Lahore, Tomb of the Emperor
Jahangir
at Shahdara (1627)
XXXIV.
XXXIV.
Cambridge History of India - v4 - Mugul Period
Rebellion in Malwa
Murder of Atga Khan
Akbar shakes off evil influences
Confusion at Kabul
Expedition against Gakkhars
Muzaffar 'Ali appointed Diwan
Reduction of Garha-Katanga
Malwa rebellion quelled
Agra fort begun
Afghan invasion of Bihar defeated
Attempts to reform administration
Uzbegs in India rebel
Operations against the Uzbegs
Uzbegs defeated and pardoned
Muhammad Hakim invades Punjab but retires
Rebellion of the Mirzas
Akbar's sport near Lahore
Final suppression of the Uzbegs
Expedition against the Rana of Chitor
Fortress of Chitor taken
Massacre at Chitor
Dispersal of the "foster-father cohort”
Capture of Ranthambhor and Kalinjar
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Birth of Akbar's children
Invasion of Gujarat
Gujarat subdued
Operations against the Mirzas
The Mirzas dispersed
Akbar's religious misgivings
CHAPTER V
AKBAR, MYSTIC AND PROPHET
By Lt. -COLONEL. SIR WOLSELEY HAIC.
Akbar suppresses revolt in Gujarat
Todar Mal revises land revenue settlement in Gujarat
Imperial administrative reforms
Discontent caused by reforms
Abu-'l-Fazl and Badauni arrive at court
Invasion of Bengal
Bengal occupied
The "Hall of Worship"
Religious dissensions
Fresh campaign against the Rana
Bengal finally subdued
Submission of minor Rajput chiefs and of Khandesh
Rebellion in Gujarat
Akbar's religious meditations
Muslim sectarian disputes
Akbar assumes spiritual authority
The Infallibility Decree
Discontent of orthodox divines
The first Jesuit mission
The Jesuits unable to convert Akbar
-Widespread rebellion
Rebels declare for Muhammad Hakim
Akbar marches against Muhammad Hakim
Muhammad Hakim submits
Akbar's hostility to the Portuguese
The "Divine Faith"
Examination of various creeds
Exclusion of Islam
Disturbances in Bengal and Gujarat
Administrative Reforms
"Divine Era" introduced
Expeditions into Kashmir and tribal areas
Kashmir annexed. Frontier operations
Berar invaded. Sind annexed
Akbar visits Kashmir
Death of Raja Todar Mal
Reduction of disorder in Bengal
Second Christian mission
Rebellion in Kashmir
Qandahar surrendered to Mughuis
Third Christian mission
Famine from 1595 to 1599
Successes in the Deccan
Akbar sets out for the Deccan
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CONTENTS
xiii
Death of Sultan Murad
Negotiations with Ahmadnagar
Akbar arrives in Deccan
Disobedience of Salim
Ahmadnagar taken by storm
Annexation of Khandesh
Salim rebellious
Murder of Abu-'l-Fazl
Reconciliation between Salim and Akbar
Misconduct of Salim
John Mildenhall at Akbar's court
Akbar's last illness
Death of Akbar
Character of Akbar
His personal appearance
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CHAPTER VI
JAHANGIR
By SIR RICHARD BURN.
Jahangir's accession
Khusrav's revolt
Revolts quelled
Fresh plot in favour of Khusrav
Expedition against Mewar
Disasters in the Deccan
Failure of renewed Mughul attack on Ahmadnagar
Rebellion in Bengal
Khurram's success in Mewar
The English and the Mughuls
Nur Jahan's influence
Prince Khusrav
Khurram's negotiations in the Deccan
Roe's agreement with Shah Jahan
Jahangir in Gujarat
Visit to Kashmir
Capture of Kangra
Shah Jahan deputed to the Deccan
Treaties with kingdoms in the Deccan
Death of Khusrav
Loss of Qandahar
Shah Jahan rebels
His success in Bengal and Bihar
Defeat and flight to Deccan
Jahangir's health fails
Mahabat Khan's coup d'état
Death of Malik 'Ambar
Jahangir's last illness
His character
Artistic taste
Love of literature and dress
Politics ard administration
Religious views
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER VII
SHAH JAHAN
By SIR RICHARD BURN.
Accession
Petty local disturbances
Rebellion of Khan Jahan
Famine in the Deccan
Khan Jahan defeated
Dissensions in Bijapur
Death of Mumtaz Mahall
King of Ahmadnagar poisoned by Fath Khan
Asaf Khan fails to take Bijapur
Mughul attack on Hooghly
Attack on Ahmadnager by Bijapur
Storming of Daulatabad
Death of Mahabat Khan
Rebellion in Bundelkhand
Peace made with Bijapur
Conditions of peace with Golconda
Shahji enters service of Bijapur
Qandahar surrendered to Mughuls
Campaign in Assam
Annexation of Baglan
War with Portuguese
Insurrection in Kangra
Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand and Malwa
Plans for invading Transoxiana
Capture of Badakhshan and Balkh
Balkh abandoned
Loss of Qandahar
Failure to recover Qandahar
Disputes with Golconda
Aurangzib enforces terms on Golconda
Aurangzib attacks Bijapur
Shivaji hostile to Mughuls
Aurangzib's complaints against Dara
The struggle for succession
Shah Shuja' defeated
Aurangzib and Murad gain a victory
Battle of Samogarh
Dara's flight and pursuit
Shah Jahan imprisoned at Agra
Aurangzib becomes emperor
Character of Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan's religious intolerance
His administration
Foreign policy
Architecture and literature
Vernacular poems
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CONTENTS
XV
CHAPTER VIII
AURANGZIB (1658 - 1681)
By SIR JADUNATH SARKAR, C. I. E. , D. Litt.
PAGE
Coronation of Aurangzib
Pursuit of Dara Shukoh
Battle against Shuja' at Kora
Struggle with Shuja'
Flight and death of Shuja'
End of Dara Shukoh
Sulaiman and Murad Bakhsh executed
Aurangzib's second coronation
Foreign embassies to Aurangzib
Religious ordinances
Social and administrative reforms
Heretics of Islam
Relations with Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan's last days
Invasion of Assam
Mir Jumla's successes and death
The Magh pirates of Chittagong
Conquest of Chittagong
Rebellions by Yusufzais and Afridis
Wars with frontier Afghans
Amir Khan's pacification of Afghanistan
Action against Hindus
Destruction of temples
Imposition of poll-tax
Persecution of Hindus
Revolts by Jats and Satnamis
Militarisation of the Sikhs
Growth of Sikh power
Govind Singh's death
Marwar seized by Aurangzib
Pillage of Marwar
Invasion of Mewar
Rajputs incite prince Akbar to rebel
Rebellion of Akbar
Mewar regains peace
Relations with states in Deccan
Jay Singh attacks Bijapur
Bahadur Khan defeated by Bijapur
Dilir Khan fails to take Bijapur
Early career of Shivaji
Shivaji visits court at Agra
Full growth of Shivaji's power
Shivaji's death
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER IX
THE KINGDOMS OF THE DECCAN DURING THE
REIGNS OF JAHANGIR, SHAH JAHAN AND A U-
RANGZIB, AND THE RISE OF THE MARATHA
POWER
By LT. -COLONEL SIR WOLSELEY HAIG.
PAGE
Parviz and Khurram viceroys of the Deccan
260
Shah Jahan's contests with Malik 'Ambar
261
Malik 'Ambar attacks Bijapur
262
Death of Malik 'Ambar
263
Shah Jahan as emperor proceeds to the Deccan
264
Extinction of the Nizam Shahi dynasty
265
Claim to sovereignty over Bijapur and Golconda
266
Terms of peace with Bijapur
267
Rise of Shivaji
268
Aurangzib attacks Golconda
269
Peace made with Golconda
270
Invasion of Bijapur
271
Shivaji kills Afzal Khan
272
Shivaji assumes royal title
273
Cabals in Golconda and Bijapur
274
Aggressions by Shivaji
275
Shivaji raids the Carnatic
276
Attempts to save Golconda and Bijapur
277
Maratha aid to Bijapur
278
Character and achievements of Shivaji
279
CHAPTER X
AURANGZIB (1681-1707)
By SIR JADUNATH SARKAR,
Aurangzib marches to the Deccan
Prince Akbar assumes sovereignty
Campaigns against Shambhuji
Capture of Shambhuji
Raja Ram succeeds
Last siege of Bijapur
Affairs of Golconda
Mughul attacks on Qutb Shah
Shiah-Sunni dissensions
Capture of Golconda fort
Campaign against Maratha forts
Maratha partisan war
Raja Ram at Gingee
Zu-'l-Fiqar Khan besieges Gingee
Raids by Santa and Dhana
Raja Ram's last efforts
Continued sieges of Maratha forts
Capture of Satara and Parli
Khelna and Kondhana taken
281
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.
.
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3
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35
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59
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72
33
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75
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79
Aurangzib's last campaign
Maratha methods of spoliation
Aurangzib's last year
Aurangzib's death
Rathor war of liberation
Rebellions of Durga Das
Jat rebellions crushed
Risings in Malwa and Bihar
English East India Company
English traders in India
Mughul attacks on English
European piracy in Indian waters
Agreement between Mughuls and Europeans
Bengal in Aurangzib's reign
Ja'far Khan's administration of Bengal
Rise of Chhatra Sal Bundela
Gondwana affairs
Disorders in Gujarat
Revenues of the empire
India's imports and exports
Aurangzib's character
PAGE
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284
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288
CHAPTER XI
BAHADUR SHAH, JAHANDAR SHAH,
FARRUK-SIYAR, RAFI-UD-DARAJAT AND
RAFI-UD-DAULA
By SIR JADUNATH SARKAR.
Contest for succession to Aurangzib
A'zam defeated by Bahadur Shah at Samogarh
War in Rajputana
Sikh revolt
War with Banda the Sikh Guru
Death and character of Bahadur Shah
Fight between Bahadur Shah's sons
Jahandar Shah succeeds to throne
Farrukh-siyar's advance from Patna
Battle between Jahandar and Farrukh-siyar
Jahandar's defeat and flight
Farrukh-siyar's coronation
His new appointments
The Turani and Irani factions
Farrukh-siyar's character
Sayyid brothers break with Farrukh-siyar
Plots against the Sayyids
Sikh Guru Banda captured
Churaman consolidates Jat power
Farrukh-siyar again plots against the Sayyids
Pretence of reconciliation
Farrukh-siyar deposed and murdered
Rafi'-ud-Darajat placed on throne
Niku-siyar proclaimed at Agra
Death of Rafi -ud-Darajat
Rafi-ud-Daula enthroned as Shah Jahan II
Death of Rafi'-ud-Daula and succession of Muhammad Shah
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327
328
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330
331
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332
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER XII
MUHAMMAD SHAH
By LT. -COLONEL SIR WOLSELEY HAIG
The provinces at Muhammad Shah's accession
Quarrel between the Sayyid brothers
Nizam-ul-Mulk opposes the Sayyids
Assassination of Husain 'Ali
Sayyid 'Abdullah Khan defeated and imprisoned
The heresy of Namud
Nizam-ul-Mulk appointed minister
Rise of the Jats
Nizam-ul-Mulk returns to the Deccan
Battle of Shakarkhelda
Contests for Gujarat
Abhay Singh expels Sarbuland Khan
Muhammad Khan Bangash in Bundelkhand
Maratha raids in Malwa
Insurrection in Allahabad
Baji Rao's raid on Delhi
Nizam-ul-Mulk attacked by Marathas
Peace terms with Marathas
Rise of Nadir Shah
Nadir Shah invades India
Mughul attempts to repel Nadir Shah
Nadir Shah's victory at Karnal
Negotiations for an indemnity
General massacre in Delhi
Nadir Shah's booty
Intrigues against the Turanian faction
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa
Death of Baji Rao Peshwa
Failure of 'Azim-ullah to recover Malwa
The Marathas invade Bengal
Raghuji Bhonsle retires from Bengal
Rise of the Rohilla power
Mughul attack on 'Ali Muhammad Khan
'Umdat-ul-Mulk assassinated
Ahmad Shah Abdali succeeds Nadir Shah
Ahmad Shah invades India
Mughuls repel Ahmad Shah
Reduction in the size of the Delhi empire
The degeneration of the Mughul army
PAGE
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1
1
.
