean score that are intelligible in the light of our general theory.
Of all the fourteen groups taking Form 40-45, the San Quentin Inmates obtained the highest mean score, 4? 73? This mean is significantly different (C. R. = 3. 2) from that of the next highest scoring group, the W orking- Class Men, whose mean is 4? 19? Between the San Quentin group and the low- est scoring group of men (Los Angeles Men, M = 3. 68) the difference is very marked (C. R. = 7. 8). In view of all that has been written concerning the close affinity of criminality and fascism, these results should not be sur- prising. Since the findings on the "key" San Quentin group are analyzed in detail in Chapter XXI, further discussion here is unnecessary.
Service Club Men and Working-Class Men do not differ significantly in mean F score. This will come as a surprise only to those who have become accustomed to explaining all important differences in social attitudes on the basis of socioeconomic group membership, and who look to the working man as the main carrier of liberal ideas. It is true, of course, as a matter of economic and social fact, that the crucial role in the struggle against increas- ing concentration of economic power will have to be played by the working people, acting in accordance with their self-interest, but it is foolhardy to underestimate the susceptibility to fascist propaganda within these masses themselves. For our part, we see no reason to suppose that the authoritarian structures with which we are concerned would be any less well developed in the working class than in other segments of the population. If it be argued that our sample of working-class men might be an unusually reactionary one, the answer is that approximately half of this sample come either from the militantly "liberal" United Electrical Workers Union (C. I. O.
) or from classes at the California Labor School, and that there is no reason to suppose that men from the United Seaman's Service or new members of the I. L. \V. U. -who constitute the remainder of the sample-are more conservative than working men generally. For that matter, the extremely high scoring San Quentin Inmates come in very large part from the working class, and there
? 268 THE AUTHORIT ARIAN PERSONALITY
is good reason to suppose that their general outlook depends upon their background as well as upon the circumstance of their being in prison.
It appears that differences among the present groups of men depend more upon the factor of contact with liberal organizations and liberal thought than upon socioeconomic group membership. This is the basis on which we would explain the relatively low means of the Middle-Class Men (3. 69) and the Los Angeles Men (3. 68), both of which are significantly different (be- yond the 5 per cent level) from that of the Service Club Men (4. 08). The Middle-Class Men and the Service Club Men are quite similar with respect to economic and occupational status; the difference between them that is reflected in their F-scale mean lies, most probably, in whatever it is that dis- poses the former to appear at a meeting of the P. T. A. or the layman's league of a Presbyterian Church or at evening classes at the California Labor School,
and the latter at a Service Club hincheon. This, in our opinion, is primarily a psychological matter; the difference lies in the degree of something which may be labeled, for the moment, a disposition toward liberalism or progres- sivism or humanitarianism. The Los Angeles Men, it will be recalled, were recruited primarily from the University and the movie communities. Thus, though their socioeconomic status was certainly no lower than that of the Service Club Men in the San Francisco area, the setting in which they were found was one of greater liberalism. The Maritime School Group, made up predominantly of men with working-class and lower middle-class ante- cedents who are out to raise their status, belongs on the basis of its mean (4. o6) with the Service Club Men and the Working-Class Men, while the Psychiatric Clinic Men (M = 3. 82) and the Employment Service V eterans (M = 3. 74), who probably are more heterogeneous with respect to either class status or liberal affiliations, have intermediate positions in the rank order of means.
It has been pointed out that the fact of the men in our total sample having a higher mean than the women is due primarily to the presence in the male sample of the outstandingly high scoring groups that have just been con- sidered. The present data show that where social group membership is con- stant, the means for men are not significantly different from those of women. Thus, in the case of the Working-Class Women and the Working-Class Men, the C. R. is only 1. 22, while the differences between men and women in the Psychiatric Clinic, the Los Angeles and the Middle-Class groups are prac- tically negligible. It is to be noted, however, that in each case the men are slightly higher, and that in a larger sample the difference might become
significant.
