The three
approaches
we suggest represent three particular embodiments of the pedagogical strategies we explored.
Teaching-the-Daode-Jing
Today, the techniques of ''stilling the mind'' are collectively known as ''meditation.
''
In taming the mind, we must first dissolve the desire for material things. However, Daoism does not promote deprivation or even asceticism. Rather, it teaches us to live in moderation and understand the difference between wants and needs. The Daode jing (chapter 29) says, ''The sage rejects the extreme, the extravagant, and the excessive. '' To be moderate is not to live in extremes; to live simply is not to be extravagant; and to live contently is not to indulge in excessiveness. If the Daode jing had favored asceticism, it would have en- dorsed hardship and told us to abandon all comforts in life.
Second, we need to minimize self-importance. This means doing things out of necessity and not for praise and recognition. In fact, we need to un- derstand that ''achievement'' and ''accomplishment'' are the creations of a self- centered mind, and that in this world there are only appropriate and inap- propriate actions. Pulling someone out of a burning house is not a heroic act or an achievement; it is the natural and appropriate thing to do given the situation. Of decreasing self-importance and self-centeredness, chapter 30 of the Daode jing says:
The sage produces results and does not brag about it. He produces results and does not praise himself for it. He produces results and does not boast about it.
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He produces results because that's what he would do. And he gets things done without using any force.
It is interesting to note that in the text, the word ''guo,'' which I have translated as ''produces results,'' is used to describe the actions of the sage. Guo's original and literal meaning is ''fruit. '' Therefore, guo means actions that yield fruits, results, or effects. The sage ''produces results'' with his actions and understands that it is the fruit of the action, not the actor, that is important.
Third, in taming the mind, we need to know our limits and not indulge in excesses. The Daode jing (chapter 44) says, ''Know when to stop, and you will be around for a long time. '' All things have their limits. The key to health and longevity is in knowing when something is excessive, be it eating, drinking, walking, sitting, sleeping, or thinking. Excessive eating and drinking damage the bowels; excessive walking damages the tendons; excessive sitting and sleeping damage the bones; and excessive thinking tires the mind. If the ac- tivities in our daily life are balanced, then mind and body will be balanced and healthy.
Fourth, we need to let go of the desire to interfere and to be in control. Chapter 2 of the Daode jing says:
The sage attends to the affairs of non-action and practices wordless teachings.
The ten thousand things are set in motion but he is not their agent. He gives birth to them but does not hold on to them.
He finishes his tasks but is not attached to them.
He retires when the work is done.
If we understand that we are not the prime mover of events, and that many things are better off when they are left to run their natural course, we will be less prone to interfere or try to take control. The less we see ourselves as the center of things, the less we will be entangled in the affairs of others, and the less we will bring trouble and unnecessary worries into our lives.
Apart from changing attitudes and incorporating the changes into their daily lives, Daoist practitioners also use meditation to empty the mind of thoughts and desire. The passages that describe the techniques of ''stilling the mind'' (or meditation) are found in chapters 10 and 36. The meanings in these passages, I think, are best deciphered by ''practice. '' There are three lines in chapter 10 that allude to three different forms of Daoist meditation. The first line reads, ''In nourishing the soul--can you embrace the One and not let it leave? ''
There is a form of Daoist meditation known as ''Holding or Embracing the One. '' Holding or Embracing the One means keeping the undifferentiated
energy of the Dao within. We are born with the primordial energy of the Dao, and this energy is kept within us by our spirit. However, desire and attach- ment to things in the world can lead the spirit away by drawing it toward the objects of desire. When the spirit departs, we can no longer keep the pri- mordial energy within, and when the primordial energy leaves, we will be- come ill. A commentary on the Daode jing by Heshang Gong, believed to have been written in the Han dynasty (third century b. c. e. to third century c. e. ), states, ''If people can hold onto the spirit and unite it with the One, they will not die. ''
To keep the spirit within so that it can hold on to the primordial energy of the Dao, the practitioner first slows the thoughts and stills the mind until no mental activity is present. Physical stillness is recommended but not neces- sary; the mind can be still when one is walking. Once stillness is attained, the undifferentiated energy of the Dao can be held and gathered to nourish the body and clear the mind.
The second line reads, ''In circulating the breath and making it soft--can you do it like that of an infant? '' There is a form of Daoist meditation that uses techniques of circulating and regulating breath to cultivate physical health and mental clarity. Daoists believe that breath sustains life by circulating energy in the body. Thus, proper breathing can enhance health and longevity.
This passage refers to a form of breathing in Daoist practice that is known as ''infant breathing. '' Infant breathing involves synchronizing abdominal movement with inhalation and exhalation. It is soft and slow and is never forced or controlled by conscious thoughts. The Daode jing (chapter 55) states, ''If the mind were to control the breath, this would be forcing things. '' When we can breathe like an infant, energy in the body will be replenished and we will be rejuvenated.
Abdominal breathing itself is deep breathing. In this form of breath- ing, the air is allowed to sink into the belly before it is exhaled. Abdominal breathing requires much diaphragmatic action and the internal organs must be pliable enough to move out of the way when the diaphragm presses down during inhalation. Modern practitioners of the Daoist arts incorporate the techniques of circulating and regulating breath into a discipline called qigong (which literally means ''the work of breath and energy''). Fetal or infant breathing is the most advanced stage of qigong, and it can be practiced only after many years of training.
The third line reads, ''In cleaning the subtle mirror--can you make it spotless? ''
There is a form of Daoist meditation that is designed to empty the mind of desire by stopping thoughts. The subtle mirror is the mind, which when
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cleaned (that is, emptied), can see through the illusions of desire. The image of the mind as a mirror and the metaphor of cleaning it are used also by the Chan (Zen) Buddhists (who were influenced by Daoism) to describe the process of stopping the thought processes and recovering the original empty mind.
Today, this form of Daoist meditation is practiced widely by members of the Complete Reality (quanzhen) School of Daoism, who believe that the mind must be emptied of thoughts and desire before the techniques of rejuvenating the body can be practiced.
Another form of meditation practiced by Daoists is ''Internal Observa- tion'' (dingguan or neiguan). The principles behind this form of meditation are described in chapter 36 of the Daode jing:
If you want to get rid of it, you must cooperate with it.
If you wish to take something away from it, you must contribute to it.
Internal observation requires the practitioner to use the mind to subdue the mind. In this form of meditation, one observes the rise and fall of sensations, emotions, thoughts, and desires, becoming mindful that such phenomena are products of an active mind that is attached to desire. Internal observation encourages the use of ''productive'' mental activity (mindfulness) to conquer ''wayward'' mental activity. Productive mental activity is the mindful activity that analyzes the rise and fall of thoughts and sensations and eventually understands the futility of attachment. On the other hand, wayward mental activity is thinking that is directed toward objects of desire. To use productive mental activity to defeat wayward mental activity is what is meant by ''getting rid of it by cooperating with it'' and ''taking it away by contributing to it. ''
The Daode jing on Cultivating the Body
Daoists believe that health and longevity are intimately linked to the level of energy in the body. When we were in our mother's womb, we were nourished by the primordial energy of the Dao. After we are born, the contact with that primordial energy is lost. From then on, any energy spent can no longer be replenished by this inexhaustible source. With growth, puberty, and maturity, energy continues to be spent as we think, desire, and have sex. The more we indulge in these activities, the faster the energy will dissipate. The faster the energy dissipates, the faster we will age. When the body does not have enough energy to heal its injuries or protect itself from diseases, we will become weak and ill. When the energy is completely spent, we will die.
Chapter 13 of the Daode jing says:
The reason why I have a problem
Is because I have a body.
If I had no body, then all my problems would go away.
Although Daoists believe that the body is the root of the problem of ill health, they do not believe that it is ''evil'' or ''extraneous. '' The body is the source of the problem only because it is where desire originates. Daoists do not deny the body. If they had believed in the denial of the body, they would not have developed techniques to nourish it.
Desire damages health, because when energy is spent on satisfying wants, it cannot be used to nourish the body. The Daode jing (chapter 44) puts this choice between health and desire very bluntly:
Fame or your body, which do you want more?
Your Body or your wealth, which do you value more?
Energy can also dissipate through openings in the body. The mouth, for example, is an area of the body where energy can leak out. This is why the Daode jing (chapter 5) says, ''Talk too much and you'll be exhausted. '' Speaking is an activity that can cause energy to escape from the body. This is because two major channels of energy in the body (the du and ren meridians) connect at the palate of the mouth. If we close the mouth, the channels are connected and energy is kept within the body. If we open the mouth, the two meridians are disconnected and an opening has been created for the energy to escape. Therefore, maintaining silence and speaking only when necessary can help us conserve energy.