1
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1
CHAPTER XIII
1
1
THE HYDERABAD STATE (1724-1762)
By SIR JADUNATH SARKAR.
Nizam-ul-Mulk assumes independence
The Maratha menace
Nizam-ul-Mulk and Raja Shahu
The Nizam supports Shambhuji of Kolhapur
377
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xix
PACE
381
381
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383
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391
Palkhed campagin against Baji Rao
Treaty of Shevgaon
Marathas diverted to north
Nazir Jang's rebellion suppressed
The Nawabs of Arcot
Death of Asaf Jah
Character of Asaf Jah
Nazir Jang seizes viceroyalty
Bussy dominates Hyderabad court
Muzaffar Jang and Salabat Jang
Ghazi-ud-din marches to Deccan
Bussy recovers control over Nizam
The Marathas defeat Hyderabad forces
Nizam 'Ali deposes Salabat Jang
CHAPTER XIV
THE RISE OF THE MARATHA EMPIRE
(1707-1761)
By H. G. RAWLINSON, C. I. E. , M. A. , F. R. Hist. S.
(Late Indian Educational Service. )
Accession of Shahu
Balaji Vishvanath
Palaji restores order
Shivaji's Swarajya
Balaji's achievements
Baji Rao succeeds Balaji
The founders of Dhar, Indore and Gwalior
The Nizam leaves Delhi
Baji Rao defeats the Nizam
Treaty of Warna
The Marathas invade Malwa
The Nizam returns to Delhi
Baji Rao fails to annex the Konkan
The Marathas besiege Bassein
English secure free trade in the Deccan
Death and character of Baji Rao
Balaji Baji Rao succeeds
Raghuji Bhonsle overruns the Carnatic
Character of Shahu
Death of Shahu and succession of Ram Raja
Defeat of the Gaikwar
Ram Raja succeeded by Shahu II
The Marathas plunder the Carnatic
They defeat and cripple Hyderabad
Organisation of Maratha government
The Marathas in the North
Ahmad Shah Abdali plunders Delhi and retires
The Marathas advance to Lahore
Ahmad Shah Abdali returns to India
The Bhao Sahib takes the field
The Marathas occupy Delhi
Start of the campaign against the Muslims
The Maratha intrenchment near Panipat
Blockade of the Maratha camp
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401
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## p. xx (#24) ##############################################
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CONTENTS
The Marathas issue forth
Battle of Panipat
Slaughter of the Marathas
Completeness of the defeat
Note on Marathi literature
PAGE
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423
424
425
426-7
CHAPTER XV
AHMAD SHAH, 'ALAMGIRII AND SHAH ALAM
By LT. -COLONEL SIR WOLSELEY HAIG
Ahmad Shah succeeds to the throne
428
Offices of state divided by the nobles
428
Safdar Jang instigates the Bangash Pathans to attack the Rohillas
429
The Bangash defeat Safdar Jang and raid in Oudh
430
Safdar Jang crushes the Bangash with Maratha help
431
Zu-'l-Fiqar Jang in Rajputana
432
Disputed succession to Nizam-ul-Mulk
433
Third invasion by Ahmad Shah Abdali
433
The Punjab and Multan ceded to Afghanistan
434
Disputes between the emperor and Safdar Jang
434
Civil war at Delhi
435
Intizam-ud-Daula becomes minister
436
Ghazi-ud-din replaces Intizam-ud-Daula and deposes Ahmad Shah
436
'Alamgir II succeeds Ahmad Shah
437
Unsuccessful attempt to recover the Punjab
437
Ahmad Shah Abdali sacks Delhi
438
Massacre at Muttra
439
'Ali Gauhar escapes from Delhi
440
The Marathas in Bengal
441
'Ali Vardi Khan expels the Marathas
442
The Marathas retain Orissa
443
Alamgir II assassinated. Shah Jahan Ili succeeds
444
The Marathas occupy the Punjab
445
Ahmad Shah Abdali returns to India
446
A large Maratha army reaches Delhi
447
Battle of Panipat
449
Succession of Shah Alam
448
CHAPTER XVI
THE REVENUE SYSTEM OF THE MUGHUL
EMPIRE
By W. H. MORELAND, C. S. I. , C. I. E.
Local revenues
Sources of central revenue
Preponderance of land revenue
Description of the agrarian system
The position of the peasant
The state's share of produce
Methods of assessment
Arrangements for collection
The revenue system under the Lodi dynasty
Sher Shah's reorganisation
449
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457
## p. xxi (#25) #############################################
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CONTENTS
xxi
PAGE
458-60
461
462
462-3
464
465
466
467
467
468-70
471
472
473
474
8
-8
9
0
1
-2
33
33
34
34
35
36
36
37
37
38
39
-40
-41
Assessment under Akbar
Assignments under Akbar
Experiments in direct collection
Akbar's regulation system
Arrangements in the outlying provinces
Grants of land under Akbar
The reign of Jahangir
The reign of Shah Jahan
The assessment of the Deccan
Aurangzib's revenue system
The decline of agriculture
The disappearance of assignments
The extension of farming
The formation of dependencies
CHAPTER XVII
BURMA (1531-1782)
By G. E. HARVEY, Indian Civil Service (retired).
Arakan and its capitals
Muslim Buddhist kings
Chittagong and Portuguese pirates
Coronation sacrifices
The Dutch in Arakan. Shah Shuja
Mughuls take Chittagong
The Toungoo dynasty
Burman Talaing union
Burmese invade Siam
Death of Tabinshwehti
Failure of Smim Htaw's rebellion
Bayinnaung suppresses funeral sacrifices
Capture of Ayuthia
The Ceylon Tooth
Bayinnaung's administration
Contact with outer world
Nandabayin's cruelty
Sack of Pegu
De Brito independent at Syriam
Defeat and crucifixion of De Brito
Minredeippa's brief reign
Compilation of law books
Devastation by Chinese marauders
Yung-li, last of the Ming emperors
Foreign rivals in Mergui
Traders in Syriam
Raids from Manipur
Ava taken by the Talaings
The Alaungpaya dynasty
Alaungpaya captures Rangoon
French ships taken at Syriam
Talaings annihilated
Pegu stormed
Massacre at Negrais
Invasion of Siam
Death of Alaungpaya
42
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448
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477
478
479
480
481
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CONTENTS
PAGE
Manipur raided
512
Ava reoccupied
513
Invasion of Siam
514
Sixth siege of Ayuthia
515
Chinese invasion of Burma
516
Chinese repulsed and peace made
517
Manipur occupied
518
Burmese triumphs
519
Siamese expel Burmese from Siam
520
Singu murdered
521
Bodawpaya succeeds
522
CHAPTER XVIII
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
By PER BROWN, A. R. C. A. , F. R. A. S. B. , Secretary and Curator,
Victoria Memorial Hall, Calcutta, formerly Principal of the
Government School of Art and Keeper of the Government Art
Gallery, Calcutta.
Neglected cities of northern India
523
Babur's new buildings
521
Humayun's capital at Delhi
525
Conclusion of the Sayyid-Afghan style
526
Sher Shah's tomb at Sasaram
527
Other tombs of the Surs
528
The Purana Qil'a
529
The Qil'a-i-Kuhna Masjid
533
Tombs of Adham Khan and Humayun
532
Bridge at Jaunpur
535
Fort at Agra
536
Palaces in Agra fort
537
Fort at Lahore
538
Fathpur Sikri
539
Plan of Fathpur Sikri
540
Jodh Bai's palace
541
Houses of Miriam and the Turkish Sultana
542
The Diwan-i-Khas
543
The Jami' Masjid
543
Buland Darwaza
545
Tomb of Salim Chishti
546
547
Temples at Brindaban
Palaces in Rajputana
548
Mughul gardens
549
550
Akbar's tomb
551
Jahangir's tomb
Tombs of Khan Khanan and i'timad-ud-Daula
552
553
Buildings in white marble
Shah Jahan's palaces and mosques
554
555
Delhi fort
557
Fountains and gardens at Delhi
558
Diwan-i-Am and Jami' Masjid
559
Mosques at Delhi and Agra
559
Tile decoration
561
Wazir Khan's Mosque, Lahore
561
The Taj Mahall
## p. xxiii (#27) ###########################################
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xxiii
Its architectural technique
Aurangzib's neglect of architecture
Aurangabad
Mosque at Benares; tomb of Safdar Jang
Sind
Deccan style at Bijapur
The Gol Gumbaz
The Jami' Masjid, Bijapur
Khandesh
PAGE
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566
567
568
569
570
571
573
575
LIST OF BIBLIOGRAPHIES
General
Numismatic
Chapter 1
Chapter 1
Chapter III
Chapters IV and v
Chapter VI
Chapter VII
Chapters VIII and x
Chapter IX
Chapter XI
Chapter XII
Chapter XIII
Chapter XIV
Chapter XV
Chapter XVI
Chapter XVII
Chapter XVIII
577
577
577
578
579
579
580
582
582
587
588
589
590
592
594
595
596
600
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES
India
Burma
: : : : : : : : :
DYNASTIC LISTS AND GENEALOGICAL
TABLES
602
615
1. The Mughul emperors of India
2. The Sur Dynasiy
3. The Marathas
4. The Peshwas
5. The Nawabs of Oudh
6. The Nizams of Hyderabad
7. The Toungoo dynasty in Burma
618-19
620-21
622-23
624
625
626
627
LIST OF MAPS
1. India in 1525
2. India in 1605
3. India in 1707
4. India in 1761
5. Burma
6. India, Afghanistan and Transoxiana
facing p. 1
155
318
388
477
at end of book
INDEX
629
## p. xxiv (#28) ############################################
|
1
## p. xxv (#29) #############################################
PLATES
(at end of book)
(For acknowledgments see also p. vii of Preface. )
Plate Fig.
I. 1. Delhi, Jamali Masjid (c. 1530)
2. Delhi, Tomb of 'Isa Khan (1547)
II. 3. Delhi, Tomb of Adham Khan (dec. 1561)
4. Sasaram, Tomb of Hasan Khan Sur (c. 1540)
III. 5. Sasaram, Tomb of Sher Shah Sur (c. 1545)
6. Sasaram, Northern entrance to the Tomb of Sher Shah Sur
IV. 7. Delhi, Main entrance to the Purana Qil'a (c. 1545)
8. Delhi, Qil-a-i-Kuhna Masjid in the Purana Qilʻa (c. 1545)
V. 9. Delhi, Mihrab in the Qil'a-i-Kuhna Masjid
10. Delhi, Pendentive in the Qil'a-i-Kuhna Masjid
VI. 11. Delhi, Entrance gateway to Khair-ul-manazil (c. 1560)
12. Delhi, Tomb of the Emperor Humayun (1564)
VII. 13. Delhi, Tomb of Atga Khan (dec. 1561)
VIII. 14. Jaunpur, Bridge over river Gumti (1564-1568)
15. Gwalior, Tomb of Muhammad Ghaus (c. 1564)
IX. 16. Gwalior, Perforated stone screen in tomb of Muhammad Ghaus
X. 17. Agra Fort
18. Agra Fort, Delhi Gate (1566)
XI. 19. Agra Fort, Jahangiri Mahall, east façade
20. Agra Fort, Jahangiri Mahall, detail of east façade
XII. 21. Agra Fort, Jahangiri Mahall, brackets in courtyard
22. Agra Fort, Jahangiri Mahall, interior of northern hall
XIII. 23. Lahore, Wooden doorway of a house (sixteenth century ? )
XIV. 24. Mughul Miniature Painting, probably depicting the construction
of the Elephant Gateway (Hathi Pol) of Agra Fort (painted
c. 1580). By permission of the Director, Victoria and Albert
Museum
XV. 25. Mughul Miniature Painting, depicting building under construc-
tion (painted c. 1850). By permission of the Director, Victo-
ria and Albert Museum
XVI. 26. Fathpur Sikri, Entrance gateway to Palace of Jodh Bai (c. 1572)
27. Fathpur Sikri, Jodh Bai's Palace, west side of courtyard
XVII. 28. Fathpur Sikri, Jodh Bai's Palace, west side of courtyard
29. Fathpur Sikri, House of Miriam
XVIII. 30. Fathpur Sikri, Jodh Bai's Palace, interior of northern hall
31. Fathpur Sikri, Raja Birbal's house, detail of carved stone
brackets, exterior
XIX. 32. Fathpur Sikri, Raja Birbal's House
33. Fathpur Sikri, Sultana's House
XX. 34. Fathpur Sikri, Sultana's house, carved sandstone panel of dado
in interior
35. Fathpur Sikri, Sultana's House, carved sandstone detail of exterior
XXI. 36. Fathpur Sikri, Diwan-i-Khass, interior
XXII. 37. Fathpur Sikri, Diwan-i-Khass
38. Fathpur Sikri, Jami' Masjid, façade (finished 1571)
XXIII. 39. Fathpur Sikri, Jami' Masjid, central mihrab
40. Fathpur Sikri, interior showing brackets
XXIV. 41. Fathpur Sikri, Buland Darwaza, exterior (1575-1576)
42. Fathpur Sikri, Buland Darwaza, interior
XXV. 43. Fathpur Sikri, Tomb of Shaikh Salim Chishti
44. Fathpur Sikri, Tomb of Shaikh Salim Chishti, portico
## p. xxvi (#30) ############################################
xxvi
PLATES
Plate Fig.