Among the women's groups, the only difference that approaches signifi-
cance is that existing between the Working-Class Women (M = 3. 86), on the one hand, and the George Washington University Woinen (M = 3. 51) and Los Angeles Women (M = 3-49) on the other. If a true difference exists,
? MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS
the explanation would seem to be the same as that advanced in the case of some of the men's groups: that the latter groups of women have been in closer touch with liberal trends.
It is of some interest to consider group differences in mean F score in rela- tion to the mean E score of these same groups. In general, groups that score highest on F tend to score highest on E also. The most notable discrepancies occur in the cases of the George Washington Women, who are relatively much higher onE (M = 4. 04) than on F (M = 3. 5r), and the Working- Class Men, who are slightly higher on F (1\1 = 4. 19) than onE (M = 3. 92). It seems probable that in the case of this group of women, we have to deal with a regional difference: many observers have noted that there is more prejudice in the East than in the West. It may be, therefore, that although these college women were relatively liberal as a group, they were led by the prevailing climate of opinion to go fairly high on E. This is in keeping with the fact that the correlation between F and E in this group was one of the lowest obtained.
The group of Working-Class Men is the only one in which the mean E score is lower than the mean F score. This is probably attributable to the success of indoctrination in antidiscrimination which occurs in the "liberal" unions to which a majority of these subjects belong. Apparently, however, this indoctrination did not go so far as to modify those attitudes centering around authoritarianism, which are more pronounced in this group than in most others. One might say that if this indoctrination were dispensed with, or if propaganda having an opposite direction were substituted for it, then the results from this group would fall into line with all the others.
It has often been suggested that working-class people are relatively unin- hibited in expressing the prejudice that they have and that this does not go very deep, while middle-class people are more restrained in giving vent to their-often deeper-prejudice. That nothing to support this formulation is to be found in the present data may be due most largely to the fact that our ethnocentric statements were for the most part fairly restrained, i. e. , formu- lated in such a way tpat a pseudodemocratic person could agree with them and still maintain the illusion that he was not prejudiced.
F. V ALIDA TION BY CASE STUDIES: THE F-SCALE RESPONSES OF MACK AND LARRY
The responses of Mack and Larry on the F scale may now be compared with their remarks in the interview. In Table I3 (VII) are shown the scores of Mack and Larry, the group mean, and the D. P. for each of the 38 items in the F scale (Form 78), the items having been grouped according to the scheme of F-scale variables.
The mean F-scale scores of the two men seem to be in keeping with the
? 270
THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY TABLE 13 (VII)
RESPONSES OF MACK Ai{D LARRY ON THE F SCALE (FORM 78)
Item Mack
Larry
7
1
2
Group
Meana? (N = 295)
4. 67 3. 63 3. 91 5. 20 3. 48 4. 17
4. 18
3. 28 3. 62 3. 61 3. 97 4. 35 3. 72 5. 00 4. 12
3. 96
2. 93 3. 62 3. 22 3. 00 3. 26
3. 21
3. 02 3. 91 4. 82 5. 20 3. 48 4. 10
Group D. P. a
0. 19 0. 76 1. 20 2. 11 1. 70 1. 60
1. 26
1. 07 2. 61 1. 67 2. 54 2. 79 3. 09 1. 66 2. 12
2. 19
1. 75 2. 61 2. 16 2. 09 2. 81
2. 28
1. 29 1. 20 1. 99 2. 11 1. 70 2. 48
1. 80
1. 74 2. 20 2. 54 2. 79 1. 55
Conventional ism
12. (Modern church) 5 19. (One should avoid) 2 38. (Emphasis in the colleges) 5 55. (Leisure) 7 58. (What a man does)
60. (Important values)
Cluster mean 5. 00
Authoritarian Submission
20. (Progressive education) 23. (Undying love)
32. (Essential for learning) 39. (Supernatural force)
43. (Sciences like chemistry) 50. (Obedience and res~ect) 74. (Tireless leaders)
77. (No sane, normal person)
Cluster mean
Authoritarian Aggression
3. 66
6. (Women restricted)
23. (Undying love)
31. (Homosexuals) 6 47. (Honor) 5 75. (Sex crimes)
Cluster mean
Anti? intraception
28. (Novels or stories)
38. (Emphasis in colleges) 53. (Things too intimate) 55. (Leisure)
58. (What a man does)
66. (Books and movies)
Cluster mean
Superstition
2. (Astrology)
10. (Pearl Harbor Day)
39. (Supernatural force)
43. (Sciences like chemistry) 65. (World catastrophe)
6 5. 00
3. 40
1
2
5 6 1 2
Cluster mean
1. 80
2. 20
3. 78
1. 70
6 6 1 5 5
3 1 6 7 7 6 1 1 1 2 6 2 2 1 6 5
4. 00 3. 13
2 1 6 7 6 2 1
5 5 3 7 6 6
5. 33
5
1 1 1 1
2. 83 4. 09
6 1 1 2 1
2. 60 2. 22 3. 97 4. 35 2. 58
? Power
9. 35. 47.