One technique used by Daoists to cultivate health and longevity involves blocking the openings to prevent the energy from flowing out of the body. Consider this passage from chapter 52 of the Daode jing:
Block the holes and close the doors,
And you will not be labored all your life. Open the holes and meddle in affairs, And all your life you will never be saved.
Blocking the holes and closing the doors mean closing the orifices of the body so that energy does not leak out. The orifices are the mouth, the nostrils, the anus, and the sexual organs. (The ears are not considered orifices because the eardrum is a physical barrier. ) If these openings are not blocked, energy will escape out of the body.
To prevent the leakage of energy, Daoists have developed techniques to block the four openings. To block the orifice at the mouth, we minimize speech
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and keep the tongue against the palate. To block the orifice at the nose, we soften the breath and breathe with the diaphragm. To block the orifice at the anus, we sit and sleep in postures designed to cover that opening. And to pre- vent the energy from escaping through the sexual organs, Daoists use special techniques to conserve and control the expenditure of energy during sexual intercourse. These techniques are called ''bedchamber techniques'' and are also recognized by the classics of traditional Chinese medicine such as The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine (Huangdi neijing suwen) and The Spiritual Pivot (Lingshu) as methods of conserving energy and cultivating health.
Another way to cultivate energy is to refine it. Chapter 10 of the Daode jing says:
In circulating the breath and making it soft--can you do it like that of an infant?
In opening and closing the celestial gates, can you become the female?
The circulation and regulation of breath can help us to cultivate and refine energy. Using the appropriate techniques, mundane breath (the air we inhale) can be transmuted and purified into primordial and pristine energy. Fetal and abdominal breathing (described earlier) are examples of how this process of transmutation can be accomplished.
In the transmutation of breath (qi) into energy (qi), the timing of the cycles of inhalation and exhalation is critical. During inhalation, the ''valves'' along the energy channels are opened to allow the outside air to enter. During exhalation, the ''valves'' along the energy channels are closed to keep the purified energy within while the impurities are expelled. The ''valves'' along the energy chan- nels are called the ''celestial gates'' (tianmen), and the energy circuit inside the body is called the ''celestial'' or ''royal'' pathway (huang Dao). The more com- mon name for this pathway is the Microcosmic Orbit (xiaozhoutian).
Energy spent is energy lost if it is not replenished. One way to replenish energy is to gather it from a source that has an inexhaustible supply. This source is referred to as the ''valley spirit'' and the ''mysterious female. '' Chapter 6 of the Daode jing says:
The valley spirit does not die.
It is called the mysterious female.
The gates of the mysterious female Are the roots of the sky and the earth. Lasting and existing forever,
It cannot be exhausted.
The ''valley spirit'' refers to the exhaustible energy of the female that has the power to nourish and give birth. That is why it ''does not die. '' Daoists call it the procreative or generative energy, and to be able to gather this energy is to renew life. Procreative energy in both men and women is considered ''female'' energy because, being liquid and formless, it is said to have a ''yin'' nature. It is referred to as the ''mysterious female'' because it is hidden and emerges only when aroused. The primordial energy of the Dao, which is the source of things, is manifested in the procreative energy that is present in all living things. This generative energy is called the ''roots of the sky and earth'' be- cause both sky and earth are said to have been created from the copulation of the yin and yang components of the primordial energy of the Dao. Daoists believe that if we can arouse procreative energy and then draw it back into the body, we will be revitalized and rejuvenated. Chapter 55 describes a person who is filled with procreative energy:
Although his bones are weak and his tendons soft,
His grasp is firm.
He does not understand the copulation of male and female, Yet his organ can be aroused.
This is because his generative energy is at its height.
He can scream all day and not become hoarse.
This is because his harmony is at its height.
The Daode jing on Lifestyle
The techniques of cultivating the mind and body should be accompanied by a lifestyle that complements them. Otherwise, what is cultivated in meditation or qigong will be lost in daily living.
First, the Daode jing advises practitioners to live a simple contented life, to be moderate in all activities, and not to be involved with worldly affairs. Chapter 9 says:
Even if your rooms are filled with gold and jade, You will not be able to protect them.
Pride and arrogance invite disaster.
When your work is done, you should retire. That is the way of Heaven.
If we do not have many possessions, we will not have to worry about losing them. If we are not famous, we will have less trouble in life. Famous people are scrutinized and investigated; on the other hand, unknown people are left
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to live a peaceful life. In a world where many are trapped by fame, fortune, approval, and greed, those who hide their skills are the ones who survive.
Second, the Daode jing recommends that practitioners live a quiet life. An overinquisitive mind and overactive body can be detrimental to health as well as be an obstacle to enlightenment. Knowledge is not equivalent to enlight- enment. Whereas knowledge is involved with knowing about the world and is directed outward, enlightenment is insight into oneself and is directed in- ward. If we do not understand this difference, obsessive pursuit of knowledge can cost us insight into ourselves. Chapter 47 of the Daode jing says:
You don't need to leave your home to know the world.
You don't need to look out of your window to see the celestial way Because the farther you go, the less you'll know.
Therefore the sage does not need to travel to know.
He does not need to see to name.
And he does not need to do to accomplish.
Finally, the Daode jing advises the practitioner to learn to accept the natural course of things. Accepting the way of things does not mean that we should believe in fate. Rather, it means that we should understand that we cannot control everything. If we try to make things happen or not happen, we will only bring trouble into our lives. Chapter 16 of the Daode jing says:
To return to the roots is to be still.
To be still is to accept your destiny.
To accept your destiny is to know what is constant and unchanging. If you know what is constant, you are wise.
If you don't know what is constant, your actions will bring you
misfortune.
The sage accepts the natural way of things because he understands the ''constant. '' ''Constant'' (chang) means ''unchanging,'' and to understand the ''constant'' is to understand both the changing and the unchanging aspects of the Dao. It is this ability to distinguish between that which can be changed and that which cannot be changed that allows the sage to embrace life and accept death.
Conclusions
For practitioners, the value of a text lies in its use. Can the Daode jing be used as a guide to living a healthy and long life? I believe the answer is ''yes. '' For
over two thousand years, the Daode jing has influenced the Chinese arts and sciences of cultivating health and longevity. Today, its teachings on cultivating mind and body can be found in the practice of Chinese medicine, meditation, qi gong, and martial arts. Do the teachings of the Daode jing work? I think this question is best answered by practice. From my experience, they do.
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? Imagine Teaching the Daode Jing!
Judith Berling, Geoffrey Foy, and John Thompson
The invitation to participate in this volume arrived while the three of us were working our way through the Zhuangzi. Zhuangzi has a way of challenging readers to imagine manifold viewpoints. Perhaps he inspired us. Although the three of us have different teaching back- grounds, we share a passion for teaching texts such as the Daode jing. We began a seriously playful conversation about teaching this text. We both expanded and honed our initial ideas as we learned from and with one another.
The three approaches we suggest represent three particular embodiments of the pedagogical strategies we explored. They have in common two basic moves: (1) an exercise in which students reflect and comment on their initial experience of and response to the text, and (2) an exercise to engage students with the text imagina- tively, creatively, and constructively. The three particular approaches are complementary ways of implementing these principles. It is our hope that three options will inspire our readers to imagine cre- ative approaches to teaching the Daode jing that will suit them and their students.
Letting the Daode Jing Teach
Most Chinese texts clearly situate themselves, providing not only an author but the date, place, and circumstances of their origins.
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They fairly plead to be taught as the reflections of a specific person in a spe- cific historical context. The Daode jing is an exception to this rule, its author shrouded in a dense mist of questionable traditions. Although we have some sense of the period in which the book was produced, the Old Master (Laozi) to whom it is attributed remains a figure of controversy and legend; the more one pursues his historical origins, the more one is convinced that the party or parties behind this remarkable book chose to remain obscure. The hiddenness of the author coincides well with the teachings of the book: avoiding fame, unlearning, and leading by nondoing. I seek to honor the text by letting it teach itself, as far as possible. That is, I teach the text by allowing the students to learn from it for themselves.
The Daode jing is difficult to teach satisfactorily in a lecture mode, but it offers wonderful possibilities for student engagement and reflection. A careful setup by an instructor to give the students a feel for the text and its inter- locutors and then to highlight central themes and images can yield very successful self-learning experiences for students, alone and in small groups.