XXVI. 45. Brindavan near Muttra, Temple of Govind Deo (1590)
46. Brindaban, Temple of Govind Deo, detail of arcades
XXVII. 47. Jaipur, Amber, Courtyard of Durbar Hall
XXVIII. 48. Sikandra, Tomb of Akbar (finished 1612-1613)
49. Sikandra, Tomb of Akbar, entrance gateway
XXIX. 50. Sikandra, Tomb of Akbar, inlaid stonework on entrance gateway
51. Sikandra, Tomb of Akbar, entrance to tomb chamber
XXX. 52. Sikandra, Tomb of Akbar, upper storey
53. Agra, Tomb of I'timad-ud-Daula (finished 1628)
XXXI. 54. Agra, Tomb of I'timad-ud-Daula, detail of inlay
XXXII. 55. Agra, Tomb of I'timad-ud-Daula, river entrance gateway
56. Agra, Tomb of I“timad-ud-Daula, interior of upper storey
XXXIII. 57.
Lahore, Tomb of the Emperor Jahangir at Shahdara (1627)
XXXIV. 58. Delhi, Tomb of Khan Khanan (1627)
59. Agra Fort, Diwan-i-Khass
XXXV. 60. Agra Fort, the Khass Mahall
XXXVI. 61. Agra Fort, Musamman Burj
62. Agra Fort, Moti Masjid, interior
XXXVII. 63. Agra Fort, Musamman Burj, interior
64. Agra Fort, Moti Masjid, exterior
XXXVIII. 65. Lahore Fort, the Shish Mahall
66, Lahore, Mosque of Wazir Khan (1634)
XXXIX. 67. Delhi Fort, “The Citadel of the Great Moghul” (1639-1648).
Copyright of the Archaeological Survey of India
XL. 68. Delhi Fort, the Diwan-i-Am, the Throne
XLI. 69. Delhi Fort, the Diwan-i-Am
70. Delhi Fort, the Diwan-i-Khass
XLII. 71. Delhi Fort, the Diwan-i-Khass, interior
XLIII. 72. Delhi Fort, the Rang Mahall
73. Delhi Fort, Pearl Mosque
XLIV. 74. Delhi Fort, Screen "Scales of Justice" in Rang Mahall
XLV. 75. Delhi Fort, interior of Pearl Mosque
76. Delhi, Jami' Masjid (1644-1658)
XLVI. 77. Delhi, Jami' Masjid, from courtyard
78, Delhi, Jami' Masjid, mihrab
XLVII. 79. Agra, Jami' Masjid (1648)
XLVIII, 80. Agra, Jami' Masjid, from courtyard
81. Agra, Entrance gateway to Taj Mahall
XLIX. 82. Agra, Taj Mahall (begun 1632)
L. 83, Agra, Taj Mahall, from the river
LI. 84. Agra, Mosque at Taj Mahall
85. Agra, Taj Mahall, interior
LII. 86. Aurangabad, Tomb of Rabi'a-ud-Daurani (c. 1679)
87. Laliore, Jami' Masjid (Badshahi Masjid, 1674)
LIII, 88. Tatta, Sind, Tomb of 'Isa Tarkhan (c. 1640)
89. Tutta, Sind, Tomb of 'Isa Tarkhan, detail of arcade
LIV. 90. Talta, Sind, Jami' Masjid (begun 1644)
91. Bijapur, Jami' Masjid (1576)
LV. 92. Bijapur, Jami' Masjid, interior
93. Bijapur, Tomb of Sultan Muhammad (dec. 1656), the “Gol
Gumbaz"
LVI. 94. Bijapur, the Ibrahim Rauza, the Tomb (1627)
95. Bijapur, the Ibrahim Rauza, the Mosque
LVII. 96. Bijapur, the Mihtar Mahall (c. 1620)
LVIII. 97. Burhanpur, Bibi-ki-Masjid (c. 1590)
98. Delhi, Tomb of Nawab Safdar Jang (dec. 1754)
.
## p. xxvi (#31) ############################################
ol
## p. xxvi (#32) ############################################
The Cambridge History of India, Vol. IV
Map 1
64
68
72
76
80
84
89
92
35
1
Kabel
Peshawar
Kelanaus
30
Dan
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Chenal
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GULTAN
Indes
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Ganges
RAJPUTANA
EH
Klusad
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umil
Lunis
Audiya
Jaunp
dou quase
BUNDELKHAND
BNUAR
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Tropic of
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MALWAY
GAL
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in 1525
The Political boundaries are show phuk-
10 Countries od Peoples thu. . . BENGAL
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Peshawar
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Scales
60 80 100 200
English Miles
100 o 100 900 900
பேட்ட
Kilometres
Kaveri
52
ISAN AGAR
10
68
72
70
09
84
89
## p. 1 (#33) ###############################################
1
CHAPTER I
BABUR
I
In chapter ix of volume III, which dealt with the Lodi dynasty,
the narrative was brought down to the revolts of the Afghan chiefs
in Lucknow and Bihar against Ibrahim Shah Lodi, and the intrigues
of Daulat Khan, the semi-independent governor of Lahore. In the
present chapter will be described the events which led to the expul-
sion of the Lodis from upper India by the emperor Babur.
It would have sufficed for the purposes of an Indian history if the
narrative had been resumed at the point where the disaffected
Afghans first began to intrigue with the Timurid ruler of Kabul in
the year 1523. But the early life of the emperor Babur offers so
strange and engrossing a subject that it would be improper not to
present the reader with a summary at least of the previous career of
the man who founded the Mughul Empire of Delhi. We must, there-
fore, momentarily focus our attention on the country situate between
Persia and Turkestan, in which Babur was born and where he spent
the first thirty years of his life. Since Tamerlane's invasion of India
in 1398 (see vol. III, chap. VII) this country never seems to have
attracted the attention of his descendants, for though these included
men of rare gifts none of them were great soldiers or statesmen. The
two we remember best are Ulugh Beg, Timur's grandson, who was
an eminent astrologer, and Sultan Husain Baiqara, Timur's great-
great-grandson, who for fifty-four years made Herat one of the
greatest centres of literature and art that the world has ever seen-a
veritable cinquecento Florence in the heart of Asia. But between
1405, when Timur died, and 1500 (by which time Timur's central
Asian kingdoms had been divided between the Uzbegs and the
Safavids) among all the Timurid princes—who are known to Muslim
historians as the Mirzas—there was none capable of consolidating
their common heritage. The hereditary instinct for great adventures
seems to have lain dormant in the Timurid stock, until it suddenly
revealed itself again in the person of the emperor Babur. The whole
result of Tamerlane's invasion of India had been the appointment
of a governor of Multan, who, although he founded the short-lived
dynasty of Sayyids, never even assumed the title of king. Of the
other lands conquered by Timur nothing remained to his immediate
successors except Transoxiana, most of the modern Afghanistan,
Khurasan, and part of Persia, and his conquest of Delhi counted for
no more when he died than his defeat of the Ottoman Sultan
Bayazid.
1
## p. 2 (#34) ###############################################
!
1
2
BABUR
At the time of Babur's birth, in 1483, these countries were no
longer a single empire, but were broken up into a number of separate
states large and small ruled over by Timurid princes among whom
there was constant rivalry and warfare. Among these princes was
Babur's father, 'Umar Shaikh, who had inherited the kingdom
of Farghana. In 1494 'Umar Shaikh died and was succeeded by
Babur, then a child of eleven. For the next twenty years he was
engaged in continual struggles with his cousins, in which his main
objective was always the kingdom of Transoxiana with its capital
Samarqand, for, like his great ancestor Timur, Babur had a deep-
seated affection for this city. His only lasting success during this
period was his occupation in 1504 of Kabul, a Timurid state, which
then became his headquarters. It was to Kabul that he withdrew
after his defeat by the Uzbegs at the battle of Ghazdawan in 1512,
when he finally abandoned all hope of realising his chief ambition;
but there, instead of resigning himself to the relative obscurity of a
minor principality, he began to contemplate what neither Chingiz
Khan nor Timur had been able to achieve, namely the conquest
Hindustan. Nothing could have seemed less probable when Babur
at the age of eleven inherited his father's small kingdom of Farghana
than that he should one day become emperor of Hindustan; and in
the first thirty years of his active career, in spite of his untiring energy
and indomitable courage, he achieved nothing beyond turning his
cousins out of Badakhshan, Kabul and Ghazni.
It is almost impossible in a brief survey to infuse life and interest
into the petty wars and intrigues in which young Babur found himself
involved in his early career. The bones of contention were the various
towns in Transoxiana and Khurasan, notably Samarqand, Bukhara
and Herat, and the protagonists were the Timurid Mirzas and the
Mughul Khans. These years are packed with incidents and adven-
tures, forming a panorama in which the outstanding figure is the
youthful prince who was destined to found a great empire in a land
far removed and greatly differing in climate, population and culture
from his own. The history of the country lying between the Oxus
and the Jaxartes between 1494 and 1512 can only be made inter-
esting if told in great detail; that is to say, if one concentrates on the
principal personalities, their ambitions and quarrels. Sketched briefly
these events have little meaning, and simply offer a number of names,
many of which are quite confusing on account of their similarity
and sometimes even their identity with each other. Since, however,
it is with the founding of the Mughul dynasty of Delhi that this
chapter is concerned, it is clear that we must pass quite rapidly over
Babur's career in the north and only deal fully with his great Indian
adventure.
In the history of the first twenty years of Babur's career the scene
changes so rapidly and the protagonists are so numerous that even
1
## p. 3 (#35) ###############################################
no
ate
aom
was
lom
by
was
bain
ital
eep-
this
nich
rew
512
ion;
of a
giz
toi
bur
ana
in
rgy
his
BIRTH AND PARENTAGE
3
in the briefest account something in the nature of a list of dramatis
personae is required, for without such a list there must be confusion
in the reader's mind.
Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad Babur, the founder of the Mughal
,
Empire in Hindustan, was born in Farghana on 14 February, 1483.
His father, 'Umar Shaikh Mirza, was descended in the fourth genera-
tion from the great Tamerlane, and his mother, Qutluq Nigar
Khanum, the daughter of Yunus Khan, was descended from Chagatai
Khan, the son of Chingiz Khan. 'Umar Shaikh Mirza was one of
the nine sons of Sultan Abu Sa'id Khan, who, in 1452, had succeeded
to what yet remained of Tamerlane's vast empire, thanks very largely
to the support of the 'Uzbegs of Turkestan under their Qipchaq
leader, Abu-'l-Khair Khan. On the death of Sultan Abu Sa'id Khan
in 1469 his empire was divided among his sons.
The eldest son Ahmad had obtained Transoxiana with its capital
Samarqand, and the second son Mahmud became lord of Badakhshan
and Hisar. The fourth son of Abu Sa'id Mirza, Ulugh Beg, became
lord of Kabul and Ghazni, and he had a son called 'Abdur-Razzaq.
The fifth son 'Umar Shaikh, the father of Babur, inherited the kingdom
of Farghana with its capital Andijan. The most powerful of the Timu-
rids at this time was, however, Sultan Husain Baiqara, who belonged
to the Miran-Shah branch of Tamerlaine's family, and was ruling
Khurasan from Herat. His territories included in the east; Balkh; in
the west, Bistam and Damaghan; in the north, Khwarazm (Khiva);
and in the south, Qandahar. He had a son named Badi-uz-Zaman
Mirza. Babur had two brothers, Jahangir Mirza and Nasir Mirza.