and "T oughness"
(Red-blooded life) (Law in own hands) (Honor)
1
1
5
7 2
3. 20
3
1
6
3
5
6
I 1 1 1 5
~M e a n a (N = 295)
3. 99 2. 50 3. 00 3. 27 5. 00
3. 55
3,04
3. 99
3.
9. 14. 17. 24. 30. 35, 42. 56. 59. 67.
(Force to restore) (Return to fundamentals) (Rats. . ? germs) (Familiarity)
(Things unstable) (Reports of atrocities) (Law in own hands)
(For one reason)
(Crime wave)
(Always war)
(Eye to profit)
5
2
5 4. 44 1. 60 1 3.
Over-all: Form 40 999 ? 77
Over-all: All Forms 2150 . 53 . 73
~n obtaining the over-all group means, the individual group means were not weighted by N,
bThis group of Oregon service Club Men received a short questionnaire form containing only the F scale and half of the PEC scale,
cFbr the correlations of F with PEC in the Psychiatric Clinic groups, the number of women was 45, the number of men 29, due to a substitution of forms.
dThese F-PEC correlations are based on both Fbrms 40 and 45. Since it was con- sidered highly unlikely that the presence or absence of 5 E items would affect the correlation of F and PEC, the two forms are taken together in order to have the advantage of the larger N's. The total N is 106 for the Employment service Men Veterans, 343 for the Maritime School Men,
ein Fbrm 40, it will be recalled, only the "A" half of the 10-item E seale was used.
N F. A-S F. E
F. PEC
. 52 ? 45 ? 54 ? 65
. 54
. 29 ? 49
. 43 . 29 . 22
. 34
. 52
. 53 ? 59 . 71 ? 60 ? 70 . 72 ? 58 . 61 ? 62 ? 39
. 61 . 52
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
correlation between E and F would be very high indeed. 8 This is not to say, however, that E and F for all practical purposes measure the same thing. A correlation of ? 775 means that about two-thirds of the subjects who score in the high quartile on the one scale, score in the high quartile on the other, and that there are practically no reversals, i. e. , cases in which a subject is high on one scale but low on the other. If one wished to use the F scale alone in order to single out subjects who were practically certain to be highly ethnocentric, i. e. , in the high quartile on the present E scale, it would be necessary for him to limit himself to those scoring at the very highest extreme on F, perhaps the top I o per cent. As pointed out earlier, there are reasons why some discrepancy between the two scales should be expected. Surely there are some individuals who have the kind of susceptibility to fascist propaganda with which the F scale is concerned but who for one reason or another tend to inhibit expressions of hostility against minority groups (sub- jects high on F but low on E). And we have good reason to believe that there are other people who rather freely repeat the cliches of ethnocentrism- perhaps in accordance with the climate of opinion in which they are living- without this being expressive of deep-lying trends in their personalities (sub- jects high on E but low on F). Such "exceptions" will be taken up in more detail later.
