Lack of hatred is the state of being without animosity towards any sentient being or any
condition
that produces suffering.
Kalu Rinpoche
.
With regard to the eleventh category of form, you said that the vow-form exists by manifesting through body and through speech.
I'm wondering if this category applies only to vows, or if it also in- cludes such things as beliefs and the patterns of our everyday behavior.
Does it include the mental habits that alter or restrict our behavior?
A. Opinions and general beliefs are classified as part of the fourth skandha. Vow-form refers specifically to a certain kind of vow or decision to do something verbally or physically. When a vow is made, whether it be good or bad, the process resembles the transfer of an object from one person to another. For example, when you become a monk you must receive the vows from someone else who already holds those vows. The act of taking the vow also has very much to do with making a decision and determining that you are going to do something; there is always a specific purpose, an explicit intention. That distinguishes vows from other, more general kinds of beliefs that affect your actions.
This concludes our discussion of the first skandha, the ag- gregate of form. Now we will consider the Four Thoughts that Turn the Mind, which are the foundation of all Dharma teachings. We will begin by discussing the difficulty of finding the resources and opportunities of a precious human birth.
The Five Skandhas 145
146 The Dharma
Meditation Practice
To fulfil what it means to have found a Precious Human Birth with its eight opportunities and ten resources it is essential to be aware of how rare the inconceivable power and ability we now have
for practicing Dharma is. If we don't make use of this opportunity, we will soon lose it, and it will be difficult to find again.
All human beings can be classified as lesser, middling, or greater persons, with regard to basic motivation and ability. Lesser persons are those who practice virtue for the sake of improving their own situation during this lifetime in order to be happy and comfort- able. The middling types are those who understand that this life is impermanent and full of suffering, and perform virtuous actions with the idea of achieving peace in the next lifetime. People of this second type have an understanding of cause and effect, and know that through negative behavior their next lives will be negative, while positive behavior will yield positive fruits later. The third, greater, type of person also understands the law of cause and effect, but in addition appreciates the fact that all sentient beings have been our parents. Such a person will not try to win peace just for himself or herself, but has the idea that it is necessary to purify kar- ma and emotional afflictions so as to achieve perfect Buddhahood for the benefit of all beings.
With the precious human body, we are able to perform vir- tuous actions, cast off negative actions, practice the path of the Bodhisattva to attain Buddhahood as Milarepa did, and unfailingly accomplish in this life the benefit of all sentient beings. Therefore this precious human body that we've obtained is far more powerful than that of beings of the six realms such as the gods, nagas, and so on. When meditating on the difficulty of attaining the precious human existence, however, you must realize that its fruits will not necessarily appear in this lifetime but rather may not ripen until future lifetimes.
If the body were permanent and completely unchanging, any activity would be acceptable. Because the body really is imperma- nent, it is important to practice Dharma immediately. We cannot predict what kind of birth we will take in our next lifetime; we can- not assure ourselves that our next life will be happy or that we will
avoid suffering. It is therefore important for us to think about the great sufferings of the three lower realms: the hell and hungry ghost realms that we cannot perceive; and the animal realm, of which we see only a part, and not even the part with the greatest suffering. When we consider very carefully the tremendous suffering of the lower realms, we righdy become sad and frightened.
On this topic there is a special meditation devised by Karma Chamay [chags med], a great Lama from eastern Tibet. He lived in the seventeenth century, during the time of the ninth and tenth Karmapas. I have received this teaching myself, and fmd it an especially effective method of meditation.
Begin by visualizing a high mountain. Around the mountain are regions full of beings of the six realms of samsara. Think about all the different kinds of karma that each of those sentient beings has, and all the various sufferings that each of them is experiencing. Reflect on them and visualize them very clearly. Then look at yourself: you have a sound body, can rely on Lamas, practice Dhar- ma, and enter any path you choose. Reflect joyfully on the favorable situation you have attained and understand it to be the fruit of ac- cumulated merit of virtuous actions in previous lives. Consider that all those sentient beings around the base of the mountain are ex- periencing the results of unvirtuous actions and are now suffering greatly. Then realize that your situation is also difficult-you too will fall into those realms of great suffering. At this point the thought comes to you that you must find some ultimate means of freeing yourself from this cycle of suffering.
Above and before you in the sky, visualize your Lama as any Yidam in the Buddhadharma in whom you have great faith. Meditate on him. For this particular practice, it is especially effec- tive to visualize the Lama as Chenrezi, since this deity is known for his love and compassion. Imagine him as the essence of all Buddhas. Then hear the Lama say to you: "You have obtained a precious human body and are able to hear, contemplate, and practice the perfect Dharma. But if you don't accomplish virtuous action and abandon evil, no good will come. If you don't obtain an excellent human body in your next life, you will experience great suffering. " Meditate on the suffering you will experience if you fall into each of the lower realms. This will encourage you to practice Dharma well.
The Five Skandhas 147
148 The Dharma
By renouncing and accepting, your human life will be meaningfully fulfilled. Also think about the fact that all the sentient beings in the unending cycle of rebirths have at one time or another been your mother and very kind to you: therefore, arouse great compassion and feeling for their suffering. Resolve with determination that you will quickly establish each of them without exception in a Buddha realm.
Next, visualize that from Chenrezi's heart come rays of light. The rays touch you, purifying all the sins and obscurations of your body, speech, and mind. You are instantaneously reborn in Dewachen [bde ba can), the Pure Realm of Great Bliss. Then, through the power and ability you thus obtain, light rays emanate out from your heart and touch all sentient beings, purifying their suffering, sins, and obscurations; they too are reborn in the Pure Realm and become fortunate ones, completely enlightened. At this point, you can visualize yourself and all others as being Chenrezi.
Q. How does this meditation increase compassion?
A. It leads you to perceive the situation of all sentient beings, to understand that it is karma and emotional afflictions that have caused their great suffering. This in tum leads you to develop an ex- tremely strong wish to remove beings from that state. You want to keep them away from suffering and give them happiness. Because this meditation was specifically devised by Karma Chamay Rin- poche to center on Chenrezi, the Bodhisattva of Loving Kindness, it increases the practitioner's compassion and love for sentient beings. The intention is to achieve a state of peace and bliss in the highest sense. The meditation on love, which is the act of wanting all sen- tient beings to have happiness, has as its result the attainment of peace. The meditation on compassion, which is the act of wanting to separate all sentient beings from any kind of suffering, has as its result the accomplishment of bliss.
Q. What if you have trouble visualizing? And for how long a period do you normally perform this meditation?
A. If you do not see this visualization clearly, you should not worry. It is actually very hard to visualize. In general, the best aid is the
strength of your resolution. You should generate intense determina? tion that things be as the visualization describes.
However much time you spend on this practice is fine. But whether it is a long or a short period, the most important aim to be accomplished by the meditation is to develop compassion and love for sentient beings.
Sensation (tsor wa [tshor ba])
The second skandha is sensation. (This term can also be translated as feeling. ) There are three basic types of bodily sensa? tions: pleasurable, painful, and neutral. Mental sensations can be pleasurable or painful. The neutral mental sensation, or the feeling of equanimity, is not different from the neutral bodily sensation. In all, then, there are five types of sensation.
