No More Learning

Is it in space at all? What is space? The supposition of an "infinite space" is according to Nietzsche "false" (XII, number 97). Space is bounded and as bounded is merely a "subjective form," in the same way as is the notion of "matter": "Space first emerged by virtue of the supposi- tion of an empty space. There is no such thing. All is force" (XII, number 98). Space is therefore an imaginary, imaginative bit of imag- ery, formed by force and the relations of force themselves. Which forces and relations of force it is that instigate the formation of space, that is to say, the self-formation of a representation of space, and how they do so, Nietzsche does not say. The assertion that space "first emerged by virtue of the supposition of an empty space" sounds dubi- ous, inasmuch as space is already represented in the notion of "empty space," so that the former cannot suitably be said to originate from the latter. Nevertheless, with this remark Nietzsche is on the trail of im essential nexus, one that he never thought through, however, and nev- er mastered. That is the fundamental phenomenon of the void, which of course does not necessarily have to do merely with space, or with time either, insofar as time is thought in accord with the traditional concept. In contrast, the essence of Being could include the void. We simply hint at the matter here, in order to show that in spite of its
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initial apparent lack of sense Nietzsche's remark on the genesis of space may make sense, presupposing that space is engendered by the essence of world. "
8. How is all this bound up with time, which is usually designated together with space? In contrast to the imaginary character of space, time is actual. It is also-in contrast to the bounded character of space -unbounded, infinite. "But, of course, the time in which the uni- verse exercises its force is infinite; that is, force is eternally the same and eternally active" (XII, number 90). In note number 103 Nietzsche speaks of "the course of infinite time. " We are already familiar with the image employed in note 114, "the eternal hourglass of existence. " t About the time this note on eternal return was written, Nietzsche says pointedly, "To the actual course of things an actual time must also correspond" (XII, number 59). Such actual, infinite time Nietzsche grasps as eternity. Viewed as a whole, Nietzsche's meditations on space and time are quite meager. The few thoughts concerning time that inch beyond traditional notions are desultory-the most reliable proof of the fact that the question concerning time, as a means of unfolding the guiding question of metaphysics, and the guiding question itself in its more profound origin remained closed to him. In the earlier, immensely important essay, "On Truth and Lie in ah Extra-Moral Sense" (summer 1873), Nietzsche, still perfectly in tune with Schopenhauer, writes that we "produce" representations of space and time "in us and out of us with the necessity of a spider spinning its web" (X, 202). Time too is represented subjectively and is even defined "as a property of space~' (WM, 862).
9. We must now conjoin in thought all these designations of the world which we have merely listed-force, finitude, perpetual Becom- ing, the innumerability of appearances, the bounded character of
• Die Entstehung des Raumes . . . gesetzt, dass der Raum aus dem Wesm von Welt ent-steht. In modern German entstehen means "to become, originate. " But from the Middle Ages through the epoch of Goethe and Schiller the word meant literally the negation of "to stand," hence, "to withdraw, be missing. " Heidegger here apparently wishes to think the origins of empty space in terms reminiscent of Ent-femung, "un- distancing," that is to say, nearing or approaching, as analyzed in Being and Time, section 23.
t See J11e Gay Science, number 341, discussed in section 3, above.
Summary Presentation of the Thought 91
space, and the infinity of time-and refer them back to the major determination by which Nietzsche defines the "collective character of the world. " With that major determination we will attain solid footing for our concluding interpretation of the world, to be established in the tenth and final section of our present discussion. Here we will refer to a statement by Nietzsche found in the important and roughly contem- poraneous passage numbered l09 in The Gay Science: "The collective character of the world is, on the contrary, to all eternity--chaos. "
The fundamental representation of being as a whole as chaos, a notion that guided Nietzsche even before the doctrine of return took shape, has dual significance. In the first place, it aims to capture the guiding representation of perpetual Becoming in the sense of the cus- tomary notion of panta rhei, the eternal flux of all things, which Nietz- sche too, along with the tradition in general, falsely took to be a kind of notion such as Heraclitus might have had. We do better to call the notion pseudo-Heraclitean. In the second place, the guiding represen- tation chaos is to allow matters to stand with perpetual Becoming, not deriving it as a "many" out of "one," whether the "one" be represented as creator or demiurge, as spirit or prime matter. Chaos is accordingly a name for that representation of being as a whole which posits being as a manifold of necessitous Becoming, and in such a way that "unity" and "form" are excluded ab initio. The exclusion often seems to be the major determination of the representation of chaos, insofar as the ex- clusion is to be applied to everything that in any way tends to introduce anthropomorphisms into the world totality.
Although Nietzsche distinguishes his concept of chaos from the no- tion of a fortuitous and arbitrary jumble, a sort of universal cosmic porridge, he nonetheless fails to liberate himself from the transmitted sense of chaos as something that lacks order and lawfulness. Here the guiding experience, along with a number of essential guiding concepts, are already in eclipse. Chaos, khaos, khaino means "to yawn"; it signi- fies something that opens wide or gapes. W e conceive of khaos in most intimate connection with an original interpretation of the essence of aletheia as the self-opening abyss (cf. Hesiod, Theogony"'). For
• Hesiod, born at the beginning of the eighth century, B. c. in Boeotia, traces in his Theogony the genealogy of the Greek gods and titans. Line 116 of his poem begins:
92
THE ETERI'\AL RECURRE! \CE OF THE SAME.