Some contextualization is required to engage students fruitfully with the text. Situating the Daode jing is best accomplished if the text is taught in a course or a unit that deals with classical Chinese thought. In that case, the context of late Zhou China will already have been introduced, with its lively debate over the foundation of a strong and stable government. Those vying for positions as political advisors competed by offering ''better ideas. '' Prevailing wisdom held that the sine qua nons of a strong state were keen understanding of political and military institutions, crafty political scheming, skilled negoti- ation, and strong legal and military strategies. 1 The other classical philosoph- ical and religious positions, which came to define Chinese cultural discourse, all arose in contradistinction to the prevailing view. The Daode jing was one of those countervailing voices. It was also a counter to the opposition voice of the early Confucians, who argued for reestablishment of civic virtues and rituals of propriety as the key to establishing a strong stable society.
If these broader themes have already been introduced, then the Daode jing, in responding to that context, will virtually speak for itself. If not, then I create an exercise to identify the rhetorical opponents of the book. In what follows I assume that the Daode jing is being taught in isolation, although recognizing that such isolation is the exception, not the general rule.
In my experience, teaching the Daode jing requires at least two or three class sessions. This is because the book requires some getting used to by the students. Moreover, it takes time for students to move from passive responses (What is this book like/about? ) to more constructive responses (How would nonaction work in my life? ).
imagine teaching the daode jing! 93
The first assignment is a get-acquainted reading. Students read the book from beginning to end, reflecting on the following questions: How would you characterize the book? What was it like to read? Did you perceive any threads of continuity? What response(s) did the book draw from you? Who were the targets of criticism in the book? I facilitate responses to this last question by highlighting a few chapters for special comment. Given these chapters, what would you say is the primary target of this book's teaching? What errors is it trying to address? 2
Subsequent assignments build on the first. I take the poetic language and the suggestive imagery of the book as its teaching device and group chapters along such themes and images (Dao, water, the uncarved block, the female, the infant; nondoing, the power and virtue of Dao [de], the Daoist ruler/sage/ master). 3 The first five pertain to the nature and movements of Dao, the second three to human activity based on the Dao. There is, of course, considerable overlap between these two groupings. I ask students to read and think about the themes and images offered in these grouped chapters. Each student is asked to select a theme (a group of chapters) and write a brief reflection paper (one to three pages long). That paper is used as the basis of small group discussions in the next class period. Each group becomes expert on a theme or image in the Daode jing. The small groups report back their reflections to the larger class, thereby becoming teachers of the book. If time allows, the two subgroups (images of Dao and humans modeling themselves on the Dao) can be separate class sessions.
Although the experience of inviting class members to become interpret- ers and teachers of the Daode jing is the primary goal of my teaching strategy, I also include an exercise for constructive reflection focused on nondoing or the ruler/sage who leads and teaches by nonaction. My experience is that undergraduates who have spent a little time with this text begin to ask very challenging and probing questions, questions that are not easy to answer. The difficulty of the questions posed has led me to lead a plenary discussion on these questions; as a teacher, I can acknowledge the profound challenge of questions raised and help the class negotiate the difficult path of addressing them. Shortly after several undergraduates had died in drinking and driving accidents, one class asked whether a Daoist would let a friend drive drunk. Is there any way to intervene without violating the premises of nonaction? An- other asked, ''What would a Daoist do if his or her child were being threatened with bodily harm? ''
These are extremely difficult questions. If the Daode jing is taught in a unit on classical Chinese thought, the teacher has the option (or escape route) of asking the class whether Confucians would have a more satisfying response
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to such dilemmas. This question raises the important issue of the relationship of Confucianism and Daoism. Although Westerners tend to construct these two streams of thought as competing and exclusive, the Chinese viewed them as complementary options. If the Daode jing is taught in isolation, I lead the class to the best possible Daoist response to such difficult moral conundrums. My classes have delighted me with their ability, after just two or three sessions with the Daode jing, to raise and wrestle collectively with difficult Daoist moral questions. I have been more successful with this text than with any other at engaging undergraduates not only in interpretation, but also in constructive response.
The Daode jing is genuinely a paradoxical text. On the one hand, it is difficult because it is hard to pin down historically and to summarize as a clear-cut position. On the other hand, its poetic language and richly suggestive images invite interpretation and reflection, drawing readers into the vision of the text, inviting them to try on an alternative approach to life. True to its own philosophy, the Daode jing teaches itself with some prior setup by the teacher.
Gender and the Daode Jing
The Daode jing can also be taught by using gender as a framework of explora- tion. There are several ways of conceptualizing gender as a teaching frame- work. I discuss one of them here.
I begin with the language and meaning of polarity as represented in the dialectic of yin and yang, the cosmic principles that produce and sustain crea- tion in its harmony. This yin-yang polarity is basic to understanding the cosmic dimensions of the Dao. One way we witness the existence of the Dao is through the activity of yin and yang as manifested in polar opposites, such as being/ nonbeing, action/nonaction, luminous/shadowy, hot/cold, up/down, right/ left, male/female. A class session directly or indirectly dealing with the last relationship (male/female) presents a viable approach to the text by engaging students in a familiar issue: women's and men's experience in culture. Gran- ted, gender is a culturally conditioned construct and its representations in culture are enigmatic. Nevertheless, its ambiguity is the very characteristic that lends itself to be a useful heuristic. As Caroline Walker Bynum suggests in her introduction to Gender and Religion, gender-related symbols are ''polysemic''; they possess a variety of meanings that concurrently engender manifold ques- tions. With this perspective in mind, students not only investigate issues con- cerning the text itself, but they also examine issues concerning the context of
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the text and their own interpretations of it. The matter of students' interpre- tations deserves more attention here.
Because gender is used in the Daode jing as a manifestation of the Dao (i. e. , by way of polar opposites, as well as anthropomorphic imagery), the door is open for students to apply their culturally gendered ideologies to the text as they analyze and discern the meaning of specific words and phrases. How- ever, as they do this they will discover a conflict: the way the text understands gender challenges or subverts the students' culturally embedded assumptions. It goes without saying that the Chinese commentators themselves entertain differing opinions of how to interpret certain chapters. 4 Consequently, as the students learn about gender through the voice of the text, they are invited to reexamine their own conceptions of gender. The Daode jing, then, offers a new model for thinking about gender. Rigid gender categories (e. g. , males are this, women are that) are questioned as students consider how to adapt the yin and yang dynamic to their cultural experiences. In this exercise the text is engaged on several different levels. The two most relevant here are the text within its own boundaries as a classic and the text offering formulations of gender that students can engage.
Two particular translations of the Daode jing offer some assistance for utilizing gender as a pedagogical tool: Stephen Mitchell's Tao Te Ching and Ellen M. Chen's The Tao Te Ching: A New Translation with Commentary. Mitchell's translation incorporates inclusive language throughout. For exam- ple, Mitchell translates the phrase shenren as ''master,'' but when the text ex- cludes the phrase and yet still implies it, Mitchell alternates the pronouns ''he'' and ''she. '' The result is that his translation differs from many other transla- tions in not using English pronouns to reinforce male-dominated language. 5 The significance of such a maneuver is revealed in the kinds of queries de- veloped by the students as they read this type of translation. Students may ask whether the inclusive language makes a difference in understanding the main ideas of the classic, or if Mitchell's choices reflect a contemporary interpreta- tion. Likewise, students may ponder whether a female shenren would interpret the manifestations of the Dao differently from a male shenren. Although such questions are difficult to answer, the investigations themselves are worthwhile.
Chen's translation is a useful accompaniment to Mitchell's. Whereas Mitchell's rendition is accessible to novice students due to its fashionable and simple format, Chen's exposition offers a detailed analysis along with a more precise translation. Like Mitchell, Chen is cognizant of gendered and non- gendered language in the text and is helpful in elucidating its significance for both the meaning of the text and the context of the document. This
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becomes most apparent when Chen deals with two particular fertility symbols for Dao, gushen (Valley Spirit) and xuan pin (Dark Mare), in chapter 6 of the Daode jing and the two dynamic principles of yin and yang in chapter 42. 6 In both cases Chen discusses the meaning and function of gender-related lan- guage and symbols as she translates the chapters.
My conceptual model for using gender as a teaching framework for the Daode jing can be implemented in different ways. Let me briefly suggest two, both of which assume a class of upper-division undergraduates.