Such were the chief Timurid princes or Mirzas. The most prominent
chiefs and nobles outside the family of Tamerlane were Khusrav Shah,
a Qipchaq Mongol, who was minister of Mahmud Mirza and for a
time governor of Qunduz; and Zu-'n-Nun Arghun, also a Mongol, who
was governor of Qandahar on behalf of Sultan Husain Baigara-
he claimed descent from Arghun Khan, son of Abaqa, son of Hulagu,
Il-khani rulers of Persia two centuries earlier. His two sons, Shah
Beg and Muhammad Muqim Khan, both play a prominent part in
this story. The great chiefs of the Uzbegs who ultimately usurped
the eastern possessions of the Timurids, were Abu-'l-Khair Khan; his
grandson Muhammad Shaibani Khan (also known as Shahibeg or
Shaibak, a corruption of Shahbakht); and 'Ubaid-ullah Khan, the
nephew of Shaibani. Amongst the Chaghatai Chingiz-Khanids were
Sultan Ahmad Khan and Sultan Mahmud Khan, the sons of Yunus
Khan, the father of Babur's mother. Ahmad had several sons of
whom we hear at this time, notably Mansur Sultan, Sa'id Khan and
Chin-Timur. Finally, mention may be made of Mirza Haidar
Dughlat, Babur's cousin and friend, the author of the famous Tarikh-
:-Rashidi.
In order to follow the career of Babur we must first familiarise
rest
self
jous
iara
the
ren.
the
and
ture
Ixus
ter-
the
efly
nes,
rity
yer,
this
ver
lian
ene
ven
## p. 4 (#36) ###############################################
4
BABUR
1
ourselves with a map which includes on the north the Sea of Aral, on
the west Meshed (and Kirman), on the south upper India, and on the
east Kashmir, Tibet, and Chinese Turkestan. We must think of
various countries in the terms of the sixteenth century. Transoxiana,
or Mavara-un-nahr, comprised most of the country between the
Oxus and the Jaxartes, including Samarqand and Bukhara. In the
south-east is Farghana with its capital Andijan. Khurasan included
Marv, Balkh, Herat, Qandahar and Khwarazm (Khiva). Kabul
(which included Ghazni) was independent. Hisar and Qunduz were
included in Badakhshan.
In 1494 Ahmad, the son of Yunus Khan, died, and was succeeded
by his brother Mahmud, who died in the following year, when his
territories were divided between his two sons, Baisunqur and Mas'ud.
'Umar Shaikh also died in 1494, and his kingdom of Farghana was
inherited by his son Babur, then only eleven years of age. From the
very outset of his career the young prince found himself the object
of external foes and of internal intrigues; for he had inherited his
father's quarrels as well as his insecure throne. The first years of
Babur's reign were mainly occupied in fighting against his cousin
Baisunqur, from whom he captured Samarqand in 1497, after a siege
of seven months.
At this stage we hear of the arrival in Transoxiana of Shaibani
Khan, chief of the Uzbegs, who was destined to play a great part
in the early history both of Babur and of Shah Isma‘il, the founder
of the Safavid dynasty of Persia. Baisunqur Mirza had invited Shai-
bani Khan to come and help him against his cousin Babur. The
Khan of the Uzbegs came but again withdrew without rendering
any assistance, having seen enough to make him realise, as Erskine
says : "the richness of the prey and the weakness of its defenders. ”
In 1501, after suffering a defeat at Sar-i-pul, Babur withdrew to
Samarqand which, after a protracted siege, he surrendered to Shai-
bani Khan. Babur himself only obtained his freedom by a promise
that his sister should marry the Uzbeg Khan. He now withdrew
to Tashkent, which had been given to Sultan Mahmud Khan, son
of Yunus Khan, by 'Umar Shaikh; and there Babur spent three
years in hiding and misery. In June 1504 we find him accompanied
by a handful of men and women, a refugee without a home and
without a destination. Shaibani Khan, the Uzbeg, in the meanwhile
had become master of Transoxiana, and had put to flight Khusrav
Shah, the governor of Qunduz. This disaster and the consequent
dispersal of Khusrav's army came as a blessing to Babur, to whose
camp large numbers of deserters fled. Those chiefs who now attached
themselves to Babur were called the "Guest Begs". Babur now
found himself at the head of a force of over four thousand men
(according to Mirza Haidar, twenty thousand) and he was obliged
to choose between marching to help in the defence of Herat which
1
1
## p. 5 (#37) ###############################################
BABUR'S FIRST RAID INTO INDIA
5
was being attacked by Shaibani Khan, or of moving farther south,
over the Hindu Kush. Feeling his forces were not sufficiently strong
to cope with Shaibani's large army, he chose the latter alternative.
Having led his men over the formidable passes of the Hindu Kush,
he came at last within sight of Kabul. As we have seen, Kabul
had on the death of his father Abu Sa'id passed into the hands of
Ulugh Beg, on whose death in 1501 it went to his son 'Abdur-Razzaq,
who had been immediately displaced by Muqim the Arghun. Had
Babur found Kabul safely in the power of his cousin 'Abdur-Razzaq,
ne would have had no good excuse for trying to take possession of
that important military post, but seeing that it was in the hands of
an usurper, whom 'Abdur-Razzaq had been unable to withstand,
he not only attacked but, as much by ruse as by daring, captured it,
and having done so asserted his hereditary right to the kingdom of
Kabul and pensioned off his cousin with an estate. We are justified
in assuming that it was while Babur was bringing order into his new
kingdom and somewhat vainly attempting to collect its revenues that
he was first inspired with his Indian dream. The temptations offered
by the fertile plains of Hindustan did not affect his passionate affec-
tion for the land of his birth, to which he so constantly refers in his
Memoirs, and it is unlikely that he had contemplated settling in
India until after his defeat at Ghazdawan in 1512. Moreover, to
conquer Hindustan did not necessarily mean lasting severance from
Turkestan; rather would success in the south give the means whereby
to recapture Farghana and Samarqand.
In January, 1505 Babur set out via Badam-chasma, Jagdalik,
Adinapur, Ningrahar, Jam-rud through the Khyber Pass and Kohat,
and thence along the mountains to the west of the Indus as far as
Dera Ghazi Khan. Although it was mid-winter he and his men,
encountering such climatic conditions as they had never before
experienced, suffered much from the sub-tropical sun of upper India.
The raid lasted four months, and by May 1506 Babur was back again
in Kabul (Abu-'l-Fazl's first invasion). In March, 1508, Humayun
was born in Kabul, of Babur's third wife Mahim. In the meanwhile
Shaibani Khan had captured Khiva, and was threatening Balkh.
Husain Baiqara, realising that the town of Herat was now endangered,
called on Babur and other princes of the Timurid house to come to
his rescue; and although Babur set out with all haste from Kabul
in response to this appeal, he had only reached Kahmard when news
came that the old Sultan was dead (May, 1506). Babur, nevertheless,
continued his march on Herat in order to oppose the Uzbeg Khan
in Khurasan, perhaps chiefly with the idea of saving the face of the
Timurids in general. On 26 October, 1506, he met the assembled
Mirzas, who persuaded him to spend the winter in Herat, but on
24 December, finding that no proper arrangements for winter quarters
had been made, he moved out of Herat and marched back over the
## p. 6 (#38) ###############################################
6
BABUR
1
snow-clad passes to Kabul, raiding the Hazaras on his way. Mean-
while there had been a conspiracy in Kabul to place his cousin
Mirza Khan, son of Mahmud Mirza, on the throne. He quickly
suppressed this rebellion. In the spring of 1507 Shaibani Khan set
out from Samarqand to invade Khurasan, and owing to the indeci-
sion of the Mirzas he was allowed to take Herat (June, 1507), which,
being in a wretched state of defence, fell at the explosion of the first
mine.
Babur had long desired to get possession of Qandahar on account
of its strategic importance. On the fall of Herat the Arghun princes
in Qandahar had appealed to Babur for military aid, but no sooner
had Babur set out than they changed their minds and determined
to oppose him. Babur, advancing by way of Qalat, which he took,
met Muqim and Shah Beg, the sons of Zu'n Nun Arghun, in a pitched
battle, in which the Arghuns were put to flight. Shortly afterwards
Nasir Mirza brought news that Shaibani Khan was on his way to
lay siege to Qandahar, having apparently been encouraged in this
enterprise by the fugitive Muqim. Shaibani fully expected to find
Babur in Qandahar, but Babur on this occasion did not display his
wonted courage. Instead of waiting to meet the Uzbegs he held a
council of war, at which it was decided to undertake a raid into
Hindustan, and in September, 1507, he set out on an expedition
which is regarded by Abu-'l-Fazl as Babur's second invasion of India.
Meanwhile Shaibani Khan had attacked Qandahar, but withdrew
without taking it, his presence being required in the north owing
to the rebellion of one of his chiefs. On reaching Mandrawar Babur
retraced his steps to Kabul, but whether this was on account of dis-
agreement among his nobles—for they had started without any fixed
plan-or as a result of Shaibani's withdrawal, we cannot determine.
It was on his return to Kabul from this expedition that Babur
ordered that he should in future be styled not Mirza (prince), but
Padishah (emperor). It was perhaps an unsuitable moment for him
to change his title, but it should be remembered that Kabul was the
only Timurid state which remained after the fall of Herat.
April, 1509, to April, 1510, was passed quietly in Kabul, but
exciting news began to arrive of the hostilities which had broken
out between Shah Ismail Safavi and the redoubtable Uzbeg Khan,
who had now been in possession of Transoxiana for about nine years.
In the summer of 1510 Shaibani had led an army against the elusive
Hazaras eastward of Herat, and, having failed to discover them, he
gave leave of absence to his troops for the winter; but no sooner had
he done so than news came that Shah Isma‘il had set out with his
army for Khurasan. Most of this province had been wrested from
the aged Sultan Husain (1506) by Shaibani, and his troops had even
penetrated into the province of Kirman. This led to an acrimonious
correspondence between the Shiah king and the Sunni usurper (con-
1
!
## p. 7 (#39) ###############################################
BABUR AND SHAH ISMAIL
7
taining taunting references to the possible visit of the former to
Meshed and of the latter to Mecca). Isma‘il, having overrun Khurasan
as far as Meshed, went in pursuit of Shaibani in the direction of
Marv, where the latter shut himself up. Isma'il, in order to bring
him out into the open, gave out that he was returning home after
paying a ceremonial visit to the Holy City of Meshed. The ruse had
the desired result, and on 2 December, 1510, a battle was engaged
outside Marv, in which Shaibani was defeated and slain. The Uzbegs
now withdrew from Khurasan into Transoxiana, and Isma'il wintered
in Herat. News of the victory at Mary was brought to Babur, who,
with hopes revived of regaining his lost territories, set out with all
possible speed via Bamian and reached Qunduz in January, 1511.
Shah Isma'il sent an embassy, laden with rich presents and bringing
Babur's sister Khanzada Begam, who had, as we have seen, been
given in marriage to Shaibani Khan. On the approach of Babur,
however, fearing the results of her devotion to her brother, Shaibani
had divorced her and married her to a man who afterwards fell in
the battle near Marv. Babur sent Khan Mirza to thank Isma'il and
to congratulate him on his victory over their common enemy; he
further suggested that Isma'il might help him to recover Transoxiana.
The latter consented and began to invade this country but, owing
to affairs in Azarbaijan which required his personal attention, he
accepted proposals of peace made by certain Uzbeg chiefs, and with-
drew again to Herat. In the meanwhile Babur learnt that his cousin
Mirza Haidar had driven the Uzbegs out of Farghana. Not long
after, Babur with the help of some Qizilbash_troops took Bukhara
and Samarqand, and the Uzbegs withdrew to Turkestan. In October,
1511, he was proclaimed king at Samarqand. His dominions now
included Tashkent and Kabul, Qunduz and Hisar, Samarqand,
Bukhara and Farghana.
When the Uzbegs, who had retired beyond the Jaxartes, learnt
that Shah Isma'il had withdrawn, they resolved to attempt the
recovery of Transoxiana.