Nietzsche the representation of the totality of the world as "chaos" is to engineer a defense against the "humanization" of being as a whole. Humanization includes both the moral explanation of the world as the result of a creator's resolve and the technical explanation pertaining to it which appeals to the actions of some grand craftsman (the demiurge). But humanization also extends to every imposition of order, articulation, beauty, and wisdom on the "world. " These are all results of the "human aesthetic habit. " It is also a humanization when we ascribe "reason" to beings and aver that the world proceeds rationally, as Hegel does in a statement which, to be sure, says a great deal more than what common sense is able to glean from it: "Whatever is rational, is real; and whatever is real, is rational. "(From the Preface to Hegel's Foundations of the Philosophy of Right. "') Yet even when we posit irrationality as the principle of the cosmos, that too is a humanization. Equally unacceptable is the notion that a drive to self-preservation inheres in being: "To attribute a feeling of self-preservation to Being [meant is being as a whole] is madness! Ascribing the 'strife of pleasure and revulsion' to atoms! " (XII, number
101). Also the notion that beings proceed according to "laws" is a moralistic-juridical mode of thought, and hence is equally anthropo- morphic. Nor are there in beings any "goals" or "purposes" or "inten- tions"; and if there are no purposes, then purposelessness and "acci- dent" as well are excluded.
E toi men protista Khaos genet', "And in the very beginning Chaos came to be. " The gap of Chaos is usually interpreted as resulting from the separation of earth and sky- even though both Gaia and Ouranos are explicitly said to emerge after Chaos came to be. The confusion is intensified by Hesiod's use of the verb to become, rather than any form of to be. For Hesiod, differentiation seems to come to be prior to all and sundry beings; its very genesis suggests that differentiation is prior. Yet such priority is given no name. For a presentation of the basic sources, see G. S. Kirk and ). E. Raven, The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts (Cambridge, En- gland: Cambridge University Press, 1966), pp. 24-37. I know of no detailed discussion of Hesiod in Heidegger's works, but suggest that khaos might be interpreted along the lines of the Timaean khora, the "receptacle" of "space," namely, as the open region in which all beings can first appear and be in being, in Einfiihrung in die Metaphysik (Tiibingen: M. Niemeyer, 1953), pp. 50-51. See Martin Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics, tr. Ralph Manheim (New York: Doubleday Anchor, 1961), pp. 53-54.
• See G. W. F. Hegel, Werke in zwanzig Biinden, Theorie-Werkausgabe (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1970), 7, 24.
Summary Presentation ofthe Thought 93
Let us guard against believing that the universe displays a tendency to achieve certain forms, that it wants to become more beautiful, more perfect, more complex! All of that is humanization! Anarchy, deformity, form- these concepts are irrelevant. For mechanics, nothing is imperfect. (XII,
111)
Finally, the notion of the collective character of the world as an "organism" is out of the question, not only because it is a special case that dare not be taken to represent the whole, and not only because human notions about what an organism is are modeled on human beings themselves, but above all because an organism always necessari- ly requires something other than itself, something outside itself, for sustenance and nourishment. Yet what could subsist outside the world as a whole, understood as "organism"? "The supposition that the uni- verse is an organism is belied by the essence of the organic" (XII, number 93; The Gay Science, number 109).
How essential it is for Nietzsche to bar these humanizations from his projection of being as a whole, and how absolutely determinative the guiding notion of the world as chaos remains for him, is betrayed most clearly by the phrase that recurs again and again even when he is discussing the doctrine of return: "let us guard against," that is to say, let us shield ourselves from the tendency to project any fortuitous no- tion about ourselves, any human capacity, onto beings. Indeed, the crucial passage from The Gay Science which contains the statement concerning the collective character of the world as chaos (number 109) bears the explicit title "Let us be on guard! " Inasmuch as these human- izations for the most part simultaneously involve notions in which a cosmic ground-in the sense of a moral Creator-God-is represented, the humanization proceeds in tandem with a deification. Accordingly, the notions that suggest some sort of wisdom in the world's proces~, some sort of "providence" in real events, are but "shades" which the Christian interpretation of the world leaves behind to haunt beings and our grasp of them, when actual faith has vanished. To turn matters around, then, the dehumanizing of beings-keeping that which rises of itself, physis, natura, "nature" clear of human admixtures of every kind~amounts to a de-deification of beings. With a view to this inter- connection, passage 109 of The Gay Science thus concludes:
94 THE ETERNAL RECURREf'\CE OF THE SAME
When will all these shades of God cease to darken our paths? When will we have a nature that is altogether undeified! When will we human beings be allowed to begin to naturalize ourselves by means of the pure, newly discov- ered, newly redeemed nature?
To be sure, elsewhere we read: "To 'humanize' the world, that is to say, to feel ourselves increasingly as masters in it-" (WM, 614; cf. WM, 616). Yet we would lapse into terrible error if we were to label Nietzsche's guiding representation of the world as chaos with cheap slogans like "naturalism" and "materialism," especially if we were to think that such labels explained his notion once and for all. "Matter" (that is, tracing everything back to some elemental "stuff') is as much an error as "the god of the Eleatics" (that is, tracing it back to some- thing immaterial). * The most fundamental point to be made about Nietzsche's notion of chaos is the following: only a thinking that is utterly lacking in stamina will deduce a will to godlessness from the will to a de-deification of beings. On the contrary, truly metaphysical thinking, at the outermost point of de-deification, allowing itself no subterfuge and eschewing all mystification, will uncover that path on which alone gods will be encountered-if they are to be encountered
ever again in the history of mankind.