The six organs (eye, ear, nose, tongue, skin, mind) experience pleasurable, painful, and neutral sensations. Multiplying the six organs by the three sensations, we can list eighteen types of feeling. A simpler way of classification involves two categories: physical (the five senses) and mental feelings. Further, sensations may be divided with regard to whether they relate to material things, or if they in? volve cravings independent of material objects.
There are various intensities ofsensation. Some are obvious and clearly felt, others are not. Suppose someone is sitting and writing, and there is another pen lying on the desk nearby. The writer is in? volved in his work, and when someone else comes and takes the other pen, he sees the pen being taken, but it doesn't register. But if later he is asked, "What happened to the pen? " he will suddenly realize that someone took it: the previous visual sensation is pro- cessed at this later time.
The reason that we describe this skandha or any of the five skandhas is so that you know what they are, and can recognize and understand the functions of mind. One should not try to eliminate them. The essence of sensation is impermanence. So the essence of happiness and suffering is impermanence. Not knowing this, we develop attachment. Clinging to their reality, our intentions become
The Five Skanclhas 149
150 The Dharma
based on the hope for pleasurable sensation. Any feeling, good or bad, is impermanent. If the natural condition of sensation is really understood as impermanent, then attachment is somewhat relin? quished. Because of this, the suffering of clinging to reality is les- sened.
Recognition (du she ['du shes])
The third skandha is recognition. This is grasping at characteristics, which is synonymous with clinging to samsara as be- ing real and permanent.
In the first instant of sensation, there isn't necessarily this grasping or attachment to the six senses (including the mind) and their corresponding objects. (The objects of the mind include im- ages, memories, thoughts, and abstract concepts. ) Sensation itself is a very direct, straightforward experience. It is in the second instant that there arises a grasping at the object. This grasping is the third skandha.
There are two aspects of this third skandha. The first is grasp? ing at the attributes of objects; that is, the identification of an ob- ject, such as when one says, for example, "This is yellow. This is red. This is white. " The second aspect is grasping of characteristics in conceptual terms. This involves differentiation of the object from other objects, as when one says, "This is a man. This is a woman. " One can apprehend an object through its symbol, or, on the other hand, understand what an object is by its characteristics without even knowing its name.
Recognition is classified according to its scope. For example, if one's ability to recognize is limited to the six kinds of beings in the Desire Realm, it is considered to be small recognition. Those whose understanding can encompass the Form and Formless Realms within their sense fields are considered to have extensive recognition. Finally, there is immeasurable recognition, which starts with "infinitude of space" and extends all the way to the perception of a Buddha, which recognizes all the situations in the six realms without any limitation. The knowledge of a Buddha perceives every detail of every sentient being, including their thoughts and past lives.
Q. . Would you explain the difference between the recognition of at- tributes, and the ability to differentiate between things, the faculty of making distinctions?
A. They are fundamentally the same. The difference is actually quantitative rather than qualitative. Recognition of objects is a very general ability to apprehend the nature of things. Apprehension through differentiation is a much subtler power, whereby one can apply different names to distinguish things within a particular category. If you are presented with a totally new object, you will see its color and shape, but you won't know what it is. You will also not be able to make a judgment about it. For example, if someone put an atom bomb in front of me, I would see it, but only as some sort of gray shape. I wouldn't necessarily know that it could kill us all.
Formation (du che [du byed])
The fourth skandha concerns what kind of activity is performed in the mind. In a general way, it refers to thoughts. In this skandha, there are fifty-one kinds of mental states or occurrences (sem chung [sems byung]); these states can be virtuous, unvirtuous, and so on.
The first group in the fifty-one consists of the five omnipresent mental occurrences. These are present no matter what type of ac- tivity the mind is engaged in. The first is intention, movement towards an object, as when one first thinks, "I will go, I will sleep, I will look, I will smell, I will conceive of an idea. " Whatever sense faculties are involved, intention moves through one or more of these six senses.
The second is concentration, the mind one-pointedly grasping an image or concept. Next is contact, the connection of the mind to its object, which prevents other thoughts from disturbing the pro- cessing of cognition. The final two are the two slwndhas described above, sensation and recognition. These five mental occurrences are all invariably present in any kind of thinking.
Next are the five mental states that are determinative with regard to the object: resolution, interest, recollection, samadhi, and wisdom. The first, resolution, performs the function of directing diligent efforts towards fulfilling any desired intention. In any vir- tuous or evil course of action, if you have a very powerful resolution,
The Five Skandhas 151
152 The Dharma
your diligence will be powerful too. The second determinative, in? terest, is holding to a particular thing or work to be done, and not allowing the mind to be "stolen" by anything else, even for a second. Recollection, the third determinative, prevents the mind from being distracted or forgetting the purpose at hand. Samadhi, the fourth, is the mind's one-pointed focus on something it is examining. Its func? tion is to support knowing. Wisdom, the fifth determinative mental occurrence, is the opening up and complete development of the understanding of all examined phenomena.
The ten mental factors we've considered so far in the fourth skandha- the five which are omnipresent and the five which define and determine the object- are similar to one another, but each per? forms a different function. They may be difficult to distinguish, but if you investigate your own mind well, you can understand them even when they appear together simultaneously, as they do in cer? tain kinds of mental activity. The difference between concentration and contact, for example, is between two aspects of a single stage of mind: one-pointed holding to an image or concept, and the non? arising of other thoughts. In one way all these ten are the same-as functions of the same mind. The five omnipresent occurrences are present in the same way in every mental act, while the five deter? minative mental occurrances will vary greatly in intensity depending on the power the object has in the mind. For example, whether in worldly work or in Dharma practice, if motivation and interest are powerful, then much can be accomplished. If they are weak, not much will be accomplished. If one's resolution is good, when one
thinks "This is true, this is excellent," one will be able to bring it about. If one thinks one's objective is poor, then only difficulty will arise.
Eleven virtuous mental occurrences form another group within the fourth skandha. The first of these is faith, of which there are three types. One is thefaith ofyearning: you understand that in the lower realms of samsara and in any of the places of the six kinds of beings there is only suffering; thus you long for liberation, such as rebirth in a Buddha Realm like Dewachen. Through understanding that virtuous actions are a cause for happiness in the higher realms, and evil actions are a cause for suffering in the lower realms, you give rise to great trust in cause and effect, which is called trusting
fai'th. When one understands that the Three Jewels are unfailing, and never a cause for suffering, and that they benefit many beings and are inconceivably excellent, then this is clear faith.
The next virtuous mental state is carefulness, where you understand that what one needs to cast off is evil action, and what one needs to take up is virtuous action. You apply care and mind- fulness to practicing virtue and abandoning evil actions. All Lamas say that this is very important, and performs the function of ena- bling one to accomplish excellence in both existence and peace (i. e. , samsara and Nirvana).
Another virtuous faculty is thorough training. It comes through training in shi nay and enables one to use one's body and mind for virtue and to conquer negative influences.
Next is equanimity-you are not overpowered by emotional af- flictions such as desire, hatred and stupidity, but instead remain in the natural state of the mind. When this peaceful mind is present, the emotional afflictions are not able to arise.