Murder of Atga Khan
Akbar shakes off evil influences
Confusion at Kabul
Expedition against Gakkhars
Muzaffar 'Ali appointed Diwan
Reduction of Garha-Katanga
Malwa rebellion quelled
Agra fort begun
Afghan invasion of Bihar defeated
Attempts to reform administration
Uzbegs in India rebel
Operations against the Uzbegs
Uzbegs defeated and pardoned
Muhammad Hakim invades Punjab but retires
Rebellion of the Mirzas
Akbar's sport near Lahore
Final suppression of the Uzbegs
Expedition against the Rana of Chitor
Fortress of Chitor taken
Massacre at Chitor
Dispersal of the "foster-father cohort”
Capture of Ranthambhor and Kalinjar
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PAGE
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103
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Birth of Akbar's children
Invasion of Gujarat
Gujarat subdued
Operations against the Mirzas
The Mirzas dispersed
Akbar's religious misgivings
CHAPTER V
AKBAR, MYSTIC AND PROPHET
By Lt. -COLONEL. SIR WOLSELEY HAIC.
Akbar suppresses revolt in Gujarat
Todar Mal revises land revenue settlement in Gujarat
Imperial administrative reforms
Discontent caused by reforms
Abu-'l-Fazl and Badauni arrive at court
Invasion of Bengal
Bengal occupied
The "Hall of Worship"
Religious dissensions
Fresh campaign against the Rana
Bengal finally subdued
Submission of minor Rajput chiefs and of Khandesh
Rebellion in Gujarat
Akbar's religious meditations
Muslim sectarian disputes
Akbar assumes spiritual authority
The Infallibility Decree
Discontent of orthodox divines
The first Jesuit mission
The Jesuits unable to convert Akbar
-Widespread rebellion
Rebels declare for Muhammad Hakim
Akbar marches against Muhammad Hakim
Muhammad Hakim submits
Akbar's hostility to the Portuguese
The "Divine Faith"
Examination of various creeds
Exclusion of Islam
Disturbances in Bengal and Gujarat
Administrative Reforms
"Divine Era" introduced
Expeditions into Kashmir and tribal areas
Kashmir annexed. Frontier operations
Berar invaded. Sind annexed
Akbar visits Kashmir
Death of Raja Todar Mal
Reduction of disorder in Bengal
Second Christian mission
Rebellion in Kashmir
Qandahar surrendered to Mughuis
Third Christian mission
Famine from 1595 to 1599
Successes in the Deccan
Akbar sets out for the Deccan
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## p. xiii (#17) ############################################
CONTENTS
xiii
Death of Sultan Murad
Negotiations with Ahmadnagar
Akbar arrives in Deccan
Disobedience of Salim
Ahmadnagar taken by storm
Annexation of Khandesh
Salim rebellious
Murder of Abu-'l-Fazl
Reconciliation between Salim and Akbar
Misconduct of Salim
John Mildenhall at Akbar's court
Akbar's last illness
Death of Akbar
Character of Akbar
His personal appearance
PAGE
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148
149
149
150
151
151
152
153
154
155
CHAPTER VI
JAHANGIR
By SIR RICHARD BURN.
Jahangir's accession
Khusrav's revolt
Revolts quelled
Fresh plot in favour of Khusrav
Expedition against Mewar
Disasters in the Deccan
Failure of renewed Mughul attack on Ahmadnagar
Rebellion in Bengal
Khurram's success in Mewar
The English and the Mughuls
Nur Jahan's influence
Prince Khusrav
Khurram's negotiations in the Deccan
Roe's agreement with Shah Jahan
Jahangir in Gujarat
Visit to Kashmir
Capture of Kangra
Shah Jahan deputed to the Deccan
Treaties with kingdoms in the Deccan
Death of Khusrav
Loss of Qandahar
Shah Jahan rebels
His success in Bengal and Bihar
Defeat and flight to Deccan
Jahangir's health fails
Mahabat Khan's coup d'état
Death of Malik 'Ambar
Jahangir's last illness
His character
Artistic taste
Love of literature and dress
Politics ard administration
Religious views
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER VII
SHAH JAHAN
By SIR RICHARD BURN.
Accession
Petty local disturbances
Rebellion of Khan Jahan
Famine in the Deccan
Khan Jahan defeated
Dissensions in Bijapur
Death of Mumtaz Mahall
King of Ahmadnagar poisoned by Fath Khan
Asaf Khan fails to take Bijapur
Mughul attack on Hooghly
Attack on Ahmadnager by Bijapur
Storming of Daulatabad
Death of Mahabat Khan
Rebellion in Bundelkhand
Peace made with Bijapur
Conditions of peace with Golconda
Shahji enters service of Bijapur
Qandahar surrendered to Mughuls
Campaign in Assam
Annexation of Baglan
War with Portuguese
Insurrection in Kangra
Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand and Malwa
Plans for invading Transoxiana
Capture of Badakhshan and Balkh
Balkh abandoned
Loss of Qandahar
Failure to recover Qandahar
Disputes with Golconda
Aurangzib enforces terms on Golconda
Aurangzib attacks Bijapur
Shivaji hostile to Mughuls
Aurangzib's complaints against Dara
The struggle for succession
Shah Shuja' defeated
Aurangzib and Murad gain a victory
Battle of Samogarh
Dara's flight and pursuit
Shah Jahan imprisoned at Agra
Aurangzib becomes emperor
Character of Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan's religious intolerance
His administration
Foreign policy
Architecture and literature
Vernacular poems
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CONTENTS
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CHAPTER VIII
AURANGZIB (1658 - 1681)
By SIR JADUNATH SARKAR, C. I. E. , D. Litt.
PAGE
Coronation of Aurangzib
Pursuit of Dara Shukoh
Battle against Shuja' at Kora
Struggle with Shuja'
Flight and death of Shuja'
End of Dara Shukoh
Sulaiman and Murad Bakhsh executed
Aurangzib's second coronation
Foreign embassies to Aurangzib
Religious ordinances
Social and administrative reforms
Heretics of Islam
Relations with Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan's last days
Invasion of Assam
Mir Jumla's successes and death
The Magh pirates of Chittagong
Conquest of Chittagong
Rebellions by Yusufzais and Afridis
Wars with frontier Afghans
Amir Khan's pacification of Afghanistan
Action against Hindus
Destruction of temples
Imposition of poll-tax
Persecution of Hindus
Revolts by Jats and Satnamis
Militarisation of the Sikhs
Growth of Sikh power
Govind Singh's death
Marwar seized by Aurangzib
Pillage of Marwar
Invasion of Mewar
Rajputs incite prince Akbar to rebel
Rebellion of Akbar
Mewar regains peace
Relations with states in Deccan
Jay Singh attacks Bijapur
Bahadur Khan defeated by Bijapur
Dilir Khan fails to take Bijapur
Early career of Shivaji
Shivaji visits court at Agra
Full growth of Shivaji's power
Shivaji's death
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER IX
THE KINGDOMS OF THE DECCAN DURING THE
REIGNS OF JAHANGIR, SHAH JAHAN AND A U-
RANGZIB, AND THE RISE OF THE MARATHA
POWER
By LT. -COLONEL SIR WOLSELEY HAIG.
PAGE
Parviz and Khurram viceroys of the Deccan
260
Shah Jahan's contests with Malik 'Ambar
261
Malik 'Ambar attacks Bijapur
262
Death of Malik 'Ambar
263
Shah Jahan as emperor proceeds to the Deccan
264
Extinction of the Nizam Shahi dynasty
265
Claim to sovereignty over Bijapur and Golconda
266
Terms of peace with Bijapur
267
Rise of Shivaji
268
Aurangzib attacks Golconda
269
Peace made with Golconda
270
Invasion of Bijapur
271
Shivaji kills Afzal Khan
272
Shivaji assumes royal title
273
Cabals in Golconda and Bijapur
274
Aggressions by Shivaji
275
Shivaji raids the Carnatic
276
Attempts to save Golconda and Bijapur
277
Maratha aid to Bijapur
278
Character and achievements of Shivaji
279
CHAPTER X
AURANGZIB (1681-1707)
By SIR JADUNATH SARKAR,
Aurangzib marches to the Deccan
Prince Akbar assumes sovereignty
Campaigns against Shambhuji
Capture of Shambhuji
Raja Ram succeeds
Last siege of Bijapur
Affairs of Golconda
Mughul attacks on Qutb Shah
Shiah-Sunni dissensions
Capture of Golconda fort
Campaign against Maratha forts
Maratha partisan war
Raja Ram at Gingee
Zu-'l-Fiqar Khan besieges Gingee
Raids by Santa and Dhana
Raja Ram's last efforts
Continued sieges of Maratha forts
Capture of Satara and Parli
Khelna and Kondhana taken
281
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.
.
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xvii
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3
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35
56
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59
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71
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75
76
77
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79
Aurangzib's last campaign
Maratha methods of spoliation
Aurangzib's last year
Aurangzib's death
Rathor war of liberation
Rebellions of Durga Das
Jat rebellions crushed
Risings in Malwa and Bihar
English East India Company
English traders in India
Mughul attacks on English
European piracy in Indian waters
Agreement between Mughuls and Europeans
Bengal in Aurangzib's reign
Ja'far Khan's administration of Bengal
Rise of Chhatra Sal Bundela
Gondwana affairs
Disorders in Gujarat
Revenues of the empire
India's imports and exports
Aurangzib's character
PAGE
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284
284
285
288
CHAPTER XI
BAHADUR SHAH, JAHANDAR SHAH,
FARRUK-SIYAR, RAFI-UD-DARAJAT AND
RAFI-UD-DAULA
By SIR JADUNATH SARKAR.
Contest for succession to Aurangzib
A'zam defeated by Bahadur Shah at Samogarh
War in Rajputana
Sikh revolt
War with Banda the Sikh Guru
Death and character of Bahadur Shah
Fight between Bahadur Shah's sons
Jahandar Shah succeeds to throne
Farrukh-siyar's advance from Patna
Battle between Jahandar and Farrukh-siyar
Jahandar's defeat and flight
Farrukh-siyar's coronation
His new appointments
The Turani and Irani factions
Farrukh-siyar's character
Sayyid brothers break with Farrukh-siyar
Plots against the Sayyids
Sikh Guru Banda captured
Churaman consolidates Jat power
Farrukh-siyar again plots against the Sayyids
Pretence of reconciliation
Farrukh-siyar deposed and murdered
Rafi'-ud-Darajat placed on throne
Niku-siyar proclaimed at Agra
Death of Rafi -ud-Darajat
Rafi-ud-Daula enthroned as Shah Jahan II
Death of Rafi'-ud-Daula and succession of Muhammad Shah
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327
328
329
330
331
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER XII
MUHAMMAD SHAH
By LT. -COLONEL SIR WOLSELEY HAIG
The provinces at Muhammad Shah's accession
Quarrel between the Sayyid brothers
Nizam-ul-Mulk opposes the Sayyids
Assassination of Husain 'Ali
Sayyid 'Abdullah Khan defeated and imprisoned
The heresy of Namud
Nizam-ul-Mulk appointed minister
Rise of the Jats
Nizam-ul-Mulk returns to the Deccan
Battle of Shakarkhelda
Contests for Gujarat
Abhay Singh expels Sarbuland Khan
Muhammad Khan Bangash in Bundelkhand
Maratha raids in Malwa
Insurrection in Allahabad
Baji Rao's raid on Delhi
Nizam-ul-Mulk attacked by Marathas
Peace terms with Marathas
Rise of Nadir Shah
Nadir Shah invades India
Mughul attempts to repel Nadir Shah
Nadir Shah's victory at Karnal
Negotiations for an indemnity
General massacre in Delhi
Nadir Shah's booty
Intrigues against the Turanian faction
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa
Death of Baji Rao Peshwa
Failure of 'Azim-ullah to recover Malwa
The Marathas invade Bengal
Raghuji Bhonsle retires from Bengal
Rise of the Rohilla power
Mughul attack on 'Ali Muhammad Khan
'Umdat-ul-Mulk assassinated
Ahmad Shah Abdali succeeds Nadir Shah
Ahmad Shah invades India
Mughuls repel Ahmad Shah
Reduction in the size of the Delhi empire
The degeneration of the Mughul army
PAGE
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.
1
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1
CHAPTER XIII
1
1
THE HYDERABAD STATE (1724-1762)
By SIR JADUNATH SARKAR.