Meanwhile we want to heed the fact that at the time when the
thought of eternal return of the same arises Nietzsche is striving most decisively in his thought to dehumanize and de-deify being as a whole. His striving is not a mere echo, as one might suppose, of an ostensible "positivistic period" now in abeyance. It has its own, more profound origin. Only in this way is it possible for Nietzsche to be driven directly from such striving to its apparently incongruous opposite, when in his doctrine of will to power he demands the supreme humanization of beings.
In Nietzsche's usage, the word chaos indicates a defensive notion in consequence of which nothing can be asserted of being as a whole. Thus the world as a whole becomes something we fundamentally can-
• The Gay Science, number 109, explicitly refers to "matter" and "the god of the Eleatics. " Nietzsche is surely alluding to the famous "Battle of Giants," the gigan- tomachia described in Plato's Sophist, 242c-243a and 246a-c.
Summary Presentation ofthe Thought 95
not address, something ineffable-an arreton. * What Nietzsche is practicing here with regard to the world totality is a kind of "negative theology," which tries to grasp the Absolute as purely as possible by holding at a distance all "relative" determinations, that is, all those that relate to human beings. Except that Nietzsche's determination of the world as a whole is a negative theology without the Christian God.
Such a defensive procedure represents the very opposite of despair concerning the possibility of knowledge, the very opposite of an un- mitigated predilection for denial and destruction. The procedure there- fore becomes a salient feature in every instance of great thought, appearing again and again under different guises; nor can it be directly refuted, so long as it perseveres in its style and refrains from leaping over the barriers it has established for itself.
How do matters stand in the present case?
W e have elaborated a series of determinati9ns concerning the world totality in Nietzsche's view, reducing them to eight points. All eight are brought home in the principal determination contained in point nine: "The collective character of the world . . . into all eternity is chaos. " Must we now take this statement to mean that it is properly incumbent on us to revoke the earlier determinations and to utter no more than "chaos"? Or are all those determinations implied in the concept of chaos, so that they are preserved within this concept and its application to the world totality as the sole determination of that world? Or, on the contrary, do not the determinations and relations pertaining to the essence of chaos (force, finitude, endlessness, Becoming, space, time), as humanizations, also scuttle the concept of chaos? In that case we dare not propose any determinations at all; all we can say is noth- ing. Or is "the nothing" perhaps the most human of all humaniza- tions? Our inquiry must push on to these extremes if it is to catch sight of the uniqueness of the present task, the task of determining being as a whole.
At this juncture we must remember that Nietzsche not only defines
• Arretou, the negation of rhetou, is found in Homer, Hesiod, and throughout the Classical Age. It means what is unspoken, inexpressible, unutterable, shameful, not to be divulged. Ta arreta are irrational numbers or surds.
96 THE ETER 1\A L RECURRE! \CE OF THE SAME
the world totality as chaos but also ascribes to chaos itself a thorough- going trait-and that is "necessity. " In section l09 of The Gay Science Nietzsche says explicitly: "The collective character of the world is . . . chaos, not in the sense that it lacks necessity, but in the sense that it lacks order. " The coming to be of the bounded world, which is with- out beginning or end (and here that means that it is eternal), is of course without "order" in the sense of an intentional arrangement- intended by someone somewhere. All the same, such Becoming is not without necessity. We know that since antiquity in the Western intel- lectual tradition necessity designates a particular trait of beings; and that necessity, as a fundamental trait of beings, has received the most variegated interpretations: Moira, fatum, destiny, predestination, dia- lectical process. *
10. With the statement Cosmic chaos is in itself necessity we reach the conclusion of our series. The series was to characterize provisional- ly the fundamental trait of the Being of that world totality to which the eternal return of the same might be attributed.
What do we achieve when we synthesize the nine (or ten) points? What we wanted to do was to bring some intrinsic order to Nietzsche's disparate sketches and demonstrations concerning the doctrine of re- turn. Yet none of the points even mentions the thought of return, much less the various demonstrations that Nietzsche elaborated for this doctrine. Nevertheless, we have supplied ourselves with an order by which we can approach the entire question, so that we can now pursue the matter of proofs for the doctrine of return, and hence the matter of the doctrine itself. To what extent is this the case?
For one thing, we have circumscribed the field in which the thought of return belongs and which the thought as such concerns: we have surveyed this field of being as a whole and determined it as the inter- lacing unity of the animate and the lifeless. For another, we have
• On Moira as "fateful allotment" in Parmenides' thought, see Martin Heidegger, Vortriige und Aufsiitze (Pfullingen: G. Neske, 1954), pp. 231-56; Early Greek Thinking, tr. D. F. Krell and F. A. Capuzzi (New York: Harper & Row, 1975), pp. 79-101; especially sections VI-VII. One of the rare places where Heidegger discusses dialectical thought is "Grundsiitze des Denkens," in the fahrbuch fiir Psychologic und Psychother- apie, VI (1958), 33-41.
Summary Presentation of the Thought 97
shown how in its foundations being as a whole-as the unity of ani- mate and inanimate-is structured and articulated: it is constituted by the character of force and the finitude of the whole (at one with infini- ty) that is implied in the character of force-which is to say, the im- measurability of the "phenomenal effects. " Now-and we can proceed with the following only on the basis of what we have already worked out-we must show how being as a whole, which is deployed in its field and in its constitution in the manner we have indicated, is sus- ceptible of the eternal return of the same; we must show how eternal return may be ascribed to being as a whole, demonstrated of it. At all events, this is the only possible arrangement by which we can proceed in an orderly fashion through the entire labyrinth of Nietzsche's thoughts, mastering that labyrinth as we proceed-presupposing, of course, that we wish to proceed in the way that is prescribed by the inner lawfulness of the guiding question of philosophy, the question of being as such.