A sense ofpropn'ety is a virtuous aspect of mind that causes one to avoid committing a lot of unvirtuous actions. It involves understanding that certain actions are not good in terms of one's own standards or those of the Dharma. It serves as the basis for restraining faulty conduct through vows. Next, there is con- siderateness, which causes one to avoid actions that are judged un- virtuous by others or by worldly standards. This serves as the basis for remembering the kindness of one's parents or any other beings, and induces one to act in a similar fashion to others. These two, pro- priety and considerateness, work together and are very important. Propriety refers to yourself; it doesn't mean that you're ashamed of yourself, but rather that you're not the kind of person who does things without thinking of the effects. Through the factor of con-
siderateness, you also become aware of what others will think of you, and you care very much for others.
Next is non-attachment, the mental attribute of extricating yourself from attachment to existence and samsaric things. It prevents one from getting involved with faulty conduct.
Lack of hatred is the state of being without animosity towards any sentient being or any condition that produces suffering. It causes one only to rejoice and not to enter into harmful conduct.
The Five Skandhas 153
154 The Dharma
Lack ofstupz"dity is understanding the meaning of things through discrimination, without dullness. Hence one is kept from mistakes or committing faults. Then there is complete harmlessness, which is compassion without any hatred. You do not conceive of others as enemies, so you don't want to harm them. Instead you have compas- sion for other beings, without any scorn. Finally, the eleventh vir- tuous mental occurrence is dz"ligence, entering into virtuous activity with manifest delight. Through it, one can completely accomplish virtuous concerns.
Q. . When the eighth virtuous mental occurrence, the lack of hatred, is present, and someone is actually doing you harm, do you just ig- nore them?
A. If you are attacked by an enemy, you need a means of keeping them from harming you. After the situation has ended, you shouldn't think, "This is my enemy. " You should meditate on com- passion and realize that the person was acting out of ignorance. You may know the Dharma, but that person does not, and so you should meditate with compassion, and not hold onto the thought, "This person is my enemy, and has done bad things to me. " Now we will again leave the discussion of the five skandhas, and practice the meditation taught by Karma Chamay Rinpoche.
Medz"tation Practz"ce
In the first meditation we considered the difficulty of obtaining a precious human existence. Now we will reflect on death and im- permanence.
Usually our perceptions seem very real and permanent, whether they are of the container-the outside world-or its con- tents-sentient beings. Yet there is absolutely nothing in the phenomenal realm that is permanent. The external world is made up of the four elements. Even as science tells us, the elements that make up the container, the world, are constantly deteriorating year by year. They do not increase. If we have something like a house, at first it's in good shape, then it gets older and weaker every year. And generally speaking, because we are sentient beings, the internal con- tents of the world, we have more pain and sickness as we get older. Thus, both aspects of the world become worse and worse.
Nowadays, science and medicine, with all their new remedies and operations and examinations, are inconceivably more powerful than they were in previous times. Yet now there is also more and more suffering and sickness in the world, with many new diseases such as the different forms of cancer; in many ways life is cut short. In general, the situation of sentient beings is worsening, and less can be done to benefit them. If there were no impermanence, it would not be necessary to examine it. But since the force of impermanence will come to us all, it is beneficial to meditate on it. It is a profound method of practice. Year by year, month by month, we age, our suf? fering increases, and we approach death. Because of this, no ac? tivities will benefit us except Dharma. The only relevant principle that should concern us is that through performing virtuous deeds there is happiness, and by doing evil, there is suffering.
Q. . Can an Enlightened being do anything about the suffering of the world?
A. Enlightened beings who have a tremendous store of merit can direct suffering to themselves and away from others. We aspire to this when we practice "Sending and Taking meditation" (tong len [gtong len]); a person of great merit can accomplish it actually and with great effect.
A long time ago Yeshe Tsogyal asked Guru Padmasambhava what could be done to help beings in the dark ages she foresaw. What could be done to alleviate their miseries in the time of the Kalpa of Great Conflict, the Kalpa of Weapons, and the Kalpa of Famine? Padmasambhava answered: "In order to help eliminate in? tense sufferings in that dark time, make supplications to one who is now one of my twenty-five foremost disciples, and who in the future will bear the name Karmapa. Sincere supplications and devotion to that being will bring about harmony. "
In 1981 I was present during the Gyalwa Karmapa's last illness, and I believe that what I saw then was a fulfillment of Guru Rin? poche's prophecy. By the time I saw him, His Holiness had already had many operations, some parts of his body removed, things put inside him, his blood tranfused, and so on. Every day the doctors discovered the symptoms of some new disease, only to find them gone the next day and replaced by another illness, as if all the
The Five Skandhas 155
156 The Dharma
diseases in the world were finding room in his flesh. For two months he had taken no solid food, and finally his doctors gave up hope. It was impossible for him to live, and the doctors thought the life? support systems should be disconnected.
But the Karmapa said, "No, I'm going to live. Leave them in place. " And he did live, astonishing the doctors, and remaining seemingly at ease in his situation- humorous, playful, smiling, as if he were rejoicing at everything his body suffered. Then I thought, with the clearest possible conviction, that the Karmapa had submit? ted to all this cutting, to the manifestation of all those diseases in his body, to the lack of food, in a quite intentional and voluntary way: he was deliberately suffering all of these diseases to help minimize the coming pains of war, disease, and famine, and in this way he was deliberately working to avert those terrible kalpas. For those of us present, his death was an unforgettable inspiration. It profoundly revealed the efficacy of the Dharma, and the fact that Enlighten? ment for the sake of others can actually be achieved.
Karma Chamay has given us an excellent way of meditating on death and impermanence. First, you enter again into the realm of the imagination. Visualize that you're alone on a vast plain, empty of all other beings. There are very high mountains, and there is the sound of water. Below the plain in a valley is a large river filled with sentient beings.
Next, the sun sets and it becomes very dark. You are fright? ened. Since you are in an unfamiliar place, you do not know where you are as you walk around in the dark. You become even more afraid. Suddenly you find yourself at the edge of a cliff, and in danger of falling into the river in the gorge below. You grasp at two clumps of grass with your two hands, which keep you from falling into the abyss. As you hang there in great fear, there appears at your right a little white mouse, and on the left a little black mouse that come out from the rocks. The white mouse begins to chew on the bunch of grass your right hand clutches, while the black mouse chews the bunch of grass your left hand holds. The clumps are becoming thinner and thinner. You are in a state of panic because you know that any second now you could fall into the river and drown. And you know the river is full of various creatures that could eat you.
At this point you will realize how negligent you have been in the practice of Dharma. Then you see Lama Chenrezi in the sky, and you make many prayers to him. Lama Chenrezi says, "Whoever is a sentient being has sickness, death, and suffering. The nature of everything is impermanence. When you attain freedom you will practice well. Pray to your Lama. " Then with faith, longing, and determination you pray intensely to Lama Chenrezi. At the moment the two mice finish the last blade of grass, light rays emanate from the heart of Lama Chenrezi and strike one's heart, purifying the obscurations of body, speech and mind. You are instantly reborn as Chenrezi in the pure land of Dewachen. Meditate with love and compassion. Inconveivable numbers of light rays emanate from your heart, touch all the beings of the six kinds, purify their sufferings, evils and obscurations, and guide them to Dewachen.
This meditation could be elaborated upon in many ways. The most important point is what benefits your mind. You should observe the results of the meditation and ascertain which sections of the sequence seem useful for your individual needs. You can em? phasize and spend more time on any one part. In particular, if you are a person with great pride, hatred, etc. , and find it difficult to practice Dharma, this meditation is very beneficial.