Nizam-ul-Mulk assumes independence
The Maratha menace
Nizam-ul-Mulk and Raja Shahu
The Nizam supports Shambhuji of Kolhapur
377
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xix
PACE
381
381
382
383
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385
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387
387
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389
390
391
Palkhed campagin against Baji Rao
Treaty of Shevgaon
Marathas diverted to north
Nazir Jang's rebellion suppressed
The Nawabs of Arcot
Death of Asaf Jah
Character of Asaf Jah
Nazir Jang seizes viceroyalty
Bussy dominates Hyderabad court
Muzaffar Jang and Salabat Jang
Ghazi-ud-din marches to Deccan
Bussy recovers control over Nizam
The Marathas defeat Hyderabad forces
Nizam 'Ali deposes Salabat Jang
CHAPTER XIV
THE RISE OF THE MARATHA EMPIRE
(1707-1761)
By H. G. RAWLINSON, C. I. E. , M. A. , F. R. Hist. S.
(Late Indian Educational Service. )
Accession of Shahu
Balaji Vishvanath
Palaji restores order
Shivaji's Swarajya
Balaji's achievements
Baji Rao succeeds Balaji
The founders of Dhar, Indore and Gwalior
The Nizam leaves Delhi
Baji Rao defeats the Nizam
Treaty of Warna
The Marathas invade Malwa
The Nizam returns to Delhi
Baji Rao fails to annex the Konkan
The Marathas besiege Bassein
English secure free trade in the Deccan
Death and character of Baji Rao
Balaji Baji Rao succeeds
Raghuji Bhonsle overruns the Carnatic
Character of Shahu
Death of Shahu and succession of Ram Raja
Defeat of the Gaikwar
Ram Raja succeeded by Shahu II
The Marathas plunder the Carnatic
They defeat and cripple Hyderabad
Organisation of Maratha government
The Marathas in the North
Ahmad Shah Abdali plunders Delhi and retires
The Marathas advance to Lahore
Ahmad Shah Abdali returns to India
The Bhao Sahib takes the field
The Marathas occupy Delhi
Start of the campaign against the Muslims
The Maratha intrenchment near Panipat
Blockade of the Maratha camp
392
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396
397
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399
400
401
402
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405
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411
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415
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## p. xx (#24) ##############################################
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CONTENTS
The Marathas issue forth
Battle of Panipat
Slaughter of the Marathas
Completeness of the defeat
Note on Marathi literature
PAGE
422
423
424
425
426-7
CHAPTER XV
AHMAD SHAH, 'ALAMGIRII AND SHAH ALAM
By LT. -COLONEL SIR WOLSELEY HAIG
Ahmad Shah succeeds to the throne
428
Offices of state divided by the nobles
428
Safdar Jang instigates the Bangash Pathans to attack the Rohillas
429
The Bangash defeat Safdar Jang and raid in Oudh
430
Safdar Jang crushes the Bangash with Maratha help
431
Zu-'l-Fiqar Jang in Rajputana
432
Disputed succession to Nizam-ul-Mulk
433
Third invasion by Ahmad Shah Abdali
433
The Punjab and Multan ceded to Afghanistan
434
Disputes between the emperor and Safdar Jang
434
Civil war at Delhi
435
Intizam-ud-Daula becomes minister
436
Ghazi-ud-din replaces Intizam-ud-Daula and deposes Ahmad Shah
436
'Alamgir II succeeds Ahmad Shah
437
Unsuccessful attempt to recover the Punjab
437
Ahmad Shah Abdali sacks Delhi
438
Massacre at Muttra
439
'Ali Gauhar escapes from Delhi
440
The Marathas in Bengal
441
'Ali Vardi Khan expels the Marathas
442
The Marathas retain Orissa
443
Alamgir II assassinated. Shah Jahan Ili succeeds
444
The Marathas occupy the Punjab
445
Ahmad Shah Abdali returns to India
446
A large Maratha army reaches Delhi
447
Battle of Panipat
449
Succession of Shah Alam
448
CHAPTER XVI
THE REVENUE SYSTEM OF THE MUGHUL
EMPIRE
By W. H. MORELAND, C. S. I. , C. I. E.
Local revenues
Sources of central revenue
Preponderance of land revenue
Description of the agrarian system
The position of the peasant
The state's share of produce
Methods of assessment
Arrangements for collection
The revenue system under the Lodi dynasty
Sher Shah's reorganisation
449
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457
## p. xxi (#25) #############################################
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xxi
PAGE
458-60
461
462
462-3
464
465
466
467
467
468-70
471
472
473
474
8
-8
9
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1
-2
33
33
34
34
35
36
36
37
37
38
39
-40
-41
Assessment under Akbar
Assignments under Akbar
Experiments in direct collection
Akbar's regulation system
Arrangements in the outlying provinces
Grants of land under Akbar
The reign of Jahangir
The reign of Shah Jahan
The assessment of the Deccan
Aurangzib's revenue system
The decline of agriculture
The disappearance of assignments
The extension of farming
The formation of dependencies
CHAPTER XVII
BURMA (1531-1782)
By G. E. HARVEY, Indian Civil Service (retired).
Arakan and its capitals
Muslim Buddhist kings
Chittagong and Portuguese pirates
Coronation sacrifices
The Dutch in Arakan. Shah Shuja
Mughuls take Chittagong
The Toungoo dynasty
Burman Talaing union
Burmese invade Siam
Death of Tabinshwehti
Failure of Smim Htaw's rebellion
Bayinnaung suppresses funeral sacrifices
Capture of Ayuthia
The Ceylon Tooth
Bayinnaung's administration
Contact with outer world
Nandabayin's cruelty
Sack of Pegu
De Brito independent at Syriam
Defeat and crucifixion of De Brito
Minredeippa's brief reign
Compilation of law books
Devastation by Chinese marauders
Yung-li, last of the Ming emperors
Foreign rivals in Mergui
Traders in Syriam
Raids from Manipur
Ava taken by the Talaings
The Alaungpaya dynasty
Alaungpaya captures Rangoon
French ships taken at Syriam
Talaings annihilated
Pegu stormed
Massacre at Negrais
Invasion of Siam
Death of Alaungpaya
42
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448
476
477
478
479
480
481
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## p. xxii (#26) ############################################
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CONTENTS
PAGE
Manipur raided
512
Ava reoccupied
513
Invasion of Siam
514
Sixth siege of Ayuthia
515
Chinese invasion of Burma
516
Chinese repulsed and peace made
517
Manipur occupied
518
Burmese triumphs
519
Siamese expel Burmese from Siam
520
Singu murdered
521
Bodawpaya succeeds
522
CHAPTER XVIII
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
By PER BROWN, A. R. C. A. , F. R. A. S. B. , Secretary and Curator,
Victoria Memorial Hall, Calcutta, formerly Principal of the
Government School of Art and Keeper of the Government Art
Gallery, Calcutta.
Neglected cities of northern India
523
Babur's new buildings
521
Humayun's capital at Delhi
525
Conclusion of the Sayyid-Afghan style
526
Sher Shah's tomb at Sasaram
527
Other tombs of the Surs
528
The Purana Qil'a
529
The Qil'a-i-Kuhna Masjid
533
Tombs of Adham Khan and Humayun
532
Bridge at Jaunpur
535
Fort at Agra
536
Palaces in Agra fort
537
Fort at Lahore
538
Fathpur Sikri
539
Plan of Fathpur Sikri
540
Jodh Bai's palace
541
Houses of Miriam and the Turkish Sultana
542
The Diwan-i-Khas
543
The Jami' Masjid
543
Buland Darwaza
545
Tomb of Salim Chishti
546
547
Temples at Brindaban
Palaces in Rajputana
548
Mughul gardens
549
550
Akbar's tomb
551
Jahangir's tomb
Tombs of Khan Khanan and i'timad-ud-Daula
552
553
Buildings in white marble
Shah Jahan's palaces and mosques
554
555
Delhi fort
557
Fountains and gardens at Delhi
558
Diwan-i-Am and Jami' Masjid
559
Mosques at Delhi and Agra
559
Tile decoration
561
Wazir Khan's Mosque, Lahore
561
The Taj Mahall
## p. xxiii (#27) ###########################################
CONTENTS
xxiii
Its architectural technique
Aurangzib's neglect of architecture
Aurangabad
Mosque at Benares; tomb of Safdar Jang
Sind
Deccan style at Bijapur
The Gol Gumbaz
The Jami' Masjid, Bijapur
Khandesh
PAGE
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
573
575
LIST OF BIBLIOGRAPHIES
General
Numismatic
Chapter 1
Chapter 1
Chapter III
Chapters IV and v
Chapter VI
Chapter VII
Chapters VIII and x
Chapter IX
Chapter XI
Chapter XII
Chapter XIII
Chapter XIV
Chapter XV
Chapter XVI
Chapter XVII
Chapter XVIII
577
577
577
578
579
579
580
582
582
587
588
589
590
592
594
595
596
600
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES
India
Burma
: : : : : : : : :
DYNASTIC LISTS AND GENEALOGICAL
TABLES
602
615
1. The Mughul emperors of India
2. The Sur Dynasiy
3. The Marathas
4. The Peshwas
5. The Nawabs of Oudh
6. The Nizams of Hyderabad
7. The Toungoo dynasty in Burma
618-19
620-21
622-23
624
625
626
627
LIST OF MAPS
1. India in 1525
2. India in 1605
3. India in 1707
4. India in 1761
5. Burma
6. India, Afghanistan and Transoxiana
facing p. 1
155
318
388
477
at end of book
INDEX
629
## p. xxiv (#28) ############################################
|
1
## p. xxv (#29) #############################################
PLATES
(at end of book)
(For acknowledgments see also p. vii of Preface. )
Plate Fig.
I. 1. Delhi, Jamali Masjid (c. 1530)
2. Delhi, Tomb of 'Isa Khan (1547)
II. 3. Delhi, Tomb of Adham Khan (dec. 1561)
4. Sasaram, Tomb of Hasan Khan Sur (c. 1540)
III. 5. Sasaram, Tomb of Sher Shah Sur (c. 1545)
6. Sasaram, Northern entrance to the Tomb of Sher Shah Sur
IV. 7. Delhi, Main entrance to the Purana Qil'a (c. 1545)
8. Delhi, Qil-a-i-Kuhna Masjid in the Purana Qilʻa (c. 1545)
V. 9. Delhi, Mihrab in the Qil'a-i-Kuhna Masjid
10. Delhi, Pendentive in the Qil'a-i-Kuhna Masjid
VI. 11. Delhi, Entrance gateway to Khair-ul-manazil (c. 1560)
12. Delhi, Tomb of the Emperor Humayun (1564)
VII. 13. Delhi, Tomb of Atga Khan (dec. 1561)
VIII. 14. Jaunpur, Bridge over river Gumti (1564-1568)
15. Gwalior, Tomb of Muhammad Ghaus (c. 1564)
IX. 16. Gwalior, Perforated stone screen in tomb of Muhammad Ghaus
X. 17. Agra Fort
18. Agra Fort, Delhi Gate (1566)
XI. 19. Agra Fort, Jahangiri Mahall, east façade
20. Agra Fort, Jahangiri Mahall, detail of east façade
XII. 21. Agra Fort, Jahangiri Mahall, brackets in courtyard
22. Agra Fort, Jahangiri Mahall, interior of northern hall
XIII. 23. Lahore, Wooden doorway of a house (sixteenth century ? )
XIV. 24. Mughul Miniature Painting, probably depicting the construction
of the Elephant Gateway (Hathi Pol) of Agra Fort (painted
c. 1580). By permission of the Director, Victoria and Albert
Museum
XV. 25. Mughul Miniature Painting, depicting building under construc-
tion (painted c. 1850). By permission of the Director, Victo-
ria and Albert Museum
XVI. 26. Fathpur Sikri, Entrance gateway to Palace of Jodh Bai (c. 1572)
27. Fathpur Sikri, Jodh Bai's Palace, west side of courtyard
XVII. 28. Fathpur Sikri, Jodh Bai's Palace, west side of courtyard
29. Fathpur Sikri, House of Miriam
XVIII. 30. Fathpur Sikri, Jodh Bai's Palace, interior of northern hall
31. Fathpur Sikri, Raja Birbal's house, detail of carved stone
brackets, exterior
XIX. 32. Fathpur Sikri, Raja Birbal's House
33. Fathpur Sikri, Sultana's House
XX. 34. Fathpur Sikri, Sultana's house, carved sandstone panel of dado
in interior
35. Fathpur Sikri, Sultana's House, carved sandstone detail of exterior
XXI. 36. Fathpur Sikri, Diwan-i-Khass, interior
XXII. 37. Fathpur Sikri, Diwan-i-Khass
38. Fathpur Sikri, Jami' Masjid, façade (finished 1571)
XXIII. 39. Fathpur Sikri, Jami' Masjid, central mihrab
40. Fathpur Sikri, interior showing brackets
XXIV. 41. Fathpur Sikri, Buland Darwaza, exterior (1575-1576)
42. Fathpur Sikri, Buland Darwaza, interior
XXV. 43. Fathpur Sikri, Tomb of Shaikh Salim Chishti
44. Fathpur Sikri, Tomb of Shaikh Salim Chishti, portico
## p. xxvi (#30) ############################################
xxvi
PLATES
Plate Fig.