13. Suspicions Concerning the "Humanization" of Beings
Yet our entire consideration of Nietzsche's doctrine of return-and what is more, that doctrine itself-stand under the shadow of a suspi- cion. The suspicion, which in some sense is Nietzche's own, might make all further efforts to understand the doctrine and the evidence for it futile. The suspicion is that a humanizing tendency nestles in the thought of eternal return of the same itself, and eminently so. Thus the eternal return would be a thought that provokes more than any other the issuance of Nietzche's own persistent warning: "Let us be on guard! "
From the outset of our presentation we have often enough empha- sized that ifa thought related to beings as a whole must at the same time be related to the human being who is thinking it-indeed, must be thought in terms of the human being preeminently and entirely- then this holds true for the thought of eternal return. It was introduced under the designation "the greatest burden. " The essential relation of this thought to the human being who is thinking it; the essential in- volvement of the thinker in the thought and what it thinks; that is to say, the "humanization" of the thought and of beings as a whole as represented in it-all this is made manifest by the fact that the eternity of recurrence, hence the time of recurrence, and thus recurrence it- self, can be grasped solely in terms of the "Moment. "
We define the "Moment" as that in which future and past "affront one another," in which future and past are decisively accomplished and consummated by man himself, inasmuch as man occupies the site of their collision and is himself that collision. The temporality of the time of that eternity which Nietzsche requires us to think in the eternal
The "Humanization" ofBeings 99
return of the same is the temporality in which humanity stands; preeminently humanity and, so far as we know, humanity alone. Hu- man beings, resolutely open to what is to come and preserving what has been, sustain and give shape to what is present. The thought of eternal return of the same, spawned by such temporality and grounded in it, is therefore a "human" thought in a distinctive sense-the su- preme sense. For that reason the thought of eternal return is vulnera- ble to the suspicion that with it a correspondingly vast humanization of beings as a whole transpires-in other words, the very thing Nietzsche wishes to avoid with every means at his disposal and along every route open to him.
How do matters stand with the suspicion concerning the humaniza- tion of beings implied in the thought of return? Clearly, we can answer the question only if we are capable of penetrating the thought itself in all its ramifications, only if we are capable of thinking it fully. Never- theless, at the present juncture of our considerations, where proofs for the thought and the thought itself in its demonstrability and truth are to be grasped, it is first of all necessary that we formulate very carefully the suspicion concerning the thought's humanizing tendency, a suspi- cion that threatens to render all our labors superfluous.
Every conception of the being and especially of beings as a whole, merely by the fact that it is a conception, is related by human beings to human beings. The relation derives from man. Every interpretation of such a conception discriminates among the ways man proceeds with his conception of the being and adopts a stance toward it. Interpreta- tion is thereby a projection of human representations and modes of representation onto the being. Simply to address the being, to name it in the word, is to equip it with human paraphernalia, to seize it in human nets, if indeed it is true that the word and language in the broadest sense distinguish human being. Hence every representation of beings as a whole, every interpretation of the world, is inevitably an- thropomorphic.
Such reflections are so lucid that whoever has engaged in them, no matter how cursorily, is compelled to see that for all their representa- tions, intuitions, and definitions of beings human beings are cornered in the blind alley of their own humanity. We can make it perfectly clear to every Simple Simon that all human representation comes out
100 THE ETERNAL RECURRENCE OF THE SAME
of this or that corner of the alley, whether it involves a notion of the world stemming from a single paramount and decisive thinker or a residue of notions gradually gaining in clarity for sundry groups, eras peoples, and families of nations. Hegel shed light on the state of affair~ in a striking reference to an aspect of our linguistic usage which gives occasion for a particular play on words, one that is not at all superficial or forced. *
All our representations and intuitions are such that in them we mean something, some being. Yet every time I mean or opine some- thing I at the same time inevitably transform what is meant into some- thing that is mine. Every such meaning, ostensibly related solely to the object itself, amounts to an act of appropriation and incorporation by and into the human ego of what is meant. To mean is in itself simul- taneously to represent something and to make the represented some- thing my own. But even when it is not the individualized "I" that means, when the standards prevailing in the thought of any individual human being presumably do not come to domineer, the danger of subjectivism is only apparently overcome. The humanization of beings as a whole is not slighter here but more massive, not only in scope but above all in kind, inasmuch as no one has the slightest inkling con- cerning such humanization. This gives rise to the initially inexpugna- ble illusion that no humanization is in play. But if humanization pertains to world interpretation ineluctably, then every attempt to dehumanize humanization is without prospect of success. The attempt to dehumanize is itself an attempt undertaken by human beings; hence it ultimately remains humanization, raised to a higher power.