Formation: The Fourth Skandha Continued
Of the fifty-one formations, we have already discussed the first twenty-one, which included the five omnipresent ones, the five that determine the object, and the eleven virtuous ones.
Now we will consider the twenty-six unvirtuous mental occur? rences. There are six root emotional afflictions and twenty sub? sidiary emotional afflictions.
Of the six root afflictions only five are emotional afflictions, while the sixth, view, which is divided into five parts, is placed in this category for the purpose of Dharma explanation.
The root of all emotional affliction is ignorance. Ignorance here means not knowing about action and result, the true meaning and way of practice according to the Precious jewels. Not understanding these things is the source or foundation of all emo? tional afflictions. Ignorance itself is unable to perform any function. It obscures the understanding of actions and their results-that vir?
The Five Skandhas 157
158 The Dharma
tue leads to happiness and evil leads to suffering; it obscures the understanding of the Four Noble Truths, of Relative and of Ultimate Truth, and the excellent qualities of the Three Jewels. It obscures the understanding of impermanence and change. Because of all this, all the other afflictions come into being.
The second of the emotional afflictions is desire, which is the grasping at the deteriorating aggregates of the three realms. It pro- duces the suffering of existence and causes all the sentient beings of the six types to circle in samsara. It arises from the obscuration of ig- norance.
There are two types of desire. One is desire of desire, a desire for actual things among the three realms of samsara; it pertains to beings of the six types in the Desire Realm. In the two upper realms, the Form Realm and the Formless Realm, there isn't this manifest desire, but there is the desire for existence. The higher god-states such as infinite space, infinite consciousness, etc. , are the fruit of great merit obtained through samadhi-meditation. But because the grasping at an "I" has not been abandoned, those gods have not turned away from samsaric existence.
Thirdly, there's the emotional affliction of anger. Anger is the relentless desire to hurt other beings. It's impossible to be happy while you're angry, and so we consider it to be the origin of unhap- piness.
The fourth basic emotional affliction is pn? de, an attitude of inflated superiority supported by worldly views. It is thinking, "I'm great," "I'm a high person," "I have great qualities," "I have an ex- cellent form. " There are said to be seven kinds of pride. It prevents you from respecting others and causes you to be unhappy.
The fifth is doubt. It is being of two minds concerning the true meaning. You are not certain whether the Dharma is really true or not. You think, "This isn't true," "this isn't good. " Ignorance is very strong and trust impossible. You become unable to practice virtue and usually are drawn towards negative action.
The sixth is view. Here we mean negative views based on the emotional afflictions. There are views without any emotional afflic- tion, which are considered "Perfect View. " But the views we are discussing are all considered "wrong view. "
There are five types of view. The first is the view based on the perishable aggregates, the strong belief that in the five skandhas
there is actually a self. This view becomes the basis for all wrong views.
Second is the vz"ew that holds to extremes; this is the view that the self or the skandhas exist permanently (etemalism) or that they don't exist at all (nihilism). Both views block the arising of certainty in the Middle Path-the Ultimate View.
The third is the inverted view, which denies that which is real such as the truth of karma, cause and effect, and the Three Jewels. Whoever has this view is not inclined towards virtuous activity.
That completes the three negative views. Then there are the two forms of "holding as supreme"- holdi'ng these views as supreme and holding conduct based on them as supreme. The first of these, the fourth of the wrong views, is the attitude that your erroneous view is the very best. In this case, you are completely convinced that a view such as the denial of karma is true, good, perfect, and you don't look at any other view. Since all that concerns body and speech is a projection of mind, you always need to examine with awareness the validity of your view and not accept it dumbly.
The second of these is holding one~ morality and conduct as supreme. This means holding to conduct and morality that is not conducive to liberation. This kind of view is not beneficial for oneself or others. Still one holds it as being the very best and all other moral disciplines as being untnie and bad.
Because these two-holding one's view as supreme and holding one's morality and conduct as supreme-involve clinging to the five skandhas, they are like a rope that binds you tightly. All activity is exhausting and fruitless. Even if an activity is engaged in with a lot of energy, it is meaningless. These five views are not a means of liberation from samsara and therefore not a real path.
According to the teachings of the Buddha, to determine whether a view is true or not, real or not, you need to examine your own mind. An individual must accomplish liberation in the Dharma by himself. Therefore, you must always decide for yourself whether a view leads to liberation or not. When it does, then you will also understand what is really beneficial for oneself and others now as well as in the future. In short, you always have to use your own in- telligence to investigate these things for yourself. If you don't con- stantly do this, and instead merely cling to a view, you can never at- tain freedom from samsara.
The Five Skandhas 159
160 The Dharma
Fundamentally, the teaching of the Buddha is to practice vir- tue and abandon evil. By using your own intelligence to examine what is right and what is wrong, and to develop this understanding through experience, produces the faith of trust.
We have obtained a human body. Because ofthis, a teacher-a Lama, Friend of Virtue-is needed to explain the mind in words you can understand-human terms-and to guide you. But you always have to decide yourself whether what the teacher says is true, and whether it really works or not: if it is going to be of benefit, who it will benefit, how it will benefit, and when it will benefit. You must always examine such questions, because if you just listen to the teacher and agree automatically just because it is his word, then you're no different from an animal. You have to use your in- telligence to understand the truth.
Once you really understand the meaning and nature of things well, and have reached a decision as to what is true, you should feel confidence in it. There is no need for doubt and a lot of additional activity.
When you're involved in Dharma practice or Dharma work it is not an instantaneous process, where you do something and get an immediate result. You have to look at the situation in its entirety: what work was done before and what kind of fruit has come, what kind or result comes from perfecting oneself. For example, in the case of Milarepa, a great Tibetan Siddha, and many others like him, we have to consider what work was done previously, what work was done in between, what experiences occurred, what benefit for other beings there was, and what the situation at the time of death was. Dharma practice must be considered from a very broad perspective. Therefore, examining the characteristics of views is very important.
Finally, there are several ways of distinguishing types of views: one is innate, naturally present, such as the view of the perishable aggregates based on the self and the five skandhas; the other is ac- quired through investigation or instruction by a teacher such as the two kinds of Holding as Supreme. Actions based on acquired views are easily abandoned, but actions based on innate views are much more difficult to let go of. According to the Buddha's teaching, the one hundred and fourteen acquired views are abandoned through understanding the meaning of things and developing certainty. The three hundred and sixty innate views only meditation can dispel.
Q. . What is an example of an innate view?
A. It's the view of clinging to a self-the view of the perishable ag- gregates. Clinging to an "I" in the five skandhas, you think, "I'm sick," "I'm in pain," "I'm unhappy," "I'm happy. " Or "I feel," "I perceive," "I think. " These views are always grounded in clinging to an "I" in what is only the five skandhas.
An example of an acquired view would be the different doc- trines of eternalism and nihilism that are learned or based on deduc- tion or inference. Thus, if you have the belief that each person was created by someone, then you will believe that someone must have created the Buddha, even though there is no evidence for that view. That would be an example of an acquired view.