XXVI. 45. Brindavan near Muttra, Temple of Govind Deo (1590)
46. Brindaban, Temple of Govind Deo, detail of arcades
XXVII. 47. Jaipur, Amber, Courtyard of Durbar Hall
XXVIII. 48. Sikandra, Tomb of Akbar (finished 1612-1613)
49. Sikandra, Tomb of Akbar, entrance gateway
XXIX. 50. Sikandra, Tomb of Akbar, inlaid stonework on entrance gateway
51. Sikandra, Tomb of Akbar, entrance to tomb chamber
XXX. 52. Sikandra, Tomb of Akbar, upper storey
53. Agra, Tomb of I'timad-ud-Daula (finished 1628)
XXXI. 54. Agra, Tomb of I'timad-ud-Daula, detail of inlay
XXXII. 55. Agra, Tomb of I'timad-ud-Daula, river entrance gateway
56. Agra, Tomb of I“timad-ud-Daula, interior of upper storey
XXXIII. 57.
Lahore, Tomb of the Emperor Jahangir at Shahdara (1627)
XXXIV. 58. Delhi, Tomb of Khan Khanan (1627)
59. Agra Fort, Diwan-i-Khass
XXXV. 60. Agra Fort, the Khass Mahall
XXXVI. 61. Agra Fort, Musamman Burj
62. Agra Fort, Moti Masjid, interior
XXXVII. 63. Agra Fort, Musamman Burj, interior
64. Agra Fort, Moti Masjid, exterior
XXXVIII. 65. Lahore Fort, the Shish Mahall
66, Lahore, Mosque of Wazir Khan (1634)
XXXIX. 67. Delhi Fort, “The Citadel of the Great Moghul” (1639-1648).
Copyright of the Archaeological Survey of India
XL. 68. Delhi Fort, the Diwan-i-Am, the Throne
XLI. 69. Delhi Fort, the Diwan-i-Am
70. Delhi Fort, the Diwan-i-Khass
XLII. 71. Delhi Fort, the Diwan-i-Khass, interior
XLIII. 72. Delhi Fort, the Rang Mahall
73. Delhi Fort, Pearl Mosque
XLIV. 74. Delhi Fort, Screen "Scales of Justice" in Rang Mahall
XLV. 75. Delhi Fort, interior of Pearl Mosque
76. Delhi, Jami' Masjid (1644-1658)
XLVI. 77. Delhi, Jami' Masjid, from courtyard
78, Delhi, Jami' Masjid, mihrab
XLVII. 79. Agra, Jami' Masjid (1648)
XLVIII, 80. Agra, Jami' Masjid, from courtyard
81. Agra, Entrance gateway to Taj Mahall
XLIX. 82. Agra, Taj Mahall (begun 1632)
L. 83, Agra, Taj Mahall, from the river
LI. 84. Agra, Mosque at Taj Mahall
85. Agra, Taj Mahall, interior
LII. 86. Aurangabad, Tomb of Rabi'a-ud-Daurani (c. 1679)
87. Laliore, Jami' Masjid (Badshahi Masjid, 1674)
LIII, 88. Tatta, Sind, Tomb of 'Isa Tarkhan (c. 1640)
89. Tutta, Sind, Tomb of 'Isa Tarkhan, detail of arcade
LIV. 90. Talta, Sind, Jami' Masjid (begun 1644)
91. Bijapur, Jami' Masjid (1576)
LV. 92. Bijapur, Jami' Masjid, interior
93. Bijapur, Tomb of Sultan Muhammad (dec. 1656), the “Gol
Gumbaz"
LVI. 94. Bijapur, the Ibrahim Rauza, the Tomb (1627)
95. Bijapur, the Ibrahim Rauza, the Mosque
LVII. 96. Bijapur, the Mihtar Mahall (c. 1620)
LVIII. 97. Burhanpur, Bibi-ki-Masjid (c. 1590)
98. Delhi, Tomb of Nawab Safdar Jang (dec. 1754)
.
## p. xxvi (#31) ############################################
ol
## p. xxvi (#32) ############################################
The Cambridge History of India, Vol. IV
Map 1
64
68
72
76
80
84
89
92
35
1
Kabel
Peshawar
Kelanaus
30
Dan
4
Chenal
Revietetty
O Bees
Mullash
M
Sutlet
Panipato
Brabmapedia
GULTAN
Indes
DELHI
Ganges
RAJPUTANA
EH
Klusad
ND AND
umil
Lunis
Audiya
Jaunp
dou quase
BUNDELKHAND
BNUAR
Caur
Chitor
Kabinjer
Tropic of
Cancer
MALWAY
GAL
GONDWANA,
Ahurada bed
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nita
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G
KHANDESH
Capti
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20
Pengangg
AHMADNAGAR
Ahmad Nasa
Godovod
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ITAPUR
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1S
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INDIA
in 1525
The Political boundaries are show phuk-
10 Countries od Peoples thu. . . BENGAL
Towes. . .
Peshawar
Riven
Mahanadi
Scales
60 80 100 200
English Miles
100 o 100 900 900
பேட்ட
Kilometres
Kaveri
52
ISAN AGAR
10
68
72
70
09
84
89
## p. 1 (#33) ###############################################
1
CHAPTER I
BABUR
I
In chapter ix of volume III, which dealt with the Lodi dynasty,
the narrative was brought down to the revolts of the Afghan chiefs
in Lucknow and Bihar against Ibrahim Shah Lodi, and the intrigues
of Daulat Khan, the semi-independent governor of Lahore. In the
present chapter will be described the events which led to the expul-
sion of the Lodis from upper India by the emperor Babur.
It would have sufficed for the purposes of an Indian history if the
narrative had been resumed at the point where the disaffected
Afghans first began to intrigue with the Timurid ruler of Kabul in
the year 1523. But the early life of the emperor Babur offers so
strange and engrossing a subject that it would be improper not to
present the reader with a summary at least of the previous career of
the man who founded the Mughul Empire of Delhi. We must, there-
fore, momentarily focus our attention on the country situate between
Persia and Turkestan, in which Babur was born and where he spent
the first thirty years of his life. Since Tamerlane's invasion of India
in 1398 (see vol. III, chap. VII) this country never seems to have
attracted the attention of his descendants, for though these included
men of rare gifts none of them were great soldiers or statesmen. The
two we remember best are Ulugh Beg, Timur's grandson, who was
an eminent astrologer, and Sultan Husain Baiqara, Timur's great-
great-grandson, who for fifty-four years made Herat one of the
greatest centres of literature and art that the world has ever seen-a
veritable cinquecento Florence in the heart of Asia. But between
1405, when Timur died, and 1500 (by which time Timur's central
Asian kingdoms had been divided between the Uzbegs and the
Safavids) among all the Timurid princes—who are known to Muslim
historians as the Mirzas—there was none capable of consolidating
their common heritage. The hereditary instinct for great adventures
seems to have lain dormant in the Timurid stock, until it suddenly
revealed itself again in the person of the emperor Babur. The whole
result of Tamerlane's invasion of India had been the appointment
of a governor of Multan, who, although he founded the short-lived
dynasty of Sayyids, never even assumed the title of king. Of the
other lands conquered by Timur nothing remained to his immediate
successors except Transoxiana, most of the modern Afghanistan,
Khurasan, and part of Persia, and his conquest of Delhi counted for
no more when he died than his defeat of the Ottoman Sultan
Bayazid.
1
## p. 2 (#34) ###############################################
!
1
2
BABUR
At the time of Babur's birth, in 1483, these countries were no
longer a single empire, but were broken up into a number of separate
states large and small ruled over by Timurid princes among whom
there was constant rivalry and warfare. Among these princes was
Babur's father, 'Umar Shaikh, who had inherited the kingdom
of Farghana. In 1494 'Umar Shaikh died and was succeeded by
Babur, then a child of eleven. For the next twenty years he was
engaged in continual struggles with his cousins, in which his main
objective was always the kingdom of Transoxiana with its capital
Samarqand, for, like his great ancestor Timur, Babur had a deep-
seated affection for this city. His only lasting success during this
period was his occupation in 1504 of Kabul, a Timurid state, which
then became his headquarters. It was to Kabul that he withdrew
after his defeat by the Uzbegs at the battle of Ghazdawan in 1512,
when he finally abandoned all hope of realising his chief ambition;
but there, instead of resigning himself to the relative obscurity of a
minor principality, he began to contemplate what neither Chingiz
Khan nor Timur had been able to achieve, namely the conquest
Hindustan. Nothing could have seemed less probable when Babur
at the age of eleven inherited his father's small kingdom of Farghana
than that he should one day become emperor of Hindustan; and in
the first thirty years of his active career, in spite of his untiring energy
and indomitable courage, he achieved nothing beyond turning his
cousins out of Badakhshan, Kabul and Ghazni.
It is almost impossible in a brief survey to infuse life and interest
into the petty wars and intrigues in which young Babur found himself
involved in his early career. The bones of contention were the various
towns in Transoxiana and Khurasan, notably Samarqand, Bukhara
and Herat, and the protagonists were the Timurid Mirzas and the
Mughul Khans. These years are packed with incidents and adven-
tures, forming a panorama in which the outstanding figure is the
youthful prince who was destined to found a great empire in a land
far removed and greatly differing in climate, population and culture
from his own. The history of the country lying between the Oxus
and the Jaxartes between 1494 and 1512 can only be made inter-
esting if told in great detail; that is to say, if one concentrates on the
principal personalities, their ambitions and quarrels. Sketched briefly
these events have little meaning, and simply offer a number of names,
many of which are quite confusing on account of their similarity
and sometimes even their identity with each other. Since, however,
it is with the founding of the Mughul dynasty of Delhi that this
chapter is concerned, it is clear that we must pass quite rapidly over
Babur's career in the north and only deal fully with his great Indian
adventure.
In the history of the first twenty years of Babur's career the scene
changes so rapidly and the protagonists are so numerous that even
1
## p. 3 (#35) ###############################################
no
ate
aom
was
lom
by
was
bain
ital
eep-
this
nich
rew
512
ion;
of a
giz
toi
bur
ana
in
rgy
his
BIRTH AND PARENTAGE
3
in the briefest account something in the nature of a list of dramatis
personae is required, for without such a list there must be confusion
in the reader's mind.
Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad Babur, the founder of the Mughal
,
Empire in Hindustan, was born in Farghana on 14 February, 1483.
His father, 'Umar Shaikh Mirza, was descended in the fourth genera-
tion from the great Tamerlane, and his mother, Qutluq Nigar
Khanum, the daughter of Yunus Khan, was descended from Chagatai
Khan, the son of Chingiz Khan. 'Umar Shaikh Mirza was one of
the nine sons of Sultan Abu Sa'id Khan, who, in 1452, had succeeded
to what yet remained of Tamerlane's vast empire, thanks very largely
to the support of the 'Uzbegs of Turkestan under their Qipchaq
leader, Abu-'l-Khair Khan. On the death of Sultan Abu Sa'id Khan
in 1469 his empire was divided among his sons.
The eldest son Ahmad had obtained Transoxiana with its capital
Samarqand, and the second son Mahmud became lord of Badakhshan
and Hisar. The fourth son of Abu Sa'id Mirza, Ulugh Beg, became
lord of Kabul and Ghazni, and he had a son called 'Abdur-Razzaq.