These reflections, especially for someone who encounters them or
• The following reference to Hegel's use of meinen, "to mean," as a playful way to indicate the way in which sheer "opinion" (die Meinung) is something purely "mine" (mein), in contrast to the genuine universality (das Allgemeine) embraced by the lan- guage of concepts, may be traced through the early sections of Hegel's Phenomenology ofSpirit, from "Sensuous Certainty" to "Certainty and Truth of Reason. " See G. W. F. Hegel, Phfinomenologie des Geistes, ed. Johannes Hoffmeister (Hamburg: F. Meiner, 1952), pp. 82-83, 185, 220-21, and 234-36. The same play occupies a special place in Hegel's mature "system. " See the "Remark" to section 20 of the Enzyklopiidie der philosophischen Wissenschaften, 3d edition, 1830, ed. Friedheim Nicolin and Otto Piiggeler {Hamburg: F. Meiner, 1969), pp. 54-56, where the root mein unites what in English we must isolate as "opinion," "meaning" or "intention," "mine," and "univer- sal. "
The "Humanization" ofBeings 101
similar trains of thought for the first time, are staggeringly convincing. Provided a person does not immediately circumvent them and save him or herself by fleeing into the "praxis" of "life," such reflections generally relegate one to a position where only two alternatives arise: either one doubts and despairs of every possibility of learning the truth and takes it all as a sheer play of representations, or one decides via a confession of faith for one world interpretation-following the maxim that one is better than none, even if it is merely one among others. Perhaps with a bit of luck the one we choose can prove its viability in terms of its success, its utility, and the range of its propagation.
The essential postures we may adopt toward a humanization that is held to be ineradicable in itself may therefore be reduced to two: either we make our peace with it and operate now in the apparent superiority of the Universal Doubter who cannot be hoodwinked and who desires only to be left alone, or we struggle to reach the point where we forget humanization and presume that it has thereby been brushed aside, in this way achieving our tranquillity. The result in either case is that wherever suspicions concerning immitigable humanization arise we find ourselves stuck on the superficies, however easily such reflections on humanization delude themselves into thinking that they are su- premely profound and, above all, "critical. " What a revelation it was for the mass of people who were unfamiliar with actual thinking and its rich history when two decades ago, in 1917, Oswald Spengler an- nounced that he was the first to discover that every age and every civilization has its own world view! Yet it was all nothing more than a very deft and clever popularization of thoughts and questions on which others long before him had ruminated far more profoundly. Nietzsche was the most recent of these. Yet no one by any means mastered these thoughts and questions, and they remain unmastered up to the present hour. The reason is as simple as it is momentous and difficult to think through.
With all these pros and cons with respect to humanization, one believes one knows ahead of time what human beings are, the human beings who are responsible for this palpable humanization. One forgets to pose the question that would have to be answered first of all if the suspicions concerning humanization are to be viable or if refutation of those suspicions is to make any sense. T o talk of humanization before
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one has decided-that is to say, before one has asked-who man is, is idle talk indeed. It remains idle talk even when for the sake of its demonstrations it musters all of world history and mankind's most an- cient civilizations-things which no one is able to corroborate anyway. Hence, in order to avoid superficial and specious discussion of those suspicions concerning humanization, whether affirming or rejecting them, we must first of all take up the question "Who is man? " A number of adroit writers have wasted no time replying to the question, without the question itself becoming any clearer. But for them the question is no more than an interrogatory blurb on a book jacket. The question is not really asked-the authors have long been in secure possession of their dogmatic replies. There is nothing to be said against that. It is merely that one should not give the impression that one is questioning. For the question "Who is man? " is not as harmless as it may seem, and it is not a matter to be settled overnight. If the capaci- ties for questioning are to survive in Dasein, this question is to be Europe's task for the future, for this century and the century to come. It can find its answer only in the exemplary and authoritative way in which particular nations, in competition with others, shape their his- tory.
Yet who else poses and answers the question of who man is, if not man himself? That is surely the case. But does it also follow that the definition of the essence of the human being is simply a humanization by human creatures? That may well be. In fact, it is necessarily a humanization, in the sense that the essential definition of human be- ings is executed by human beings. Nevertheless, the question remains as to whether the essential definition of human being humanizes or dehumanizes it. It is possible that the execution of the definition of human being always and everywhere remains an affair of human be- ings and that to that extent it is human; but it may be that the defini- tion itself, its truth, elevates human being beyond itself and thereby dehumanizes it, in that way ascribing even to the human execution of the essential definition of man a different essence. The question of who man is must first be experienced as a much-needed question. For that to happen, the need of this question concerning human being must burst on the scene with full force and under every guise. We do not do justice to the necessity of this question if we fail to examine
The "Humanization" of Beings 103
what it is that makes the question possible first of all. Whence, and on what basis, is the essence of human being to be defined?
The essence of man may be defined-as we have long been accus- tomed to mean and opine according to the rules of various games-by describing him in the way one dissects and describes a frog or a rabbit. As if it had already been determined that by means of biological proce- dures one can come to know what a living creature is. It is rather the case that the science of biology presupposes and takes for granted in its initial steps what "life" is to mean for it. Of course, one turns his back on the opinion thus taken for granted. One shies from turning to con- front it, not only because he is so busy with his frogs and other ani- mals, but also because he experiences anxiety concerning his own opinion. It might well be that the science as such would suddenly collapse if one looked over one's shoulder, only to discover that presup- positions are very much worthy ofquestion. This is the case in a! l the sciences-without exception. Is it not liberating for all these sciences when they are told nowadays that due to historic political exigencies the nation and the state need results-solid, useful results! "Fine," reply the sciences, "but you know we need our peace and quiet. " Everyone cooperates sympathetically, and the sciences are happy in their unruffied state; they can proceed in utter ignorance of philosoph- ical-metaphysical questions, as they have for the past fifty years. The "sciences" today experience this liberation in the only way they can. Nowadays as never before they feel perfectly assured of their necessity, taking such assurance--erroneously-as a confirmation of their very essence.