It is to be noted that the correlation between F and E is slightly higher on the average in the case of groups taking Form 40 than for groups taking Form 45? This means that F correlates slightly better with the A half of the E scale than with the total E scale, and that the correlation must be still lower in the case of the B half of the scale. In several groups taking Form 45 the correlations of EA and of EB with F were calculated, in addition to the cor- relation of total E with F. The results appear in Table 1 I (VII). In each
TABLE 11 (VII)
CORRELATIONS OF THE F SCALE WITH EACH HALF AND WITH THE WHOLE OF THE E SCALE
~
San Quentin Men Prisoners Employment Service Men Veterans Maritime School Men
Testing Class Women
Mean
N
110 51 179 59
Correlations
EA-F EB? F EA+B? F
. 56 ? 45 . 59 ? 66 . 61 . 67 ? 61 . 40 . 56 ? 77 ? 66 . 79
? 65 . 53 . 65
8 The correlation coefficient which, theoretically, would result if two scales were per~ fectly reliable, i. e. , if the average obtained r were corrected for attenuation, is about . 9. This indicates a striking correspondence, though not a complete identity, of what is meas- ured by the two scales.
? MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS
group EA. F is notably higher than EB. F, and about the same as EA+B? F. It may be recalled that the A half of the scale refers to highly generalized ethnocentrism and contains no A-S items, while the B half is made up of four A-S items and one Negro item. It happened that this Negro item was a relatively poor one in the statistical sense (rank order, 5 for men, 10 for women), but this is not enough to account for the superiority of the EA. F correlations. It seems, rather, that the F syndrome is actually more closely related to general ethnocentrism than to anti-Semitism. This is in keeping with the finding, reported earlier, that in Form 78 the F scale correlated more highly with theE scale than with the A-S scale. Although anti-Semitism is still to be understood primarily as an aspect of general ethnocentrism, there can be no doubt but that it has some special features of its own. Some of these features are described in Chapter XVI.
The F syndrome bears only a moderately close relation to politico- economic conservatism, the average correlation for Forms 45 and 40 being ? 57? Our interpretation is that high scores on PEC may proceed either from genuine conservatism or from pseudoconservatism, and that it is the latter which is most expressive of the personality trends which the F scale measures. This is in keeping with the finding that E, which is closely related to F, also shows only moderate correlation with PEC. The E. PEC correlation is about the same as the F. PEC correlation. It would appear that general ethnocen- trism, as measured by the present scales, is mainly an expression of those personality structures which the F scale measures; politico-economic con- servatism, while it may have this same source, may be more dependent than E upon factors in the individual's contemporary situation.
E. DIFFERENCES IN MEAN F-SCALE SCORE AMONG V ARIOUS GROUPS
W e may turn now to a consideration of the mean F-scale scores of different groups. These means have been set forth in Table 12 (VII). It is well to recall here what was stated at the beginning (Chapter I, C), that since no steps were taken to insure that each group studied was actually representa- tive of a larger section of the population, we are in no position to generalize from the present results on mean scores, however suggestive they might be.
(A large-scale community study would be necessary in order to produce a sound estimate of the relative amounts of fascist potential in different sec- tions of the general population. The F scale, we believe, is worthy to be used in such a study, though it would have to be modified somewhat in order to be suitable for groups with little education. ) It seems well to recall, too, that the group with which a subject filled out the questionnaire does not necessarily represent a group membership that is significant for the present study. The differences with which we are here concerned are not very large,
? z66
Form 78:
THE AUTHORIT ARIAN PERSONALITY ' TABLE 12 (VII)
MEAN F-SCALE SCORES OF GROUPS
TAKING THE SEVERAL FORMS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Form
Form 45:
Group
N Mean
140 3. 94 52 3. 72 40 3. 75 63 3. 43
S. D.
. 71 ? 57 . 70 . 86
? 71
. 86
. 96
. 93 . 81 . 71
. 85
. 99
. 86 1. 30 1. 01
1. 04
. 90 1. 03 1. 26 1. 22 1. 67 1. 18 1. 13 1. 17
1. 20
1. 04 . 77
. 90
Public Speaking Class Women Public Speaking Class Men Extension Class WOmen Professional Women
Over-all mean, Form 78 295
6 0 :
Univ. of Oregon Student Women 47
3. 71
Univ. of Oregon and Student Women Univ. of Oregon and
Student Men Oregon Service Club Oregon Service Club
Over-all mean, Form
Univ. of California Univ. of California
Men 68
Men (A Form only)
60 286
3. 50
3. 62
Testing Class Women
San Quentin Men Prisoners 110
Psychiatric Clinic Women Psychiatric Clinic Men
Over-all mean, Form 45
Form 40:
4. 73 71 3. 69 50 3. 82
George W ashington Univ. California Service Club Men Middle-Class Women Middle-Class Men
Women
132 3. 51 63 4. 08 154 3. 62 69 3. 69 53 3. 86 61 4. 19
3. 49 3. 68
779 3. 76
W orking-Class Women
W orking-Class Men
Los Angeles Women 130 Los Angeles Men 117
OVer-all mean, Form 40
Forms 40 and 45:
Employment Service Men Veterans 106
Maritime School Men
Over-all mean, Forms 40 and 45
3. 74 343 4. 06
449 3. 90
Over-all mean, Four Forms (78, 60, 45, 40): 2099
3. 78
3. 32 54 3. 39 57 3. 82
3. 74 60 3. 25
59
290
3. 96
? MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS
while the variability withi~ each group is marked. Only rarely is the differ- ence between two groups greater than one S. D. In our view, we should find large group differences in mean F score only when membership in a group has some psychological significance, and this does not seem to be true of most of the present groups. (A study of the F-scale score in relation to group membership factors such as those covered by page 1 of the questionnaire [income, religion, etc. ] would probably be rewarding. In view of the high correlation between F and E we should expect results generally similar to those found in the case of the latter scale, but discrepancies would be par- ticularly interesting. ) Nevertheless, some important sociological and psycho- logical differences among the present groups are known to exist-indeed some of these groups have been described as "key" groups-and, if the F scale is valid, we should expect differences in mean score that are intelligible in the light of our general theory.
Of all the fourteen groups taking Form 40-45, the San Quentin Inmates obtained the highest mean score, 4? 73? This mean is significantly different (C. R. = 3. 2) from that of the next highest scoring group, the W orking- Class Men, whose mean is 4? 19? Between the San Quentin group and the low- est scoring group of men (Los Angeles Men, M = 3. 68) the difference is very marked (C. R. = 7. 8). In view of all that has been written concerning the close affinity of criminality and fascism, these results should not be sur- prising. Since the findings on the "key" San Quentin group are analyzed in detail in Chapter XXI, further discussion here is unnecessary.
Service Club Men and Working-Class Men do not differ significantly in mean F score. This will come as a surprise only to those who have become accustomed to explaining all important differences in social attitudes on the basis of socioeconomic group membership, and who look to the working man as the main carrier of liberal ideas. It is true, of course, as a matter of economic and social fact, that the crucial role in the struggle against increas- ing concentration of economic power will have to be played by the working people, acting in accordance with their self-interest, but it is foolhardy to underestimate the susceptibility to fascist propaganda within these masses themselves. For our part, we see no reason to suppose that the authoritarian structures with which we are concerned would be any less well developed in the working class than in other segments of the population. If it be argued that our sample of working-class men might be an unusually reactionary one, the answer is that approximately half of this sample come either from the militantly "liberal" United Electrical Workers Union (C. I. O.
) or from classes at the California Labor School, and that there is no reason to suppose that men from the United Seaman's Service or new members of the I. L. \V. U. -who constitute the remainder of the sample-are more conservative than working men generally. For that matter, the extremely high scoring San Quentin Inmates come in very large part from the working class, and there
? 268 THE AUTHORIT ARIAN PERSONALITY
is good reason to suppose that their general outlook depends upon their background as well as upon the circumstance of their being in prison.