Of the five emotional afflictions, the three major ones, ig- norance, desire, and hatred, are all inherent. The other two, pride and doubt, are acquired. For example, pride may arise from hear- ing yourself praised: "You're great," "You have excellent qualities," "You're beautiful. " One comes to acquire this view of oneself, too.
A. Opinions and general beliefs are classified as part of the fourth skandha. Vow-form refers specifically to a certain kind of vow or decision to do something verbally or physically. When a vow is made, whether it be good or bad, the process resembles the transfer of an object from one person to another. For example, when you become a monk you must receive the vows from someone else who already holds those vows. The act of taking the vow also has very much to do with making a decision and determining that you are going to do something; there is always a specific purpose, an explicit intention. That distinguishes vows from other, more general kinds of beliefs that affect your actions.
This concludes our discussion of the first skandha, the ag- gregate of form. Now we will consider the Four Thoughts that Turn the Mind, which are the foundation of all Dharma teachings. We will begin by discussing the difficulty of finding the resources and opportunities of a precious human birth.
The Five Skandhas 145
146 The Dharma
Meditation Practice
To fulfil what it means to have found a Precious Human Birth with its eight opportunities and ten resources it is essential to be aware of how rare the inconceivable power and ability we now have
for practicing Dharma is. If we don't make use of this opportunity, we will soon lose it, and it will be difficult to find again.
All human beings can be classified as lesser, middling, or greater persons, with regard to basic motivation and ability. Lesser persons are those who practice virtue for the sake of improving their own situation during this lifetime in order to be happy and comfort- able. The middling types are those who understand that this life is impermanent and full of suffering, and perform virtuous actions with the idea of achieving peace in the next lifetime. People of this second type have an understanding of cause and effect, and know that through negative behavior their next lives will be negative, while positive behavior will yield positive fruits later. The third, greater, type of person also understands the law of cause and effect, but in addition appreciates the fact that all sentient beings have been our parents. Such a person will not try to win peace just for himself or herself, but has the idea that it is necessary to purify kar- ma and emotional afflictions so as to achieve perfect Buddhahood for the benefit of all beings.
With the precious human body, we are able to perform vir- tuous actions, cast off negative actions, practice the path of the Bodhisattva to attain Buddhahood as Milarepa did, and unfailingly accomplish in this life the benefit of all sentient beings. Therefore this precious human body that we've obtained is far more powerful than that of beings of the six realms such as the gods, nagas, and so on. When meditating on the difficulty of attaining the precious human existence, however, you must realize that its fruits will not necessarily appear in this lifetime but rather may not ripen until future lifetimes.
If the body were permanent and completely unchanging, any activity would be acceptable. Because the body really is imperma- nent, it is important to practice Dharma immediately. We cannot predict what kind of birth we will take in our next lifetime; we can- not assure ourselves that our next life will be happy or that we will
avoid suffering. It is therefore important for us to think about the great sufferings of the three lower realms: the hell and hungry ghost realms that we cannot perceive; and the animal realm, of which we see only a part, and not even the part with the greatest suffering. When we consider very carefully the tremendous suffering of the lower realms, we righdy become sad and frightened.
On this topic there is a special meditation devised by Karma Chamay [chags med], a great Lama from eastern Tibet. He lived in the seventeenth century, during the time of the ninth and tenth Karmapas. I have received this teaching myself, and fmd it an especially effective method of meditation.
Begin by visualizing a high mountain. Around the mountain are regions full of beings of the six realms of samsara. Think about all the different kinds of karma that each of those sentient beings has, and all the various sufferings that each of them is experiencing. Reflect on them and visualize them very clearly. Then look at yourself: you have a sound body, can rely on Lamas, practice Dhar- ma, and enter any path you choose. Reflect joyfully on the favorable situation you have attained and understand it to be the fruit of ac- cumulated merit of virtuous actions in previous lives. Consider that all those sentient beings around the base of the mountain are ex- periencing the results of unvirtuous actions and are now suffering greatly. Then realize that your situation is also difficult-you too will fall into those realms of great suffering. At this point the thought comes to you that you must find some ultimate means of freeing yourself from this cycle of suffering.
Above and before you in the sky, visualize your Lama as any Yidam in the Buddhadharma in whom you have great faith. Meditate on him. For this particular practice, it is especially effec- tive to visualize the Lama as Chenrezi, since this deity is known for his love and compassion. Imagine him as the essence of all Buddhas. Then hear the Lama say to you: "You have obtained a precious human body and are able to hear, contemplate, and practice the perfect Dharma. But if you don't accomplish virtuous action and abandon evil, no good will come. If you don't obtain an excellent human body in your next life, you will experience great suffering. " Meditate on the suffering you will experience if you fall into each of the lower realms. This will encourage you to practice Dharma well.
The Five Skandhas 147
148 The Dharma
By renouncing and accepting, your human life will be meaningfully fulfilled. Also think about the fact that all the sentient beings in the unending cycle of rebirths have at one time or another been your mother and very kind to you: therefore, arouse great compassion and feeling for their suffering. Resolve with determination that you will quickly establish each of them without exception in a Buddha realm.
Next, visualize that from Chenrezi's heart come rays of light. The rays touch you, purifying all the sins and obscurations of your body, speech, and mind. You are instantaneously reborn in Dewachen [bde ba can), the Pure Realm of Great Bliss. Then, through the power and ability you thus obtain, light rays emanate out from your heart and touch all sentient beings, purifying their suffering, sins, and obscurations; they too are reborn in the Pure Realm and become fortunate ones, completely enlightened. At this point, you can visualize yourself and all others as being Chenrezi.
Q. How does this meditation increase compassion?
A. It leads you to perceive the situation of all sentient beings, to understand that it is karma and emotional afflictions that have caused their great suffering. This in tum leads you to develop an ex- tremely strong wish to remove beings from that state. You want to keep them away from suffering and give them happiness. Because this meditation was specifically devised by Karma Chamay Rin- poche to center on Chenrezi, the Bodhisattva of Loving Kindness, it increases the practitioner's compassion and love for sentient beings. The intention is to achieve a state of peace and bliss in the highest sense. The meditation on love, which is the act of wanting all sen- tient beings to have happiness, has as its result the attainment of peace. The meditation on compassion, which is the act of wanting to separate all sentient beings from any kind of suffering, has as its result the accomplishment of bliss.
Q. What if you have trouble visualizing? And for how long a period do you normally perform this meditation?
A. If you do not see this visualization clearly, you should not worry. It is actually very hard to visualize. In general, the best aid is the
strength of your resolution. You should generate intense determina? tion that things be as the visualization describes.
However much time you spend on this practice is fine. But whether it is a long or a short period, the most important aim to be accomplished by the meditation is to develop compassion and love for sentient beings.
Sensation (tsor wa [tshor ba])
The second skandha is sensation. (This term can also be translated as feeling. ) There are three basic types of bodily sensa? tions: pleasurable, painful, and neutral. Mental sensations can be pleasurable or painful. The neutral mental sensation, or the feeling of equanimity, is not different from the neutral bodily sensation. In all, then, there are five types of sensation.
The six organs (eye, ear, nose, tongue, skin, mind) experience pleasurable, painful, and neutral sensations. Multiplying the six organs by the three sensations, we can list eighteen types of feeling. A simpler way of classification involves two categories: physical (the five senses) and mental feelings. Further, sensations may be divided with regard to whether they relate to material things, or if they in? volve cravings independent of material objects.