If it even occurred to anyone these days to suggest that science could assert itself essentially only if it retrieved its essence by means of an original questioning, such a one would be confessing himself a fool or a subverter of "science as such. "* To ask about ultimate grounds is t~
• Heidegger is of course referring to his inaugural lecture at Freiburg in 1929 a n d - presumably-to the outraged reply by Rudolf Carnap in 1931, "Overcoming Meta- physics through Logical Analysis of Language," which appears in an English translation in A. J. Ayer, ed. , Logical Positivism (New York: Free Press, 1959), pp. 60-81. See especially section 5 for an account of Heidegger's syntactical errors and perversities. It is intriguing to work through the "schema" of section 5, on "the nothing," to learn the extent to which Carnap and Heidegger agree. An equally interesting response to Heideg- ger-Wittgenstein's, as recorded by Friedrich Waismann on December 30, 1929-never
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promulgate a kind of inner flagellation, a process for which the heady word nihilism stands at our beck and call. But that ghost has been laid to rest; all is peace and quiet; the students, we now hear, are willing to go back to work! And so the universal Babbittry of the spirit may begin anew. "Science" has no inkling of the fact that its claim to be of direct practical consequence does not simply obliterate philosophical meditation; it is much more the case that at the instant of science's supreme practical relevance the supreme necessity arises for meditation on matters that can never be gauged according to direct practicability and utility. These matters nevertheless instill a supreme unrest in Dasein, unrest not as distraction and confusion but as awakening and vigilance-as opposed to the tranquillity of that philosophic somno- lence which is nihilism proper. Yet if comfort be our standard of mea- sure, it is doubtless easier to shut our eyes and evade the gravity of these questions, even if our sole excuse is that we have no time for such things.
An odd era for humankind, this, the age in which we have been adrift for decades, a time that no longer has time for the question of who man is. By means of scientific descriptions of extant or past forms of humanity, whether these descriptions are biological or historical or both taken together in a melange of "anthropologies," a mixture that has become popular during recent decades, we can never come to know who man is. Such knowledge is also barred to faith, which must from the start regard all "knowledge" as "heathen" and as folly. Such knowl- edge thrives only on the basis of an original stance of inquiry. The question of who man is must take its departure from that point which even the most desultory view of things can identify as the point of inception for the humanization of all beings, namely, man's mere addressing and naming of beings, that is to say, language. It may be that man does not at all humanize beings by virtue of language; on the contrary, perhaps man has up to now thoroughly mistaken and misin- terpreted the essence of language itself, and with it his own Being and its essential provenance. But when we pose the question of the essence of language we are already asking about being as a whole, provided
reached the public. It is now printed, with a revealing commentary, in Michael Murray, ed. , Heidegger and Modern Philosophy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978), pp. 80-83.
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language is not an aggiomeration of words used to designate sundry familiar things but the original resonance ofthe truth ofa world.
The question of who man is must in its very formulation include in its approach man in and with his relations to beings as a whole; it must include in its inquiry the question of being as a whole. But we have just now heard that being as a whole can only be interpreted by human beings in the first place-and now man himself is to be interpreted in terms of being as a whole. Everything here is spinning in a circle. Of that there can be no doubt. The question is whether and in what way we can succeed in taking this circle seriously, instead of continually closing our eyes in the face of it.
The world interpretation that devolves upon the thought of eternal return of the same shows that a relation to man announces itself in the essence of eternity as midday and moment. Here that very circle plays a role, requiring that man be thought on the basis of world, and world on the basis of man. To all appearances that would suggest that the thought of eternal return of the same bears traces of the uttermost humanization; the thought nevertheless is and wants to be the very opposite. Furthermore, this circle would explain the fact that as a consequence of the will to dehumanize world interpretation Nietzsche is compelled to will supreme humanization, hence the fact that each demands rather than excludes the other.
The upshot would be that Nietzsche's doctrine of eternal return is not to be measured by gratuitous standards, but only on the basis of its own law. It would demand that we meditate in advance on the kind of evidentiary claim and evidentiary force that are germane to the Nietz- schean proofs for the doctrine of eternal return.
But we can drop the subjunctives. For what we have suggested is indeed the case.
Suspicions concerning humanization, no matter how palpably near they are and no matter how readily everyone can clumsily wield them, remain superfluous and groundless as long as they have not put them- selves in question-by asking the question of who man is. That ques- tion cannot even be posed, much less answered, without the question of what being as a whole is. However, the latter question embraces a more original question, one which neither Nietzsche nor philosophy prior to him unfolded or was able to unfold.
14. Nietzsche's Proof of the Doctrine of Return
With the thought of eternal return of the same Nietzsche is moving in the realm of the question as to what being as a whole is. Now that we have staked out the field of Nietzsche's sense of being as a whole and described its constitution, we would do well to pursue the proofs by which Nietzsche attributes to being as a whole the determination of eternal return of the same. (In the course of such a pursuit we must set aside those suspicions concerning humanization-which, in the meantime, have become dubious indeed. ) Obviously, everything de- pends on the evidentiary force of these proofs. To be sure, evidentiary force. All evidentiary force remains impotent so long as we fail to grasp the mode and the essence of the proofs in question. Yet these things, along with the respective possibility and necessity of proof, are defined by the kind of truth that is in question. A proof can be fully conclusive, without formal logical errors of any kind, and still prove nothing and remain irrelevant, simply because its point of attack misses the precise nexus of truth and alters nothing within that nexus. For example, a proof for the existence of God can be constructed by means of the most rigorous formal logic and yet prove nothing, since a god who must permit his existence to be proved in the first place is ultimately a very ungodly god. The best such proofs of existence can yield is blasphemy. Or, to take another example, one can try-and this has happened over and over again-to prove experimentally, through experience, the fun- damental principle of causality. Such a proof is more deleterious than any attempt to deny the validity of that principle on philosophical or sophistical grounds; more ruinous, because it jumbles all thought and
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inquiry from the ground up, inasmuch as a fundamental principle in its very essence cannot be empirically proved. Always and everywhere the empiricist concludes, wrongly, that the fundamental principle can- not be proved at all. He takes his proofs and his truth to be the sole possible ones. Everything that is inaccessible to him he proclaims to be superstition, something that "simply cannot be dealt with. " As if what is most magnificent, most profound, were something "we" can never "deal with" unless we deal with it by thinking empirically and thus by shutting ourselves off from it irrevocably. There are many different kinds of proofs.