The first proposal is to cover the Daode jing in one class session with two external assignments, one a preparation for the session and the other a follow- up. For the preliminary assignment, students read introductory material to the Daode jing which covers appropriate historical background, including date and authorship, cultural context, and compilation and redaction. 7 Students then read Mitchell's translation once through to acquire a general impression of the text. Students then reread the text while keeping in mind some focus questions: What is gender? How is gender manifested in the text? It would be useful to specify some chapters for student reflection, starting with 6 and 42. What is the significance of gender-related language or symbols for the meaning of the text? When the author mentions the Master, does the term refer to a male or a female? Would the meaning of the text change at all if the master was either sex? How would a male master view the Dao versus a female master? How do Western or contemporary ideas or manifestations of gender affect your reading of the text?
The class session is focused around a discussion. I briefly introduce the text, summarizing key points in the introductory material and eliciting stu- dents' initial reactions to their first general reading of the text. Students break into groups of mixed genders and discuss the above questions in relation to specified chapters. They then reassemble and summarize what they learned in the small groups. At this point, I provide additional material and com- mentary for parts of the text that need further explanation (e. g. , Chen's analysis of chapters 6 and 42). As a postscript, students write a one- to two- page reflection paper on a particular chapter of the Daode jing that they believe best exemplifies the Daode jing's presentation of gender. As the students write their papers they are expected to keep in mind the questions mentioned above and the general themes of the text.
If time permits, I suggest a three-session unit, developed as follows. A general discussion of gender and religion focuses on cultural differences and similarities, primarily between Eastern and Western cultures, to introduce the basic questions concerning gender and religion and what kind of method would be employed when reading the Daode jing. I introduce the text, including
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its general themes. (By this session students would have read the text and be ready to give preliminary responses. ) We discuss gender-related imagery in the classic and its significance for the meaning of the text, utilizing group sessions on gender issues described above, with the same follow-up exercise.
The purpose of both formats is to provide students with a framework to engage a classic Chinese text in a fresh way. Although gender is a familiar issue in the 1990s, the issues are raised in a fresh way by a classic like the Daode jing, separated both culturally and temporally from the lives of today's students. Not only did the cultural constructions of gender in the late Zhou period affect the author's development of a philosophy or religious ideology, but the cultural construction of gender in our times also affects readers of the text. The Daode jing offers an excellent opportunity to explore both gender issues and issues of cross-cultural understanding.
The Daode Jing: An Exercise in How Interpretations Change
I admit I've been stumped about how to teach the Daode jing, mainly because after years of reading it, I still don't know what the text is about! It occurs to me, however, that this insight provides an important clue: maybe a class reading of the Daode jing could be a series of attempts to explore what the text is about. This may initially be very unsettling for students, but it would be fun. It's not often that in the midst of our normally staid academic pursuits we actually allow ourselves to play with what strikes our fancy. Recently when I taught the text, a student who had never read the book before told me that her son thought that if more people read it, soon we'd find there would be no need for seminaries. I laughingly agreed. The Daode jing is a real book, unlike so much of what we find in the self-help, psychology, or religion sections of the average bookstore. It deserves as many readings as we can give it.
What follows is a practical proposal for teaching the Daode jing in a course on Chinese religions and philosophies. The premise of my pedagogical strategy is quite different from the first two in this essay, both of which allowed for the possibility that the text was taught in a course not about China. I have designed this to cover four class sessions. I then suggest books I have found helpful in understanding the text. After outlining each session I briefly explain my think- ing and reasons for recommending the works I list, hoping thereby to make my approach accessible to teachers who are not specialists in Chinese culture.
Let me be very clear at the outset that I do not intend this particular format to be ironclad and hope that it can be adapted to suit various contexts (classes in East Asian religions, world philosophy, classical Chinese, even a
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graduate seminar on textual interpretation). My aim is for students and in- structors to engage with the text, not necessarily to come up with a final, agreed-upon reading. To this end I have fallen back on having students write short reflection papers to stimulate their thinking and questions, preparing them for discussion. There is, I think, little danger here of using up all of our ideas. After all, the Dao is the Way of Heaven and Earth--which would seem to rule out the possibility of us mere mortals ever exhausting it.
Class 1: Introduction
Preparation: Read whole text. Write one-page reaction paper: ''What
is this text about? ''
Class Lecture and Discussion: Short history of text; who Laozi is;
importance of text in Chinese history.
This is the basic ''just the facts, ma'am'' session, aimed at conveying a sense of the Daode jing, when it probably was written, who the mysterious author Laozi may have been. At the very least an introductory course should convey this information to give students some sort of initial overview and orientation, even at the risk of oversimplification. There are, of course, nu- merous sources for much of this information.
A. C. Graham's good discussion in Disputers of the Tao and D. C. Lau's introduction to his translation have both proved helpful. 8 In addition, Herrlee Creel's classic essay ''What Is Taoism? '' and Wing-tsit Chan's ''Influences of Taoist Classics on Chinese Philosophy'' provide useful discussions of the complexity of the Daode jing and its relationship to traditional Chinese culture. 9
Class 2: Religious Daoism
Preparation: Read selections from John Lagerwey's Taoist Ritual in
Chinese Society and History (chapters 4, 10) and Kristofer Schipper's
The Taoist Body(chapters 5,8).
Exercise: Sit quietly for 5-10 minutes, counting your breaths. Reread chapters 4, 9, 10, 12, 19, 20, 28, 37, 42, 43, 50, 54, 61. 10 Write one-page reaction paper: ''What is this text about? ''
Class Lecture and Discussion: rise of sects; formation of orders; rit-
uals; self-cultivation.
Although the dichotomy between so-called religious and philosophical Daoism is often overemphasized (usually to the detriment of the former, pace Creel), I think it can be a useful way of getting at different aspects of this amorphous beast we call Daoism. To this end, both Lagerwey and Schipper show how complex Daoism as a practicing cult is. Students need to realize
imagine teaching the daode jing! 99
that the Daode jing is truly scripture (like the Bible and the Qur'an) and that it is used in actual worship services and as a guide to personal spiritual culti- vation. The text takes on new depth when we see it as part of a living tradition, as opposed to just the musings of long-dead thinkers.
Class 3: Philosophical Daoism
Preparation: Read selections from Benjamin I. Schwartz's The World
of Thought in Ancient China (first section of chapter 6), Robert
Cummings Neville'sBehind the Masks of God (chapter 4).
Reread chapters 1, 2, 14, 18, 19, 25, 32, 34, 39, 40, 42, 52, 70, 81. Write one-page reaction paper: ''What is this text about? ''
Class Lecture and Discussion: philosophical Daoism, Wang Bi and
the ''Dark Learning. ''
Until quite recently most of the Western academic literature focused on the philosophical aspects of the Daode jing (this is understandable, as it is a fas- cinating topic), and this will probably be the aspect most readily accessible to first-time readers. The Daode jing certainly articulates one of the main currents of Chinese thought and, together with the Confucian philosophy found in the Analects and the Mencius, remains essential for understanding East Asian civilization. Indeed, to see how the teachings of the Daode jing serve as a critical response to the more regimented and hierarchical aspects of mainstream Confucian learning (although technically, the Confucian and Daoist strains of Chinese thought have never existed separately from one another) can prevent a reading of this text from sliding into mushy New Age feel-goodism. Schwartz is excellent here, and Neville opens the discussion out into the greater context of world philosophy. I chose to emphasize the role of Wang Bi (and the other Neo- Daoists) for two reasons: first, because Wang's commentary has been so in- fluential in Chinese and Western readings of the Daode jing (almost all but the most recent translations are from his redaction), and second because the role of Neo-Daoism11 in the history of Chinese thought has often been overlooked. Chinese Buddhism, for example, is virtually impossible to understand without some knowledge of the ''Dark Learning. ''
Class 4: Is there a text in this class?
Preparation: Choice of assignments:
(1) Visit an Asian Art museum,12 taking the text with you. Pause be-
tween various works and reread chapters 2, 6, 11, 14, 16, 21, 22, 25,
41, 45, 47, 81.
(2) Go on a strenuous day hike (no matter what the weather). Leave
the umbrella at home even if it's raining, but take the text with you.
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approaching the daode jing
At some rest point, stop and reread chapters 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 16, 23, 32,
34, 37, 41, 51, 55, 73, 77.
(3) Visit a New Age bookstore, and take note of titles relating to
Daoism. Read sections from one of them (e. g. , The Tao of Pooh).
Reread chapters 24, 28, 33, 37, 38, 41, 43, 45, 48, 53, 63, 66, 68. Write a one-page reaction paper: ''What is this text about?