The fifth son 'Umar Shaikh, the father of Babur, inherited the kingdom
of Farghana with its capital Andijan. The most powerful of the Timu-
rids at this time was, however, Sultan Husain Baiqara, who belonged
to the Miran-Shah branch of Tamerlaine's family, and was ruling
Khurasan from Herat. His territories included in the east; Balkh; in
the west, Bistam and Damaghan; in the north, Khwarazm (Khiva);
and in the south, Qandahar. He had a son named Badi-uz-Zaman
Mirza. Babur had two brothers, Jahangir Mirza and Nasir Mirza.
Such were the chief Timurid princes or Mirzas. The most prominent
chiefs and nobles outside the family of Tamerlane were Khusrav Shah,
a Qipchaq Mongol, who was minister of Mahmud Mirza and for a
time governor of Qunduz; and Zu-'n-Nun Arghun, also a Mongol, who
was governor of Qandahar on behalf of Sultan Husain Baigara-
he claimed descent from Arghun Khan, son of Abaqa, son of Hulagu,
Il-khani rulers of Persia two centuries earlier. His two sons, Shah
Beg and Muhammad Muqim Khan, both play a prominent part in
this story. The great chiefs of the Uzbegs who ultimately usurped
the eastern possessions of the Timurids, were Abu-'l-Khair Khan; his
grandson Muhammad Shaibani Khan (also known as Shahibeg or
Shaibak, a corruption of Shahbakht); and 'Ubaid-ullah Khan, the
nephew of Shaibani. Amongst the Chaghatai Chingiz-Khanids were
Sultan Ahmad Khan and Sultan Mahmud Khan, the sons of Yunus
Khan, the father of Babur's mother. Ahmad had several sons of
whom we hear at this time, notably Mansur Sultan, Sa'id Khan and
Chin-Timur. Finally, mention may be made of Mirza Haidar
Dughlat, Babur's cousin and friend, the author of the famous Tarikh-
:-Rashidi.
In order to follow the career of Babur we must first familiarise
rest
self
jous
iara
the
ren.
the
and
ture
Ixus
ter-
the
efly
nes,
rity
yer,
this
ver
lian
ene
ven
## p. 4 (#36) ###############################################
4
BABUR
1
ourselves with a map which includes on the north the Sea of Aral, on
the west Meshed (and Kirman), on the south upper India, and on the
east Kashmir, Tibet, and Chinese Turkestan. We must think of
various countries in the terms of the sixteenth century. Transoxiana,
or Mavara-un-nahr, comprised most of the country between the
Oxus and the Jaxartes, including Samarqand and Bukhara. In the
south-east is Farghana with its capital Andijan. Khurasan included
Marv, Balkh, Herat, Qandahar and Khwarazm (Khiva). Kabul
(which included Ghazni) was independent. Hisar and Qunduz were
included in Badakhshan.
In 1494 Ahmad, the son of Yunus Khan, died, and was succeeded
by his brother Mahmud, who died in the following year, when his
territories were divided between his two sons, Baisunqur and Mas'ud.
'Umar Shaikh also died in 1494, and his kingdom of Farghana was
inherited by his son Babur, then only eleven years of age. From the
very outset of his career the young prince found himself the object
of external foes and of internal intrigues; for he had inherited his
father's quarrels as well as his insecure throne. The first years of
Babur's reign were mainly occupied in fighting against his cousin
Baisunqur, from whom he captured Samarqand in 1497, after a siege
of seven months.
At this stage we hear of the arrival in Transoxiana of Shaibani
Khan, chief of the Uzbegs, who was destined to play a great part
in the early history both of Babur and of Shah Isma‘il, the founder
of the Safavid dynasty of Persia. Baisunqur Mirza had invited Shai-
bani Khan to come and help him against his cousin Babur. The
Khan of the Uzbegs came but again withdrew without rendering
any assistance, having seen enough to make him realise, as Erskine
says : "the richness of the prey and the weakness of its defenders. ”
In 1501, after suffering a defeat at Sar-i-pul, Babur withdrew to
Samarqand which, after a protracted siege, he surrendered to Shai-
bani Khan. Babur himself only obtained his freedom by a promise
that his sister should marry the Uzbeg Khan. He now withdrew
to Tashkent, which had been given to Sultan Mahmud Khan, son
of Yunus Khan, by 'Umar Shaikh; and there Babur spent three
years in hiding and misery. In June 1504 we find him accompanied
by a handful of men and women, a refugee without a home and
without a destination. Shaibani Khan, the Uzbeg, in the meanwhile
had become master of Transoxiana, and had put to flight Khusrav
Shah, the governor of Qunduz. This disaster and the consequent
dispersal of Khusrav's army came as a blessing to Babur, to whose
camp large numbers of deserters fled. Those chiefs who now attached
themselves to Babur were called the "Guest Begs". Babur now
found himself at the head of a force of over four thousand men
(according to Mirza Haidar, twenty thousand) and he was obliged
to choose between marching to help in the defence of Herat which
1
1
## p. 5 (#37) ###############################################
BABUR'S FIRST RAID INTO INDIA
5
was being attacked by Shaibani Khan, or of moving farther south,
over the Hindu Kush. Feeling his forces were not sufficiently strong
to cope with Shaibani's large army, he chose the latter alternative.
Having led his men over the formidable passes of the Hindu Kush,
he came at last within sight of Kabul. As we have seen, Kabul
had on the death of his father Abu Sa'id passed into the hands of
Ulugh Beg, on whose death in 1501 it went to his son 'Abdur-Razzaq,
who had been immediately displaced by Muqim the Arghun. Had
Babur found Kabul safely in the power of his cousin 'Abdur-Razzaq,
ne would have had no good excuse for trying to take possession of
that important military post, but seeing that it was in the hands of
an usurper, whom 'Abdur-Razzaq had been unable to withstand,
he not only attacked but, as much by ruse as by daring, captured it,
and having done so asserted his hereditary right to the kingdom of
Kabul and pensioned off his cousin with an estate. We are justified
in assuming that it was while Babur was bringing order into his new
kingdom and somewhat vainly attempting to collect its revenues that
he was first inspired with his Indian dream. The temptations offered
by the fertile plains of Hindustan did not affect his passionate affec-
tion for the land of his birth, to which he so constantly refers in his
Memoirs, and it is unlikely that he had contemplated settling in
India until after his defeat at Ghazdawan in 1512. Moreover, to
conquer Hindustan did not necessarily mean lasting severance from
Turkestan; rather would success in the south give the means whereby
to recapture Farghana and Samarqand.
In January, 1505 Babur set out via Badam-chasma, Jagdalik,
Adinapur, Ningrahar, Jam-rud through the Khyber Pass and Kohat,
and thence along the mountains to the west of the Indus as far as
Dera Ghazi Khan. Although it was mid-winter he and his men,
encountering such climatic conditions as they had never before
experienced, suffered much from the sub-tropical sun of upper India.
The raid lasted four months, and by May 1506 Babur was back again
in Kabul (Abu-'l-Fazl's first invasion). In March, 1508, Humayun
was born in Kabul, of Babur's third wife Mahim. In the meanwhile
Shaibani Khan had captured Khiva, and was threatening Balkh.
Husain Baiqara, realising that the town of Herat was now endangered,
called on Babur and other princes of the Timurid house to come to
his rescue; and although Babur set out with all haste from Kabul
in response to this appeal, he had only reached Kahmard when news
came that the old Sultan was dead (May, 1506). Babur, nevertheless,
continued his march on Herat in order to oppose the Uzbeg Khan
in Khurasan, perhaps chiefly with the idea of saving the face of the
Timurids in general. On 26 October, 1506, he met the assembled
Mirzas, who persuaded him to spend the winter in Herat, but on
24 December, finding that no proper arrangements for winter quarters
had been made, he moved out of Herat and marched back over the
## p. 6 (#38) ###############################################
6
BABUR
1
snow-clad passes to Kabul, raiding the Hazaras on his way. Mean-
while there had been a conspiracy in Kabul to place his cousin
Mirza Khan, son of Mahmud Mirza, on the throne. He quickly
suppressed this rebellion. In the spring of 1507 Shaibani Khan set
out from Samarqand to invade Khurasan, and owing to the indeci-
sion of the Mirzas he was allowed to take Herat (June, 1507), which,
being in a wretched state of defence, fell at the explosion of the first
mine.
Babur had long desired to get possession of Qandahar on account
of its strategic importance. On the fall of Herat the Arghun princes
in Qandahar had appealed to Babur for military aid, but no sooner
had Babur set out than they changed their minds and determined
to oppose him. Babur, advancing by way of Qalat, which he took,
met Muqim and Shah Beg, the sons of Zu'n Nun Arghun, in a pitched
battle, in which the Arghuns were put to flight. Shortly afterwards
Nasir Mirza brought news that Shaibani Khan was on his way to
lay siege to Qandahar, having apparently been encouraged in this
enterprise by the fugitive Muqim. Shaibani fully expected to find
Babur in Qandahar, but Babur on this occasion did not display his
wonted courage. Instead of waiting to meet the Uzbegs he held a
council of war, at which it was decided to undertake a raid into
Hindustan, and in September, 1507, he set out on an expedition
which is regarded by Abu-'l-Fazl as Babur's second invasion of India.
Meanwhile Shaibani Khan had attacked Qandahar, but withdrew
without taking it, his presence being required in the north owing
to the rebellion of one of his chiefs. On reaching Mandrawar Babur
retraced his steps to Kabul, but whether this was on account of dis-
agreement among his nobles—for they had started without any fixed
plan-or as a result of Shaibani's withdrawal, we cannot determine.
It was on his return to Kabul from this expedition that Babur
ordered that he should in future be styled not Mirza (prince), but
Padishah (emperor). It was perhaps an unsuitable moment for him
to change his title, but it should be remembered that Kabul was the
only Timurid state which remained after the fall of Herat.
April, 1509, to April, 1510, was passed quietly in Kabul, but
exciting news began to arrive of the hostilities which had broken
out between Shah Ismail Safavi and the redoubtable Uzbeg Khan,
who had now been in possession of Transoxiana for about nine years.
In the summer of 1510 Shaibani had led an army against the elusive
Hazaras eastward of Herat, and, having failed to discover them, he
gave leave of absence to his troops for the winter; but no sooner had
he done so than news came that Shah Isma‘il had set out with his
army for Khurasan. Most of this province had been wrested from
the aged Sultan Husain (1506) by Shaibani, and his troops had even
penetrated into the province of Kirman. This led to an acrimonious
correspondence between the Shiah king and the Sunni usurper (con-
1
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BABUR AND SHAH ISMAIL
7
taining taunting references to the possible visit of the former to
Meshed and of the latter to Mecca). Isma‘il, having overrun Khurasan
as far as Meshed, went in pursuit of Shaibani in the direction of
Marv, where the latter shut himself up. Isma'il, in order to bring
him out into the open, gave out that he was returning home after
paying a ceremonial visit to the Holy City of Meshed. The ruse had
the desired result, and on 2 December, 1510, a battle was engaged
outside Marv, in which Shaibani was defeated and slain. The Uzbegs
now withdrew from Khurasan into Transoxiana, and Isma'il wintered
in Herat. News of the victory at Mary was brought to Babur, who,
with hopes revived of regaining his lost territories, set out with all
possible speed via Bamian and reached Qunduz in January, 1511.
Shah Isma'il sent an embassy, laden with rich presents and bringing
Babur's sister Khanzada Begam, who had, as we have seen, been
given in marriage to Shaibani Khan. On the approach of Babur,
however, fearing the results of her devotion to her brother, Shaibani
had divorced her and married her to a man who afterwards fell in
the battle near Marv. Babur sent Khan Mirza to thank Isma'il and
to congratulate him on his victory over their common enemy; he
further suggested that Isma'il might help him to recover Transoxiana.
The latter consented and began to invade this country but, owing
to affairs in Azarbaijan which required his personal attention, he
accepted proposals of peace made by certain Uzbeg chiefs, and with-
drew again to Herat. In the meanwhile Babur learnt that his cousin
Mirza Haidar had driven the Uzbegs out of Farghana. Not long
after, Babur with the help of some Qizilbash_troops took Bukhara
and Samarqand, and the Uzbegs withdrew to Turkestan. In October,
1511, he was proclaimed king at Samarqand. His dominions now
included Tashkent and Kabul, Qunduz and Hisar, Samarqand,
Bukhara and Farghana.
When the Uzbegs, who had retired beyond the Jaxartes, learnt
that Shah Isma'il had withdrawn, they resolved to attempt the
recovery of Transoxiana.