It appears that differences among the present groups of men depend more upon the factor of contact with liberal organizations and liberal thought than upon socioeconomic group membership. This is the basis on which we would explain the relatively low means of the Middle-Class Men (3. 69) and the Los Angeles Men (3. 68), both of which are significantly different (be- yond the 5 per cent level) from that of the Service Club Men (4. 08). The Middle-Class Men and the Service Club Men are quite similar with respect to economic and occupational status; the difference between them that is reflected in their F-scale mean lies, most probably, in whatever it is that dis- poses the former to appear at a meeting of the P. T. A. or the layman's league of a Presbyterian Church or at evening classes at the California Labor School,
and the latter at a Service Club hincheon. This, in our opinion, is primarily a psychological matter; the difference lies in the degree of something which may be labeled, for the moment, a disposition toward liberalism or progres- sivism or humanitarianism. The Los Angeles Men, it will be recalled, were recruited primarily from the University and the movie communities. Thus, though their socioeconomic status was certainly no lower than that of the Service Club Men in the San Francisco area, the setting in which they were found was one of greater liberalism. The Maritime School Group, made up predominantly of men with working-class and lower middle-class ante- cedents who are out to raise their status, belongs on the basis of its mean (4. o6) with the Service Club Men and the Working-Class Men, while the Psychiatric Clinic Men (M = 3. 82) and the Employment Service V eterans (M = 3. 74), who probably are more heterogeneous with respect to either class status or liberal affiliations, have intermediate positions in the rank order of means.
It has been pointed out that the fact of the men in our total sample having a higher mean than the women is due primarily to the presence in the male sample of the outstandingly high scoring groups that have just been con- sidered. The present data show that where social group membership is con- stant, the means for men are not significantly different from those of women. Thus, in the case of the Working-Class Women and the Working-Class Men, the C. R. is only 1. 22, while the differences between men and women in the Psychiatric Clinic, the Los Angeles and the Middle-Class groups are prac- tically negligible. It is to be noted, however, that in each case the men are slightly higher, and that in a larger sample the difference might become
significant.
Among the women's groups, the only difference that approaches signifi-
cance is that existing between the Working-Class Women (M = 3. 86), on the one hand, and the George Washington University Woinen (M = 3. 51) and Los Angeles Women (M = 3-49) on the other. If a true difference exists,
? MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS
the explanation would seem to be the same as that advanced in the case of some of the men's groups: that the latter groups of women have been in closer touch with liberal trends.
It is of some interest to consider group differences in mean F score in rela- tion to the mean E score of these same groups. In general, groups that score highest on F tend to score highest on E also. The most notable discrepancies occur in the cases of the George Washington Women, who are relatively much higher onE (M = 4. 04) than on F (M = 3. 5r), and the Working- Class Men, who are slightly higher on F (1\1 = 4. 19) than onE (M = 3. 92). It seems probable that in the case of this group of women, we have to deal with a regional difference: many observers have noted that there is more prejudice in the East than in the West. It may be, therefore, that although these college women were relatively liberal as a group, they were led by the prevailing climate of opinion to go fairly high on E. This is in keeping with the fact that the correlation between F and E in this group was one of the lowest obtained.
The group of Working-Class Men is the only one in which the mean E score is lower than the mean F score. This is probably attributable to the success of indoctrination in antidiscrimination which occurs in the "liberal" unions to which a majority of these subjects belong. Apparently, however, this indoctrination did not go so far as to modify those attitudes centering around authoritarianism, which are more pronounced in this group than in most others. One might say that if this indoctrination were dispensed with, or if propaganda having an opposite direction were substituted for it, then the results from this group would fall into line with all the others.