In taming the mind, we must first dissolve the desire for material things. However, Daoism does not promote deprivation or even asceticism. Rather, it teaches us to live in moderation and understand the difference between wants and needs. The Daode jing (chapter 29) says, ''The sage rejects the extreme, the extravagant, and the excessive. '' To be moderate is not to live in extremes; to live simply is not to be extravagant; and to live contently is not to indulge in excessiveness. If the Daode jing had favored asceticism, it would have en- dorsed hardship and told us to abandon all comforts in life.
Second, we need to minimize self-importance. This means doing things out of necessity and not for praise and recognition. In fact, we need to un- derstand that ''achievement'' and ''accomplishment'' are the creations of a self- centered mind, and that in this world there are only appropriate and inap- propriate actions. Pulling someone out of a burning house is not a heroic act or an achievement; it is the natural and appropriate thing to do given the situation. Of decreasing self-importance and self-centeredness, chapter 30 of the Daode jing says:
The sage produces results and does not brag about it. He produces results and does not praise himself for it. He produces results and does not boast about it.
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82 approaching the daode jing
He produces results because that's what he would do. And he gets things done without using any force.
It is interesting to note that in the text, the word ''guo,'' which I have translated as ''produces results,'' is used to describe the actions of the sage. Guo's original and literal meaning is ''fruit. '' Therefore, guo means actions that yield fruits, results, or effects. The sage ''produces results'' with his actions and understands that it is the fruit of the action, not the actor, that is important.
Third, in taming the mind, we need to know our limits and not indulge in excesses. The Daode jing (chapter 44) says, ''Know when to stop, and you will be around for a long time. '' All things have their limits. The key to health and longevity is in knowing when something is excessive, be it eating, drinking, walking, sitting, sleeping, or thinking. Excessive eating and drinking damage the bowels; excessive walking damages the tendons; excessive sitting and sleeping damage the bones; and excessive thinking tires the mind. If the ac- tivities in our daily life are balanced, then mind and body will be balanced and healthy.
Fourth, we need to let go of the desire to interfere and to be in control. Chapter 2 of the Daode jing says:
The sage attends to the affairs of non-action and practices wordless teachings.
The ten thousand things are set in motion but he is not their agent. He gives birth to them but does not hold on to them.
He finishes his tasks but is not attached to them.
He retires when the work is done.
If we understand that we are not the prime mover of events, and that many things are better off when they are left to run their natural course, we will be less prone to interfere or try to take control. The less we see ourselves as the center of things, the less we will be entangled in the affairs of others, and the less we will bring trouble and unnecessary worries into our lives.
Apart from changing attitudes and incorporating the changes into their daily lives, Daoist practitioners also use meditation to empty the mind of thoughts and desire. The passages that describe the techniques of ''stilling the mind'' (or meditation) are found in chapters 10 and 36. The meanings in these passages, I think, are best deciphered by ''practice. '' There are three lines in chapter 10 that allude to three different forms of Daoist meditation. The first line reads, ''In nourishing the soul--can you embrace the One and not let it leave? ''
There is a form of Daoist meditation known as ''Holding or Embracing the One. '' Holding or Embracing the One means keeping the undifferentiated
energy of the Dao within. We are born with the primordial energy of the Dao, and this energy is kept within us by our spirit. However, desire and attach- ment to things in the world can lead the spirit away by drawing it toward the objects of desire. When the spirit departs, we can no longer keep the pri- mordial energy within, and when the primordial energy leaves, we will be- come ill. A commentary on the Daode jing by Heshang Gong, believed to have been written in the Han dynasty (third century b. c. e. to third century c. e. ), states, ''If people can hold onto the spirit and unite it with the One, they will not die. ''
To keep the spirit within so that it can hold on to the primordial energy of the Dao, the practitioner first slows the thoughts and stills the mind until no mental activity is present. Physical stillness is recommended but not neces- sary; the mind can be still when one is walking. Once stillness is attained, the undifferentiated energy of the Dao can be held and gathered to nourish the body and clear the mind.
The second line reads, ''In circulating the breath and making it soft--can you do it like that of an infant? '' There is a form of Daoist meditation that uses techniques of circulating and regulating breath to cultivate physical health and mental clarity. Daoists believe that breath sustains life by circulating energy in the body. Thus, proper breathing can enhance health and longevity.
This passage refers to a form of breathing in Daoist practice that is known as ''infant breathing. '' Infant breathing involves synchronizing abdominal movement with inhalation and exhalation. It is soft and slow and is never forced or controlled by conscious thoughts. The Daode jing (chapter 55) states, ''If the mind were to control the breath, this would be forcing things. '' When we can breathe like an infant, energy in the body will be replenished and we will be rejuvenated.
Abdominal breathing itself is deep breathing. In this form of breath- ing, the air is allowed to sink into the belly before it is exhaled. Abdominal breathing requires much diaphragmatic action and the internal organs must be pliable enough to move out of the way when the diaphragm presses down during inhalation. Modern practitioners of the Daoist arts incorporate the techniques of circulating and regulating breath into a discipline called qigong (which literally means ''the work of breath and energy''). Fetal or infant breathing is the most advanced stage of qigong, and it can be practiced only after many years of training.
The third line reads, ''In cleaning the subtle mirror--can you make it spotless? ''
There is a form of Daoist meditation that is designed to empty the mind of desire by stopping thoughts. The subtle mirror is the mind, which when
the daode jing in practice 83
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cleaned (that is, emptied), can see through the illusions of desire. The image of the mind as a mirror and the metaphor of cleaning it are used also by the Chan (Zen) Buddhists (who were influenced by Daoism) to describe the process of stopping the thought processes and recovering the original empty mind.
Today, this form of Daoist meditation is practiced widely by members of the Complete Reality (quanzhen) School of Daoism, who believe that the mind must be emptied of thoughts and desire before the techniques of rejuvenating the body can be practiced.
Another form of meditation practiced by Daoists is ''Internal Observa- tion'' (dingguan or neiguan). The principles behind this form of meditation are described in chapter 36 of the Daode jing:
If you want to get rid of it, you must cooperate with it.
If you wish to take something away from it, you must contribute to it.
Internal observation requires the practitioner to use the mind to subdue the mind. In this form of meditation, one observes the rise and fall of sensations, emotions, thoughts, and desires, becoming mindful that such phenomena are products of an active mind that is attached to desire. Internal observation encourages the use of ''productive'' mental activity (mindfulness) to conquer ''wayward'' mental activity. Productive mental activity is the mindful activity that analyzes the rise and fall of thoughts and sensations and eventually understands the futility of attachment. On the other hand, wayward mental activity is thinking that is directed toward objects of desire. To use productive mental activity to defeat wayward mental activity is what is meant by ''getting rid of it by cooperating with it'' and ''taking it away by contributing to it. ''
The Daode jing on Cultivating the Body
Daoists believe that health and longevity are intimately linked to the level of energy in the body. When we were in our mother's womb, we were nourished by the primordial energy of the Dao. After we are born, the contact with that primordial energy is lost. From then on, any energy spent can no longer be replenished by this inexhaustible source. With growth, puberty, and maturity, energy continues to be spent as we think, desire, and have sex. The more we indulge in these activities, the faster the energy will dissipate. The faster the energy dissipates, the faster we will age. When the body does not have enough energy to heal its injuries or protect itself from diseases, we will become weak and ill. When the energy is completely spent, we will die.
Chapter 13 of the Daode jing says:
The reason why I have a problem
Is because I have a body.
If I had no body, then all my problems would go away.
Although Daoists believe that the body is the root of the problem of ill health, they do not believe that it is ''evil'' or ''extraneous. '' The body is the source of the problem only because it is where desire originates. Daoists do not deny the body. If they had believed in the denial of the body, they would not have developed techniques to nourish it.
Desire damages health, because when energy is spent on satisfying wants, it cannot be used to nourish the body. The Daode jing (chapter 44) puts this choice between health and desire very bluntly:
Fame or your body, which do you want more?
Your Body or your wealth, which do you value more?
Energy can also dissipate through openings in the body. The mouth, for example, is an area of the body where energy can leak out. This is why the Daode jing (chapter 5) says, ''Talk too much and you'll be exhausted. '' Speaking is an activity that can cause energy to escape from the body. This is because two major channels of energy in the body (the du and ren meridians) connect at the palate of the mouth. If we close the mouth, the channels are connected and energy is kept within the body. If we open the mouth, the two meridians are disconnected and an opening has been created for the energy to escape. Therefore, maintaining silence and speaking only when necessary can help us conserve energy.