There are various intensities ofsensation. Some are obvious and clearly felt, others are not. Suppose someone is sitting and writing, and there is another pen lying on the desk nearby. The writer is in? volved in his work, and when someone else comes and takes the other pen, he sees the pen being taken, but it doesn't register. But if later he is asked, "What happened to the pen? " he will suddenly realize that someone took it: the previous visual sensation is pro- cessed at this later time.
The reason that we describe this skandha or any of the five skandhas is so that you know what they are, and can recognize and understand the functions of mind. One should not try to eliminate them. The essence of sensation is impermanence. So the essence of happiness and suffering is impermanence. Not knowing this, we develop attachment. Clinging to their reality, our intentions become
The Five Skanclhas 149
150 The Dharma
based on the hope for pleasurable sensation. Any feeling, good or bad, is impermanent. If the natural condition of sensation is really understood as impermanent, then attachment is somewhat relin? quished. Because of this, the suffering of clinging to reality is les- sened.
Recognition (du she ['du shes])
The third skandha is recognition. This is grasping at characteristics, which is synonymous with clinging to samsara as be- ing real and permanent.
In the first instant of sensation, there isn't necessarily this grasping or attachment to the six senses (including the mind) and their corresponding objects. (The objects of the mind include im- ages, memories, thoughts, and abstract concepts. ) Sensation itself is a very direct, straightforward experience. It is in the second instant that there arises a grasping at the object. This grasping is the third skandha.
There are two aspects of this third skandha. The first is grasp? ing at the attributes of objects; that is, the identification of an ob- ject, such as when one says, for example, "This is yellow. This is red. This is white. " The second aspect is grasping of characteristics in conceptual terms. This involves differentiation of the object from other objects, as when one says, "This is a man. This is a woman. " One can apprehend an object through its symbol, or, on the other hand, understand what an object is by its characteristics without even knowing its name.
Recognition is classified according to its scope. For example, if one's ability to recognize is limited to the six kinds of beings in the Desire Realm, it is considered to be small recognition. Those whose understanding can encompass the Form and Formless Realms within their sense fields are considered to have extensive recognition. Finally, there is immeasurable recognition, which starts with "infinitude of space" and extends all the way to the perception of a Buddha, which recognizes all the situations in the six realms without any limitation. The knowledge of a Buddha perceives every detail of every sentient being, including their thoughts and past lives.
Q. . Would you explain the difference between the recognition of at- tributes, and the ability to differentiate between things, the faculty of making distinctions?
A. They are fundamentally the same. The difference is actually quantitative rather than qualitative. Recognition of objects is a very general ability to apprehend the nature of things. Apprehension through differentiation is a much subtler power, whereby one can apply different names to distinguish things within a particular category. If you are presented with a totally new object, you will see its color and shape, but you won't know what it is. You will also not be able to make a judgment about it. For example, if someone put an atom bomb in front of me, I would see it, but only as some sort of gray shape. I wouldn't necessarily know that it could kill us all.
Formation (du che [du byed])
The fourth skandha concerns what kind of activity is performed in the mind. In a general way, it refers to thoughts. In this skandha, there are fifty-one kinds of mental states or occurrences (sem chung [sems byung]); these states can be virtuous, unvirtuous, and so on.
The first group in the fifty-one consists of the five omnipresent mental occurrences. These are present no matter what type of ac- tivity the mind is engaged in. The first is intention, movement towards an object, as when one first thinks, "I will go, I will sleep, I will look, I will smell, I will conceive of an idea. " Whatever sense faculties are involved, intention moves through one or more of these six senses.
The second is concentration, the mind one-pointedly grasping an image or concept. Next is contact, the connection of the mind to its object, which prevents other thoughts from disturbing the pro- cessing of cognition. The final two are the two slwndhas described above, sensation and recognition. These five mental occurrences are all invariably present in any kind of thinking.
Next are the five mental states that are determinative with regard to the object: resolution, interest, recollection, samadhi, and wisdom. The first, resolution, performs the function of directing diligent efforts towards fulfilling any desired intention. In any vir- tuous or evil course of action, if you have a very powerful resolution,
The Five Skandhas 151
152 The Dharma
your diligence will be powerful too. The second determinative, in? terest, is holding to a particular thing or work to be done, and not allowing the mind to be "stolen" by anything else, even for a second. Recollection, the third determinative, prevents the mind from being distracted or forgetting the purpose at hand. Samadhi, the fourth, is the mind's one-pointed focus on something it is examining. Its func? tion is to support knowing. Wisdom, the fifth determinative mental occurrence, is the opening up and complete development of the understanding of all examined phenomena.
The ten mental factors we've considered so far in the fourth skandha- the five which are omnipresent and the five which define and determine the object- are similar to one another, but each per? forms a different function. They may be difficult to distinguish, but if you investigate your own mind well, you can understand them even when they appear together simultaneously, as they do in cer? tain kinds of mental activity. The difference between concentration and contact, for example, is between two aspects of a single stage of mind: one-pointed holding to an image or concept, and the non? arising of other thoughts. In one way all these ten are the same-as functions of the same mind. The five omnipresent occurrences are present in the same way in every mental act, while the five deter? minative mental occurrances will vary greatly in intensity depending on the power the object has in the mind. For example, whether in worldly work or in Dharma practice, if motivation and interest are powerful, then much can be accomplished. If they are weak, not much will be accomplished. If one's resolution is good, when one
thinks "This is true, this is excellent," one will be able to bring it about. If one thinks one's objective is poor, then only difficulty will arise.
Eleven virtuous mental occurrences form another group within the fourth skandha. The first of these is faith, of which there are three types. One is thefaith ofyearning: you understand that in the lower realms of samsara and in any of the places of the six kinds of beings there is only suffering; thus you long for liberation, such as rebirth in a Buddha Realm like Dewachen. Through understanding that virtuous actions are a cause for happiness in the higher realms, and evil actions are a cause for suffering in the lower realms, you give rise to great trust in cause and effect, which is called trusting
fai'th. When one understands that the Three Jewels are unfailing, and never a cause for suffering, and that they benefit many beings and are inconceivably excellent, then this is clear faith.
The next virtuous mental state is carefulness, where you understand that what one needs to cast off is evil action, and what one needs to take up is virtuous action. You apply care and mind- fulness to practicing virtue and abandoning evil actions. All Lamas say that this is very important, and performs the function of ena- bling one to accomplish excellence in both existence and peace (i. e. , samsara and Nirvana).
Another virtuous faculty is thorough training. It comes through training in shi nay and enables one to use one's body and mind for virtue and to conquer negative influences.
Next is equanimity-you are not overpowered by emotional af- flictions such as desire, hatred and stupidity, but instead remain in the natural state of the mind. When this peaceful mind is present, the emotional afflictions are not able to arise.
A sense ofpropn'ety is a virtuous aspect of mind that causes one to avoid committing a lot of unvirtuous actions. It involves understanding that certain actions are not good in terms of one's own standards or those of the Dharma. It serves as the basis for restraining faulty conduct through vows. Next, there is con- siderateness, which causes one to avoid actions that are judged un- virtuous by others or by worldly standards. This serves as the basis for remembering the kindness of one's parents or any other beings, and induces one to act in a similar fashion to others. These two, pro- priety and considerateness, work together and are very important. Propriety refers to yourself; it doesn't mean that you're ashamed of yourself, but rather that you're not the kind of person who does things without thinking of the effects. Through the factor of con-
siderateness, you also become aware of what others will think of you, and you care very much for others.