With regard to Nietzsche's "proofs" for his doctrine of return, prior interpretations and presentations have been especially anxious to make Nietzsche's prediction·come true: "Everyone talks about me-but no- body thinks of me. " No one compels himself to think through Nietz- sche's thoughts. Of course, such thinking through is confronted by a bedeviling peculiarity: it never succeeds if the thinker fails to think beyond-though not away from-the thought he is to be thinking about. Only if it thinks beyond does thinking through possess the free- dom of movement that it needs if it is to avoid getting tangled up in itself.
In the case at hand, namely, the Nietzschean proofs for the eternal return of the same, it was especially gratifying to bid a quick adieu to thought-without losing face thereby. It was said that with these proofs Nietzsche had gotten sidetracked in physics which, number one, he did not understand thoroughly enough and, number two, does not belong in philosophy anyway. We perspicacious fellows know full well that you cannot prove philosophical doctrines with assertions and argu- ments from the natural sciences. But, it is said, we are inclined to- yes, we really must-forgive Nietzsche his aberration in the directioi:~ of natural science. After all, he too went through his positivist phase, at the end of the 1870s and in the early 1880s, a period when anyone who wanted to have any influence at all spoke up for a "scientific world view," much in the manner of Haeckel and his crew. In those
decades "liberalism" was rampant; it spawned the very idea of "world view. " Every "world view" in itself and as such is liberal! So let us say
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that this escapade of Nietzsche's into the natural sciences remains an historical eccentricity and let it go at that.
It seems clear that we could hardly expect persons sporting such an attitude to think through Nietzsche's thought of thoughts.
Recently, however, some attempts have been made to think through the proofs for this thought. Because of the reference to an essential connection between "Being" and "Time," some have paused to won- der, asking themselves: If Nietzsche's doctrine of eternal return of the same has to do with the universe, being as a whole, which one could roughly call "Being"; and if eternity and recurrence, as transgressions of past and future, are somehow related to "Time"; then perhaps there is something to Nietzsche's doctrine of the eternal return of the same, and maybe we had better not shrug off his proofs as effulgences of a project that was doomed to fail. And so the proofs are taken in earnest. Commentators show-by way of mathematical exertions, no less-that his proofs are not so bad, not counting a couple of "mistakes. " Indeed, Nietzsche anticipated several lines of thought in contemporary physics -and what could be more important for a real contemporary man than his science! This apparently more material and more affirmative stance with respect to Nietzsche's "proofs" is, however, every bit as dubious as its opposite; it is immaterial, inasmuch as it does not and cannot confront "the matter" that comes into question here. For both the rejection and the acceptance of these proofs hold fast to the com- mon identical presupposition that here it is a matter of proofs after the manner of the "natural sciences. " This preconception is the genuine error. It precludes all understanding from the outset because it makes all correct questioning impossible.
It remains essential that we attain sufficient clarity concerning the foundations, the approach, the direction, and the region of Nietzsche's thought. Furthermore, we must recognize that even when we have achieved these things we will have performed only the most pressing preliminary work. It could be that the form in which Nietzsche applies and presents his proofs is only a foreground, and that this foreground can deceive us about the properly "metaphysical" train of his thought. In addition, we must confront the extrinsic circumstance that Nietz- sche's notes are not structured in such a way as to be consistent and
Nietzsche's Proofofthe Doctrine ofReturn 109
conclusive. And yet the principal thoughts are clear, recurring again and again in later years, long after Nietzsche had left his "positivistic" phase-the one that ostensibly caused him to get sidetracked among the natural sciences-behind. We shall limit ourselves now to indicat- ing the principal steps on this path of thought.
The eternal return of the same is to prove to be the fundamental determination of the world totality. If we for our part are to anticipate the kind of fundamental determination of being as a whole we are confronting here, by naming it more precisely and by setting it in relief against other such determinations, then we may say that eternal return of the same is to prove to be the way in which being as a whole is. That can succeed only if we show that the way in which being as a whole is necessarily results from what we have called the constitution of the world totality. The latter becomes manifest to us in the determinations listed earlier. Hence we will refer back to them in order to test whether and in what way these determinations in their proper context indicate the necessity of the eternal return of the same.
The general character of force yields the finitude (closure) of the world and of its becoming. According to such finitude of becoming, the advance and progress of cosmic occurrence into infinity is impos- sible. Thus the world's becoming must turn back on itself.