One technique used by Daoists to cultivate health and longevity involves blocking the openings to prevent the energy from flowing out of the body. Consider this passage from chapter 52 of the Daode jing:
Block the holes and close the doors,
And you will not be labored all your life. Open the holes and meddle in affairs, And all your life you will never be saved.
Blocking the holes and closing the doors mean closing the orifices of the body so that energy does not leak out. The orifices are the mouth, the nostrils, the anus, and the sexual organs. (The ears are not considered orifices because the eardrum is a physical barrier. ) If these openings are not blocked, energy will escape out of the body.
To prevent the leakage of energy, Daoists have developed techniques to block the four openings. To block the orifice at the mouth, we minimize speech
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86 approaching the daode jing
and keep the tongue against the palate. To block the orifice at the nose, we soften the breath and breathe with the diaphragm. To block the orifice at the anus, we sit and sleep in postures designed to cover that opening. And to pre- vent the energy from escaping through the sexual organs, Daoists use special techniques to conserve and control the expenditure of energy during sexual intercourse. These techniques are called ''bedchamber techniques'' and are also recognized by the classics of traditional Chinese medicine such as The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine (Huangdi neijing suwen) and The Spiritual Pivot (Lingshu) as methods of conserving energy and cultivating health.
Another way to cultivate energy is to refine it. Chapter 10 of the Daode jing says:
In circulating the breath and making it soft--can you do it like that of an infant?
In opening and closing the celestial gates, can you become the female?
The circulation and regulation of breath can help us to cultivate and refine energy. Using the appropriate techniques, mundane breath (the air we inhale) can be transmuted and purified into primordial and pristine energy. Fetal and abdominal breathing (described earlier) are examples of how this process of transmutation can be accomplished.
In the transmutation of breath (qi) into energy (qi), the timing of the cycles of inhalation and exhalation is critical. During inhalation, the ''valves'' along the energy channels are opened to allow the outside air to enter. During exhalation, the ''valves'' along the energy channels are closed to keep the purified energy within while the impurities are expelled. The ''valves'' along the energy chan- nels are called the ''celestial gates'' (tianmen), and the energy circuit inside the body is called the ''celestial'' or ''royal'' pathway (huang Dao). The more com- mon name for this pathway is the Microcosmic Orbit (xiaozhoutian).
Energy spent is energy lost if it is not replenished. One way to replenish energy is to gather it from a source that has an inexhaustible supply. This source is referred to as the ''valley spirit'' and the ''mysterious female. '' Chapter 6 of the Daode jing says:
The valley spirit does not die.
It is called the mysterious female.
The gates of the mysterious female Are the roots of the sky and the earth. Lasting and existing forever,
It cannot be exhausted.
The ''valley spirit'' refers to the exhaustible energy of the female that has the power to nourish and give birth. That is why it ''does not die. '' Daoists call it the procreative or generative energy, and to be able to gather this energy is to renew life. Procreative energy in both men and women is considered ''female'' energy because, being liquid and formless, it is said to have a ''yin'' nature. It is referred to as the ''mysterious female'' because it is hidden and emerges only when aroused. The primordial energy of the Dao, which is the source of things, is manifested in the procreative energy that is present in all living things. This generative energy is called the ''roots of the sky and earth'' be- cause both sky and earth are said to have been created from the copulation of the yin and yang components of the primordial energy of the Dao. Daoists believe that if we can arouse procreative energy and then draw it back into the body, we will be revitalized and rejuvenated. Chapter 55 describes a person who is filled with procreative energy:
Although his bones are weak and his tendons soft,
His grasp is firm.
He does not understand the copulation of male and female, Yet his organ can be aroused.
This is because his generative energy is at its height.
He can scream all day and not become hoarse.
This is because his harmony is at its height.
The Daode jing on Lifestyle
The techniques of cultivating the mind and body should be accompanied by a lifestyle that complements them. Otherwise, what is cultivated in meditation or qigong will be lost in daily living.
First, the Daode jing advises practitioners to live a simple contented life, to be moderate in all activities, and not to be involved with worldly affairs. Chapter 9 says:
Even if your rooms are filled with gold and jade, You will not be able to protect them.
Pride and arrogance invite disaster.
When your work is done, you should retire. That is the way of Heaven.
If we do not have many possessions, we will not have to worry about losing them. If we are not famous, we will have less trouble in life. Famous people are scrutinized and investigated; on the other hand, unknown people are left
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88 approaching the daode jing
to live a peaceful life. In a world where many are trapped by fame, fortune, approval, and greed, those who hide their skills are the ones who survive.
Second, the Daode jing recommends that practitioners live a quiet life. An overinquisitive mind and overactive body can be detrimental to health as well as be an obstacle to enlightenment. Knowledge is not equivalent to enlight- enment. Whereas knowledge is involved with knowing about the world and is directed outward, enlightenment is insight into oneself and is directed in- ward. If we do not understand this difference, obsessive pursuit of knowledge can cost us insight into ourselves. Chapter 47 of the Daode jing says:
You don't need to leave your home to know the world.
You don't need to look out of your window to see the celestial way Because the farther you go, the less you'll know.
Therefore the sage does not need to travel to know.
He does not need to see to name.
And he does not need to do to accomplish.
Finally, the Daode jing advises the practitioner to learn to accept the natural course of things. Accepting the way of things does not mean that we should believe in fate. Rather, it means that we should understand that we cannot control everything. If we try to make things happen or not happen, we will only bring trouble into our lives. Chapter 16 of the Daode jing says:
To return to the roots is to be still.
To be still is to accept your destiny.
To accept your destiny is to know what is constant and unchanging. If you know what is constant, you are wise.
If you don't know what is constant, your actions will bring you
misfortune.
The sage accepts the natural way of things because he understands the ''constant. '' ''Constant'' (chang) means ''unchanging,'' and to understand the ''constant'' is to understand both the changing and the unchanging aspects of the Dao. It is this ability to distinguish between that which can be changed and that which cannot be changed that allows the sage to embrace life and accept death.
Conclusions
For practitioners, the value of a text lies in its use. Can the Daode jing be used as a guide to living a healthy and long life? I believe the answer is ''yes. '' For
over two thousand years, the Daode jing has influenced the Chinese arts and sciences of cultivating health and longevity. Today, its teachings on cultivating mind and body can be found in the practice of Chinese medicine, meditation, qi gong, and martial arts. Do the teachings of the Daode jing work? I think this question is best answered by practice. From my experience, they do.
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? Imagine Teaching the Daode Jing!
Judith Berling, Geoffrey Foy, and John Thompson
The invitation to participate in this volume arrived while the three of us were working our way through the Zhuangzi. Zhuangzi has a way of challenging readers to imagine manifold viewpoints. Perhaps he inspired us. Although the three of us have different teaching back- grounds, we share a passion for teaching texts such as the Daode jing. We began a seriously playful conversation about teaching this text. We both expanded and honed our initial ideas as we learned from and with one another.
The three approaches we suggest represent three particular embodiments of the pedagogical strategies we explored. They have in common two basic moves: (1) an exercise in which students reflect and comment on their initial experience of and response to the text, and (2) an exercise to engage students with the text imagina- tively, creatively, and constructively. The three particular approaches are complementary ways of implementing these principles. It is our hope that three options will inspire our readers to imagine cre- ative approaches to teaching the Daode jing that will suit them and their students.
Letting the Daode Jing Teach
Most Chinese texts clearly situate themselves, providing not only an author but the date, place, and circumstances of their origins.
92 approaching the daode jing
They fairly plead to be taught as the reflections of a specific person in a spe- cific historical context. The Daode jing is an exception to this rule, its author shrouded in a dense mist of questionable traditions. Although we have some sense of the period in which the book was produced, the Old Master (Laozi) to whom it is attributed remains a figure of controversy and legend; the more one pursues his historical origins, the more one is convinced that the party or parties behind this remarkable book chose to remain obscure. The hiddenness of the author coincides well with the teachings of the book: avoiding fame, unlearning, and leading by nondoing. I seek to honor the text by letting it teach itself, as far as possible. That is, I teach the text by allowing the students to learn from it for themselves.
The Daode jing is difficult to teach satisfactorily in a lecture mode, but it offers wonderful possibilities for student engagement and reflection. A careful setup by an instructor to give the students a feel for the text and its inter- locutors and then to highlight central themes and images can yield very successful self-learning experiences for students, alone and in small groups.