Next is non-attachment, the mental attribute of extricating yourself from attachment to existence and samsaric things. It prevents one from getting involved with faulty conduct.
Lack of hatred is the state of being without animosity towards any sentient being or any condition that produces suffering. It causes one only to rejoice and not to enter into harmful conduct.
The Five Skandhas 153
154 The Dharma
Lack ofstupz"dity is understanding the meaning of things through discrimination, without dullness. Hence one is kept from mistakes or committing faults. Then there is complete harmlessness, which is compassion without any hatred. You do not conceive of others as enemies, so you don't want to harm them. Instead you have compas- sion for other beings, without any scorn. Finally, the eleventh vir- tuous mental occurrence is dz"ligence, entering into virtuous activity with manifest delight. Through it, one can completely accomplish virtuous concerns.
Q. . When the eighth virtuous mental occurrence, the lack of hatred, is present, and someone is actually doing you harm, do you just ig- nore them?
A. If you are attacked by an enemy, you need a means of keeping them from harming you. After the situation has ended, you shouldn't think, "This is my enemy. " You should meditate on com- passion and realize that the person was acting out of ignorance. You may know the Dharma, but that person does not, and so you should meditate with compassion, and not hold onto the thought, "This person is my enemy, and has done bad things to me. " Now we will again leave the discussion of the five skandhas, and practice the meditation taught by Karma Chamay Rinpoche.
Medz"tation Practz"ce
In the first meditation we considered the difficulty of obtaining a precious human existence. Now we will reflect on death and im- permanence.
Usually our perceptions seem very real and permanent, whether they are of the container-the outside world-or its con- tents-sentient beings. Yet there is absolutely nothing in the phenomenal realm that is permanent. The external world is made up of the four elements. Even as science tells us, the elements that make up the container, the world, are constantly deteriorating year by year. They do not increase. If we have something like a house, at first it's in good shape, then it gets older and weaker every year. And generally speaking, because we are sentient beings, the internal con- tents of the world, we have more pain and sickness as we get older. Thus, both aspects of the world become worse and worse.
Nowadays, science and medicine, with all their new remedies and operations and examinations, are inconceivably more powerful than they were in previous times. Yet now there is also more and more suffering and sickness in the world, with many new diseases such as the different forms of cancer; in many ways life is cut short. In general, the situation of sentient beings is worsening, and less can be done to benefit them. If there were no impermanence, it would not be necessary to examine it. But since the force of impermanence will come to us all, it is beneficial to meditate on it. It is a profound method of practice. Year by year, month by month, we age, our suf? fering increases, and we approach death. Because of this, no ac? tivities will benefit us except Dharma. The only relevant principle that should concern us is that through performing virtuous deeds there is happiness, and by doing evil, there is suffering.
Q. . Can an Enlightened being do anything about the suffering of the world?
A. Enlightened beings who have a tremendous store of merit can direct suffering to themselves and away from others. We aspire to this when we practice "Sending and Taking meditation" (tong len [gtong len]); a person of great merit can accomplish it actually and with great effect.
A long time ago Yeshe Tsogyal asked Guru Padmasambhava what could be done to help beings in the dark ages she foresaw. What could be done to alleviate their miseries in the time of the Kalpa of Great Conflict, the Kalpa of Weapons, and the Kalpa of Famine? Padmasambhava answered: "In order to help eliminate in? tense sufferings in that dark time, make supplications to one who is now one of my twenty-five foremost disciples, and who in the future will bear the name Karmapa. Sincere supplications and devotion to that being will bring about harmony. "
In 1981 I was present during the Gyalwa Karmapa's last illness, and I believe that what I saw then was a fulfillment of Guru Rin? poche's prophecy. By the time I saw him, His Holiness had already had many operations, some parts of his body removed, things put inside him, his blood tranfused, and so on. Every day the doctors discovered the symptoms of some new disease, only to find them gone the next day and replaced by another illness, as if all the
The Five Skandhas 155
156 The Dharma
diseases in the world were finding room in his flesh. For two months he had taken no solid food, and finally his doctors gave up hope. It was impossible for him to live, and the doctors thought the life? support systems should be disconnected.
But the Karmapa said, "No, I'm going to live. Leave them in place. " And he did live, astonishing the doctors, and remaining seemingly at ease in his situation- humorous, playful, smiling, as if he were rejoicing at everything his body suffered. Then I thought, with the clearest possible conviction, that the Karmapa had submit? ted to all this cutting, to the manifestation of all those diseases in his body, to the lack of food, in a quite intentional and voluntary way: he was deliberately suffering all of these diseases to help minimize the coming pains of war, disease, and famine, and in this way he was deliberately working to avert those terrible kalpas. For those of us present, his death was an unforgettable inspiration. It profoundly revealed the efficacy of the Dharma, and the fact that Enlighten? ment for the sake of others can actually be achieved.
Karma Chamay has given us an excellent way of meditating on death and impermanence. First, you enter again into the realm of the imagination. Visualize that you're alone on a vast plain, empty of all other beings. There are very high mountains, and there is the sound of water. Below the plain in a valley is a large river filled with sentient beings.
Next, the sun sets and it becomes very dark. You are fright? ened. Since you are in an unfamiliar place, you do not know where you are as you walk around in the dark. You become even more afraid. Suddenly you find yourself at the edge of a cliff, and in danger of falling into the river in the gorge below. You grasp at two clumps of grass with your two hands, which keep you from falling into the abyss. As you hang there in great fear, there appears at your right a little white mouse, and on the left a little black mouse that come out from the rocks. The white mouse begins to chew on the bunch of grass your right hand clutches, while the black mouse chews the bunch of grass your left hand holds. The clumps are becoming thinner and thinner. You are in a state of panic because you know that any second now you could fall into the river and drown. And you know the river is full of various creatures that could eat you.
At this point you will realize how negligent you have been in the practice of Dharma. Then you see Lama Chenrezi in the sky, and you make many prayers to him. Lama Chenrezi says, "Whoever is a sentient being has sickness, death, and suffering. The nature of everything is impermanence. When you attain freedom you will practice well. Pray to your Lama. " Then with faith, longing, and determination you pray intensely to Lama Chenrezi. At the moment the two mice finish the last blade of grass, light rays emanate from the heart of Lama Chenrezi and strike one's heart, purifying the obscurations of body, speech and mind. You are instantly reborn as Chenrezi in the pure land of Dewachen. Meditate with love and compassion. Inconveivable numbers of light rays emanate from your heart, touch all the beings of the six kinds, purify their sufferings, evils and obscurations, and guide them to Dewachen.
This meditation could be elaborated upon in many ways. The most important point is what benefits your mind. You should observe the results of the meditation and ascertain which sections of the sequence seem useful for your individual needs. You can em? phasize and spend more time on any one part. In particular, if you are a person with great pride, hatred, etc. , and find it difficult to practice Dharma, this meditation is very beneficial.