Yet the world's becoming runs backward and forward in endless (infinite) time, as real time. The finite becoming which runs its course in such infinite time must long ago have achieved a kind of homeosta- sis-a state of balance and calm-if such were ever possible for it, inasmuch as the possibilities of being, finite according to number and kind, must of necessity be exhausted in infinite time-must already have been exhausted. Because no such homeostasis or equilibrium prevails, it is clear that it never was attained, and here that means that it never can come to prevail. The world's becoming, as finite, turning back on itself, is therefore a permanent becoming, that is to say, eter- nal becoming. Since such cosmic becoming, as finite becoming in an infinite time, takes place continuously, not ceasing whenever its finite possibilities are exhausted, it must already have repeated itself, indeed an infinite number of times. And as permanent becoming it will con- tinue to repeat itself in the future. Because the world totality is finite in
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the configurations of its becoming, although immeasurable in practical terms, the possibilities of transformation in its collective character are also finite, however much they appear to us to be infinite, because unsurveyable and hence ever novel. And because the nexus of effetts among the particular processes of becoming-finite in number-is a closed nexus, every process of becoming must retroactively draw the entire past in its wake; or, since it works its effects always ahead, it must propel all things forward. This implies that every process of becoming must reproduce itself; it and all the others recur as the same. The eternal return of the totality of world becoming must be a recurrence of the same.
The return of the same would be impossible only if it could be avoided in some way. This would presuppose that the world totality renounced the recurrence of the same, and this in turn would imply a forward-reaching intention to that end and a corresponding positing of the goal, namely, the positing of the ultimate goal of somehow avoid- ing the unavoidable. For, on the basis of the finitude and permanence of becoming in infinite time, recurrence of the same is indeed un- avoidable. Yet to presuppose the positing of such a goal runs counter to the fundamental constitution of the world totality as necessitous chaos. All that remains to be said is what we have already shown to be neces- sary: the character of the world totality, its character as Becoming- and here that also means its character as Being-when defined as the eternal chaos of necessity, is eternal return of the same.
15. The Ostensibly Scientific Procedure of Proof. Philosophy and Science
If we look back over the train of thought we have pursued and ask how the principle of eternal return of the same may be proved, the evidenti- ary procedure involved seems to be something like the following: From statements concerning the constitution of the world totality we must necessarily conclude to the principle of eternal return of the same. Without entering immediately into the question as to what kind of "conclusion" this deduction arrives at, we can reach a decision that remains significant for all our further reflections, albeit only by way of a clarification of the most general kind.
We must ask whether this evidentiary procedure pertains at all to the "natural sciences," whatever :we may make of its suitability and its "merits. " What is "scientific" about it? The answer is: nothing at all.
What is being discussed in the deduction itself and in the series of determinations of the cosmic order which precedes it? Force, finitude, endlessness, sameness, recurrence, becoming, space, time, chaos, and necessity. None of these has anything to do with "natural science. " If one wished to draw the natural sciences into consideration here at all, all he could say would be that the sciences do presuppose determina- tions such as becoming, space, time, sameness, and recurrence-in fact, must of necessity presuppose them as elements that remain eter-· nally barred from their realm of inquiry and their manner of demon- stration.
True, the sciences must make use of a particular notion of force, motion, space, and time; but they can never say what force, motion, space, and time are; they cannot ask what such things are as long as they remain sciences and avoid trespassing into the realm of philos-
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ophy. The fact that every science as such, being the specific science it is, gains no access to its fundamental concepts and to what those con- cepts grasp, goes hand in hand with the fact that no science can assert something about itself with the help of its own scientific resources. · What mathematics is can never be determined mathematically; what philology is can never be discussed philologically; what biology is can never be uttered biologically. To ask what a science is, is to ask a question that is no longer a scientific question. The moment he or she poses a question with regard to science in general, and that always means a question concerning specific possible sciences, the inquirer steps into a new realm, a realm with evidentiary claims and forms of proof quite different from those that are customary in the sciences. This is the realm ofphilosophy. It is not affixed to the sciences or piled on top of them. It lies hidden in the innermost domain of science, so much so that it would be true to say that mere science is only scientific -that is to say, partaking of genuine knowledge, above and beyond being a repertory of certain techniques-to the extent that it is philo- sophical. From this we can gather the alarming proportions of non- sense and absurdity in all ostensible efforts to renew the "sciences" and simultaneously abolish philosophy.
What does it mean to say that a science is "philosophical"? It does not mean that it explicitly "borrows" from a particular "philosophy," or appeals to it for support, or alludes to it, or shares its terminology and employs its concepts. It does not at all mean that "philosophy" as such-that is to say, philosophy as a developed discipline or as an autonomous piece of work-should or could be the clearly visible superstructure for science. The grounds of science must rather be what philosophy alone sets in relief and founds, namely, the cognizable truth of beings as such. Hence, to say that a science is philosophical means that it knowingly and questioningly reverts to being as such and as a whole, and inquires into the truth of beings; such science sets itselfin motion within the fundamental positions we take toward be- ings, and allows these positions to have an impact on scientific work. The standard by which such impact may be measured by no means lies in the number, frequency, or visibility of philosophical concepts and terms that occur in a scientific treatise; the standard lies in the assured-
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ness, clarity, and originality of the questioning itself-in the durability of the will to think. Such a will does not swoon over the results of science, does not rest content in them. It always grasps results as noth- ing more than means to an end, as a route to further work.
A science may therefore become philosophical in either of two ways. First, it may approximate to the thinking that is proper to a philosophy, when at some point the realm of such thinking (and not merely its statements and formulas) places a direct claim on scientific inquiry and induces it to alter meticulously the very horizons of its customary oper- ations.