Some contextualization is required to engage students fruitfully with the text. Situating the Daode jing is best accomplished if the text is taught in a course or a unit that deals with classical Chinese thought. In that case, the context of late Zhou China will already have been introduced, with its lively debate over the foundation of a strong and stable government. Those vying for positions as political advisors competed by offering ''better ideas. '' Prevailing wisdom held that the sine qua nons of a strong state were keen understanding of political and military institutions, crafty political scheming, skilled negoti- ation, and strong legal and military strategies. 1 The other classical philosoph- ical and religious positions, which came to define Chinese cultural discourse, all arose in contradistinction to the prevailing view. The Daode jing was one of those countervailing voices. It was also a counter to the opposition voice of the early Confucians, who argued for reestablishment of civic virtues and rituals of propriety as the key to establishing a strong stable society.
If these broader themes have already been introduced, then the Daode jing, in responding to that context, will virtually speak for itself. If not, then I create an exercise to identify the rhetorical opponents of the book. In what follows I assume that the Daode jing is being taught in isolation, although recognizing that such isolation is the exception, not the general rule.
In my experience, teaching the Daode jing requires at least two or three class sessions. This is because the book requires some getting used to by the students. Moreover, it takes time for students to move from passive responses (What is this book like/about? ) to more constructive responses (How would nonaction work in my life? ).
imagine teaching the daode jing! 93
The first assignment is a get-acquainted reading. Students read the book from beginning to end, reflecting on the following questions: How would you characterize the book? What was it like to read? Did you perceive any threads of continuity? What response(s) did the book draw from you? Who were the targets of criticism in the book? I facilitate responses to this last question by highlighting a few chapters for special comment. Given these chapters, what would you say is the primary target of this book's teaching? What errors is it trying to address? 2
Subsequent assignments build on the first. I take the poetic language and the suggestive imagery of the book as its teaching device and group chapters along such themes and images (Dao, water, the uncarved block, the female, the infant; nondoing, the power and virtue of Dao [de], the Daoist ruler/sage/ master). 3 The first five pertain to the nature and movements of Dao, the second three to human activity based on the Dao. There is, of course, considerable overlap between these two groupings. I ask students to read and think about the themes and images offered in these grouped chapters. Each student is asked to select a theme (a group of chapters) and write a brief reflection paper (one to three pages long). That paper is used as the basis of small group discussions in the next class period. Each group becomes expert on a theme or image in the Daode jing. The small groups report back their reflections to the larger class, thereby becoming teachers of the book. If time allows, the two subgroups (images of Dao and humans modeling themselves on the Dao) can be separate class sessions.
Although the experience of inviting class members to become interpret- ers and teachers of the Daode jing is the primary goal of my teaching strategy, I also include an exercise for constructive reflection focused on nondoing or the ruler/sage who leads and teaches by nonaction. My experience is that undergraduates who have spent a little time with this text begin to ask very challenging and probing questions, questions that are not easy to answer. The difficulty of the questions posed has led me to lead a plenary discussion on these questions; as a teacher, I can acknowledge the profound challenge of questions raised and help the class negotiate the difficult path of addressing them. Shortly after several undergraduates had died in drinking and driving accidents, one class asked whether a Daoist would let a friend drive drunk. Is there any way to intervene without violating the premises of nonaction? An- other asked, ''What would a Daoist do if his or her child were being threatened with bodily harm? ''
These are extremely difficult questions. If the Daode jing is taught in a unit on classical Chinese thought, the teacher has the option (or escape route) of asking the class whether Confucians would have a more satisfying response
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to such dilemmas. This question raises the important issue of the relationship of Confucianism and Daoism. Although Westerners tend to construct these two streams of thought as competing and exclusive, the Chinese viewed them as complementary options. If the Daode jing is taught in isolation, I lead the class to the best possible Daoist response to such difficult moral conundrums. My classes have delighted me with their ability, after just two or three sessions with the Daode jing, to raise and wrestle collectively with difficult Daoist moral questions. I have been more successful with this text than with any other at engaging undergraduates not only in interpretation, but also in constructive response.
The Daode jing is genuinely a paradoxical text. On the one hand, it is difficult because it is hard to pin down historically and to summarize as a clear-cut position. On the other hand, its poetic language and richly suggestive images invite interpretation and reflection, drawing readers into the vision of the text, inviting them to try on an alternative approach to life. True to its own philosophy, the Daode jing teaches itself with some prior setup by the teacher.
Gender and the Daode Jing
The Daode jing can also be taught by using gender as a framework of explora- tion. There are several ways of conceptualizing gender as a teaching frame- work. I discuss one of them here.
I begin with the language and meaning of polarity as represented in the dialectic of yin and yang, the cosmic principles that produce and sustain crea- tion in its harmony. This yin-yang polarity is basic to understanding the cosmic dimensions of the Dao. One way we witness the existence of the Dao is through the activity of yin and yang as manifested in polar opposites, such as being/ nonbeing, action/nonaction, luminous/shadowy, hot/cold, up/down, right/ left, male/female. A class session directly or indirectly dealing with the last relationship (male/female) presents a viable approach to the text by engaging students in a familiar issue: women's and men's experience in culture. Gran- ted, gender is a culturally conditioned construct and its representations in culture are enigmatic. Nevertheless, its ambiguity is the very characteristic that lends itself to be a useful heuristic. As Caroline Walker Bynum suggests in her introduction to Gender and Religion, gender-related symbols are ''polysemic''; they possess a variety of meanings that concurrently engender manifold ques- tions. With this perspective in mind, students not only investigate issues con- cerning the text itself, but they also examine issues concerning the context of
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the text and their own interpretations of it. The matter of students' interpre- tations deserves more attention here.
Because gender is used in the Daode jing as a manifestation of the Dao (i. e. , by way of polar opposites, as well as anthropomorphic imagery), the door is open for students to apply their culturally gendered ideologies to the text as they analyze and discern the meaning of specific words and phrases. How- ever, as they do this they will discover a conflict: the way the text understands gender challenges or subverts the students' culturally embedded assumptions. It goes without saying that the Chinese commentators themselves entertain differing opinions of how to interpret certain chapters. 4 Consequently, as the students learn about gender through the voice of the text, they are invited to reexamine their own conceptions of gender. The Daode jing, then, offers a new model for thinking about gender. Rigid gender categories (e. g. , males are this, women are that) are questioned as students consider how to adapt the yin and yang dynamic to their cultural experiences. In this exercise the text is engaged on several different levels. The two most relevant here are the text within its own boundaries as a classic and the text offering formulations of gender that students can engage.
Two particular translations of the Daode jing offer some assistance for utilizing gender as a pedagogical tool: Stephen Mitchell's Tao Te Ching and Ellen M. Chen's The Tao Te Ching: A New Translation with Commentary. Mitchell's translation incorporates inclusive language throughout. For exam- ple, Mitchell translates the phrase shenren as ''master,'' but when the text ex- cludes the phrase and yet still implies it, Mitchell alternates the pronouns ''he'' and ''she. '' The result is that his translation differs from many other transla- tions in not using English pronouns to reinforce male-dominated language. 5 The significance of such a maneuver is revealed in the kinds of queries de- veloped by the students as they read this type of translation. Students may ask whether the inclusive language makes a difference in understanding the main ideas of the classic, or if Mitchell's choices reflect a contemporary interpreta- tion. Likewise, students may ponder whether a female shenren would interpret the manifestations of the Dao differently from a male shenren. Although such questions are difficult to answer, the investigations themselves are worthwhile.
Chen's translation is a useful accompaniment to Mitchell's. Whereas Mitchell's rendition is accessible to novice students due to its fashionable and simple format, Chen's exposition offers a detailed analysis along with a more precise translation. Like Mitchell, Chen is cognizant of gendered and non- gendered language in the text and is helpful in elucidating its significance for both the meaning of the text and the context of the document. This
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becomes most apparent when Chen deals with two particular fertility symbols for Dao, gushen (Valley Spirit) and xuan pin (Dark Mare), in chapter 6 of the Daode jing and the two dynamic principles of yin and yang in chapter 42. 6 In both cases Chen discusses the meaning and function of gender-related lan- guage and symbols as she translates the chapters.
My conceptual model for using gender as a teaching framework for the Daode jing can be implemented in different ways. Let me briefly suggest two, both of which assume a class of upper-division undergraduates.