Formation: The Fourth Skandha Continued
Of the fifty-one formations, we have already discussed the first twenty-one, which included the five omnipresent ones, the five that determine the object, and the eleven virtuous ones.
Now we will consider the twenty-six unvirtuous mental occur? rences. There are six root emotional afflictions and twenty sub? sidiary emotional afflictions.
Of the six root afflictions only five are emotional afflictions, while the sixth, view, which is divided into five parts, is placed in this category for the purpose of Dharma explanation.
The root of all emotional affliction is ignorance. Ignorance here means not knowing about action and result, the true meaning and way of practice according to the Precious jewels. Not understanding these things is the source or foundation of all emo? tional afflictions. Ignorance itself is unable to perform any function. It obscures the understanding of actions and their results-that vir?
The Five Skandhas 157
158 The Dharma
tue leads to happiness and evil leads to suffering; it obscures the understanding of the Four Noble Truths, of Relative and of Ultimate Truth, and the excellent qualities of the Three Jewels. It obscures the understanding of impermanence and change. Because of all this, all the other afflictions come into being.
The second of the emotional afflictions is desire, which is the grasping at the deteriorating aggregates of the three realms. It pro- duces the suffering of existence and causes all the sentient beings of the six types to circle in samsara. It arises from the obscuration of ig- norance.
There are two types of desire. One is desire of desire, a desire for actual things among the three realms of samsara; it pertains to beings of the six types in the Desire Realm. In the two upper realms, the Form Realm and the Formless Realm, there isn't this manifest desire, but there is the desire for existence. The higher god-states such as infinite space, infinite consciousness, etc. , are the fruit of great merit obtained through samadhi-meditation. But because the grasping at an "I" has not been abandoned, those gods have not turned away from samsaric existence.
Thirdly, there's the emotional affliction of anger. Anger is the relentless desire to hurt other beings. It's impossible to be happy while you're angry, and so we consider it to be the origin of unhap- piness.
The fourth basic emotional affliction is pn? de, an attitude of inflated superiority supported by worldly views. It is thinking, "I'm great," "I'm a high person," "I have great qualities," "I have an ex- cellent form. " There are said to be seven kinds of pride. It prevents you from respecting others and causes you to be unhappy.
The fifth is doubt. It is being of two minds concerning the true meaning. You are not certain whether the Dharma is really true or not. You think, "This isn't true," "this isn't good. " Ignorance is very strong and trust impossible. You become unable to practice virtue and usually are drawn towards negative action.
The sixth is view. Here we mean negative views based on the emotional afflictions. There are views without any emotional afflic- tion, which are considered "Perfect View. " But the views we are discussing are all considered "wrong view. "
There are five types of view. The first is the view based on the perishable aggregates, the strong belief that in the five skandhas
there is actually a self. This view becomes the basis for all wrong views.
Second is the vz"ew that holds to extremes; this is the view that the self or the skandhas exist permanently (etemalism) or that they don't exist at all (nihilism). Both views block the arising of certainty in the Middle Path-the Ultimate View.
The third is the inverted view, which denies that which is real such as the truth of karma, cause and effect, and the Three Jewels. Whoever has this view is not inclined towards virtuous activity.
That completes the three negative views. Then there are the two forms of "holding as supreme"- holdi'ng these views as supreme and holding conduct based on them as supreme. The first of these, the fourth of the wrong views, is the attitude that your erroneous view is the very best. In this case, you are completely convinced that a view such as the denial of karma is true, good, perfect, and you don't look at any other view. Since all that concerns body and speech is a projection of mind, you always need to examine with awareness the validity of your view and not accept it dumbly.
The second of these is holding one~ morality and conduct as supreme. This means holding to conduct and morality that is not conducive to liberation. This kind of view is not beneficial for oneself or others. Still one holds it as being the very best and all other moral disciplines as being untnie and bad.
Because these two-holding one's view as supreme and holding one's morality and conduct as supreme-involve clinging to the five skandhas, they are like a rope that binds you tightly. All activity is exhausting and fruitless. Even if an activity is engaged in with a lot of energy, it is meaningless. These five views are not a means of liberation from samsara and therefore not a real path.
According to the teachings of the Buddha, to determine whether a view is true or not, real or not, you need to examine your own mind. An individual must accomplish liberation in the Dharma by himself. Therefore, you must always decide for yourself whether a view leads to liberation or not. When it does, then you will also understand what is really beneficial for oneself and others now as well as in the future. In short, you always have to use your own in- telligence to investigate these things for yourself. If you don't con- stantly do this, and instead merely cling to a view, you can never at- tain freedom from samsara.
The Five Skandhas 159
160 The Dharma
Fundamentally, the teaching of the Buddha is to practice vir- tue and abandon evil. By using your own intelligence to examine what is right and what is wrong, and to develop this understanding through experience, produces the faith of trust.
We have obtained a human body. Because ofthis, a teacher-a Lama, Friend of Virtue-is needed to explain the mind in words you can understand-human terms-and to guide you. But you always have to decide yourself whether what the teacher says is true, and whether it really works or not: if it is going to be of benefit, who it will benefit, how it will benefit, and when it will benefit. You must always examine such questions, because if you just listen to the teacher and agree automatically just because it is his word, then you're no different from an animal. You have to use your in- telligence to understand the truth.
Once you really understand the meaning and nature of things well, and have reached a decision as to what is true, you should feel confidence in it. There is no need for doubt and a lot of additional activity.
When you're involved in Dharma practice or Dharma work it is not an instantaneous process, where you do something and get an immediate result. You have to look at the situation in its entirety: what work was done before and what kind of fruit has come, what kind or result comes from perfecting oneself. For example, in the case of Milarepa, a great Tibetan Siddha, and many others like him, we have to consider what work was done previously, what work was done in between, what experiences occurred, what benefit for other beings there was, and what the situation at the time of death was. Dharma practice must be considered from a very broad perspective. Therefore, examining the characteristics of views is very important.
Finally, there are several ways of distinguishing types of views: one is innate, naturally present, such as the view of the perishable aggregates based on the self and the five skandhas; the other is ac- quired through investigation or instruction by a teacher such as the two kinds of Holding as Supreme. Actions based on acquired views are easily abandoned, but actions based on innate views are much more difficult to let go of. According to the Buddha's teaching, the one hundred and fourteen acquired views are abandoned through understanding the meaning of things and developing certainty. The three hundred and sixty innate views only meditation can dispel.
Q. . What is an example of an innate view?
A. It's the view of clinging to a self-the view of the perishable ag- gregates. Clinging to an "I" in the five skandhas, you think, "I'm sick," "I'm in pain," "I'm unhappy," "I'm happy. " Or "I feel," "I perceive," "I think. " These views are always grounded in clinging to an "I" in what is only the five skandhas.
An example of an acquired view would be the different doc- trines of eternalism and nihilism that are learned or based on deduc- tion or inference. Thus, if you have the belief that each person was created by someone, then you will believe that someone must have created the Buddha, even though there is no evidence for that view. That would be an example of an acquired view.
Of the five emotional afflictions, the three major ones, ig- norance, desire, and hatred, are all inherent. The other two, pride and doubt, are acquired. For example, pride may arise from hear- ing yourself praised: "You're great," "You have excellent qualities," "You're beautiful. " One comes to acquire this view of oneself, too.