It has often been suggested that working-class people are relatively unin- hibited in expressing the prejudice that they have and that this does not go very deep, while middle-class people are more restrained in giving vent to their-often deeper-prejudice. That nothing to support this formulation is to be found in the present data may be due most largely to the fact that our ethnocentric statements were for the most part fairly restrained, i. e. , formu- lated in such a way tpat a pseudodemocratic person could agree with them and still maintain the illusion that he was not prejudiced.
F. V ALIDA TION BY CASE STUDIES: THE F-SCALE RESPONSES OF MACK AND LARRY
The responses of Mack and Larry on the F scale may now be compared with their remarks in the interview. In Table I3 (VII) are shown the scores of Mack and Larry, the group mean, and the D. P. for each of the 38 items in the F scale (Form 78), the items having been grouped according to the scheme of F-scale variables.
The mean F-scale scores of the two men seem to be in keeping with the
? 270
THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY TABLE 13 (VII)
RESPONSES OF MACK Ai{D LARRY ON THE F SCALE (FORM 78)
Item Mack
Larry
7
1
2
Group
Meana? (N = 295)
4. 67 3. 63 3. 91 5. 20 3. 48 4. 17
4. 18
3. 28 3. 62 3. 61 3. 97 4. 35 3. 72 5. 00 4. 12
3. 96
2. 93 3. 62 3. 22 3. 00 3. 26
3. 21
3. 02 3. 91 4. 82 5. 20 3. 48 4. 10
Group D. P. a
0. 19 0. 76 1. 20 2. 11 1. 70 1. 60
1. 26
1. 07 2. 61 1. 67 2. 54 2. 79 3. 09 1. 66 2. 12
2. 19
1. 75 2. 61 2. 16 2. 09 2. 81
2. 28
1. 29 1. 20 1. 99 2. 11 1. 70 2. 48
1. 80
1. 74 2. 20 2. 54 2. 79 1. 55
Conventional ism
12. (Modern church) 5 19. (One should avoid) 2 38. (Emphasis in the colleges) 5 55. (Leisure) 7 58. (What a man does)
60. (Important values)
Cluster mean 5. 00
Authoritarian Submission
20. (Progressive education) 23. (Undying love)
32. (Essential for learning) 39. (Supernatural force)
43. (Sciences like chemistry) 50. (Obedience and res~ect) 74. (Tireless leaders)
77. (No sane, normal person)
Cluster mean
Authoritarian Aggression
3. 66
6. (Women restricted)
23. (Undying love)
31. (Homosexuals) 6 47. (Honor) 5 75. (Sex crimes)
Cluster mean
Anti? intraception
28. (Novels or stories)
38. (Emphasis in colleges) 53. (Things too intimate) 55. (Leisure)
58. (What a man does)
66. (Books and movies)
Cluster mean
Superstition
2. (Astrology)
10. (Pearl Harbor Day)
39. (Supernatural force)
43. (Sciences like chemistry) 65. (World catastrophe)
6 5. 00
3. 40
1
2
5 6 1 2
Cluster mean
1. 80
2. 20
3. 78
1. 70
6 6 1 5 5
3 1 6 7 7 6 1 1 1 2 6 2 2 1 6 5
4. 00 3. 13
2 1 6 7 6 2 1
5 5 3 7 6 6
5. 33
5
1 1 1 1
2. 83 4. 09
6 1 1 2 1
2. 60 2. 22 3. 97 4. 35 2. 58
? Power
9. 35. 47.
and "T oughness"
(Red-blooded life) (Law in own hands) (Honor)
1
1
5
7 2
3. 20
3
1
6
3
5
6
I 1 1 1 5
~M e a n a (N = 295)
3. 99 2. 50 3. 00 3. 27 5. 00
3. 55
3,04
3. 99
3.
9. 14. 17. 24. 30. 35, 42. 56. 59. 67.
(Force to restore) (Return to fundamentals) (Rats. . ? germs) (Familiarity)
(Things unstable) (Reports of atrocities) (Law in own hands)
(For one reason)
(Crime wave)
(Always war)
(Eye to profit)
5
2
5 4. 44 1. 60 1 3.