The first proposal is to cover the Daode jing in one class session with two external assignments, one a preparation for the session and the other a follow- up. For the preliminary assignment, students read introductory material to the Daode jing which covers appropriate historical background, including date and authorship, cultural context, and compilation and redaction. 7 Students then read Mitchell's translation once through to acquire a general impression of the text. Students then reread the text while keeping in mind some focus questions: What is gender? How is gender manifested in the text? It would be useful to specify some chapters for student reflection, starting with 6 and 42. What is the significance of gender-related language or symbols for the meaning of the text? When the author mentions the Master, does the term refer to a male or a female? Would the meaning of the text change at all if the master was either sex? How would a male master view the Dao versus a female master? How do Western or contemporary ideas or manifestations of gender affect your reading of the text?
The class session is focused around a discussion. I briefly introduce the text, summarizing key points in the introductory material and eliciting stu- dents' initial reactions to their first general reading of the text. Students break into groups of mixed genders and discuss the above questions in relation to specified chapters. They then reassemble and summarize what they learned in the small groups. At this point, I provide additional material and com- mentary for parts of the text that need further explanation (e. g. , Chen's analysis of chapters 6 and 42). As a postscript, students write a one- to two- page reflection paper on a particular chapter of the Daode jing that they believe best exemplifies the Daode jing's presentation of gender. As the students write their papers they are expected to keep in mind the questions mentioned above and the general themes of the text.
If time permits, I suggest a three-session unit, developed as follows. A general discussion of gender and religion focuses on cultural differences and similarities, primarily between Eastern and Western cultures, to introduce the basic questions concerning gender and religion and what kind of method would be employed when reading the Daode jing. I introduce the text, including
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its general themes. (By this session students would have read the text and be ready to give preliminary responses. ) We discuss gender-related imagery in the classic and its significance for the meaning of the text, utilizing group sessions on gender issues described above, with the same follow-up exercise.
The purpose of both formats is to provide students with a framework to engage a classic Chinese text in a fresh way. Although gender is a familiar issue in the 1990s, the issues are raised in a fresh way by a classic like the Daode jing, separated both culturally and temporally from the lives of today's students. Not only did the cultural constructions of gender in the late Zhou period affect the author's development of a philosophy or religious ideology, but the cultural construction of gender in our times also affects readers of the text. The Daode jing offers an excellent opportunity to explore both gender issues and issues of cross-cultural understanding.
The Daode Jing: An Exercise in How Interpretations Change
I admit I've been stumped about how to teach the Daode jing, mainly because after years of reading it, I still don't know what the text is about! It occurs to me, however, that this insight provides an important clue: maybe a class reading of the Daode jing could be a series of attempts to explore what the text is about. This may initially be very unsettling for students, but it would be fun. It's not often that in the midst of our normally staid academic pursuits we actually allow ourselves to play with what strikes our fancy. Recently when I taught the text, a student who had never read the book before told me that her son thought that if more people read it, soon we'd find there would be no need for seminaries. I laughingly agreed. The Daode jing is a real book, unlike so much of what we find in the self-help, psychology, or religion sections of the average bookstore. It deserves as many readings as we can give it.
What follows is a practical proposal for teaching the Daode jing in a course on Chinese religions and philosophies. The premise of my pedagogical strategy is quite different from the first two in this essay, both of which allowed for the possibility that the text was taught in a course not about China. I have designed this to cover four class sessions. I then suggest books I have found helpful in understanding the text. After outlining each session I briefly explain my think- ing and reasons for recommending the works I list, hoping thereby to make my approach accessible to teachers who are not specialists in Chinese culture.
Let me be very clear at the outset that I do not intend this particular format to be ironclad and hope that it can be adapted to suit various contexts (classes in East Asian religions, world philosophy, classical Chinese, even a
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graduate seminar on textual interpretation). My aim is for students and in- structors to engage with the text, not necessarily to come up with a final, agreed-upon reading. To this end I have fallen back on having students write short reflection papers to stimulate their thinking and questions, preparing them for discussion. There is, I think, little danger here of using up all of our ideas. After all, the Dao is the Way of Heaven and Earth--which would seem to rule out the possibility of us mere mortals ever exhausting it.
Class 1: Introduction
Preparation: Read whole text. Write one-page reaction paper: ''What
is this text about? ''
Class Lecture and Discussion: Short history of text; who Laozi is;
importance of text in Chinese history.
This is the basic ''just the facts, ma'am'' session, aimed at conveying a sense of the Daode jing, when it probably was written, who the mysterious author Laozi may have been. At the very least an introductory course should convey this information to give students some sort of initial overview and orientation, even at the risk of oversimplification. There are, of course, nu- merous sources for much of this information.
A. C. Graham's good discussion in Disputers of the Tao and D. C. Lau's introduction to his translation have both proved helpful. 8 In addition, Herrlee Creel's classic essay ''What Is Taoism? '' and Wing-tsit Chan's ''Influences of Taoist Classics on Chinese Philosophy'' provide useful discussions of the complexity of the Daode jing and its relationship to traditional Chinese culture. 9
Class 2: Religious Daoism
Preparation: Read selections from John Lagerwey's Taoist Ritual in
Chinese Society and History (chapters 4, 10) and Kristofer Schipper's
The Taoist Body(chapters 5,8).
Exercise: Sit quietly for 5-10 minutes, counting your breaths. Reread chapters 4, 9, 10, 12, 19, 20, 28, 37, 42, 43, 50, 54, 61. 10 Write one-page reaction paper: ''What is this text about? ''
Class Lecture and Discussion: rise of sects; formation of orders; rit-
uals; self-cultivation.
Although the dichotomy between so-called religious and philosophical Daoism is often overemphasized (usually to the detriment of the former, pace Creel), I think it can be a useful way of getting at different aspects of this amorphous beast we call Daoism. To this end, both Lagerwey and Schipper show how complex Daoism as a practicing cult is. Students need to realize
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that the Daode jing is truly scripture (like the Bible and the Qur'an) and that it is used in actual worship services and as a guide to personal spiritual culti- vation. The text takes on new depth when we see it as part of a living tradition, as opposed to just the musings of long-dead thinkers.
Class 3: Philosophical Daoism
Preparation: Read selections from Benjamin I. Schwartz's The World
of Thought in Ancient China (first section of chapter 6), Robert
Cummings Neville'sBehind the Masks of God (chapter 4).
Reread chapters 1, 2, 14, 18, 19, 25, 32, 34, 39, 40, 42, 52, 70, 81. Write one-page reaction paper: ''What is this text about? ''
Class Lecture and Discussion: philosophical Daoism, Wang Bi and
the ''Dark Learning. ''
Until quite recently most of the Western academic literature focused on the philosophical aspects of the Daode jing (this is understandable, as it is a fas- cinating topic), and this will probably be the aspect most readily accessible to first-time readers. The Daode jing certainly articulates one of the main currents of Chinese thought and, together with the Confucian philosophy found in the Analects and the Mencius, remains essential for understanding East Asian civilization. Indeed, to see how the teachings of the Daode jing serve as a critical response to the more regimented and hierarchical aspects of mainstream Confucian learning (although technically, the Confucian and Daoist strains of Chinese thought have never existed separately from one another) can prevent a reading of this text from sliding into mushy New Age feel-goodism. Schwartz is excellent here, and Neville opens the discussion out into the greater context of world philosophy. I chose to emphasize the role of Wang Bi (and the other Neo- Daoists) for two reasons: first, because Wang's commentary has been so in- fluential in Chinese and Western readings of the Daode jing (almost all but the most recent translations are from his redaction), and second because the role of Neo-Daoism11 in the history of Chinese thought has often been overlooked. Chinese Buddhism, for example, is virtually impossible to understand without some knowledge of the ''Dark Learning. ''
Class 4: Is there a text in this class?
Preparation: Choice of assignments:
(1) Visit an Asian Art museum,12 taking the text with you. Pause be-
tween various works and reread chapters 2, 6, 11, 14, 16, 21, 22, 25,
41, 45, 47, 81.
(2) Go on a strenuous day hike (no matter what the weather). Leave
the umbrella at home even if it's raining, but take the text with you.
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approaching the daode jing
At some rest point, stop and reread chapters 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 16, 23, 32,
34, 37, 41, 51, 55, 73, 77.
(3) Visit a New Age bookstore, and take note of titles relating to
Daoism. Read sections from one of them (e. g. , The Tao of Pooh).
Reread chapters 24, 28, 33, 37, 38, 41, 43, 45, 48, 53, 63, 66, 68. Write a one-page reaction paper: ''What is this text about?
