San Quentin Men
Prisoners
(N = 110).
Adorno-T-Authoritarian-Personality-Harper-Bros-1950
's and wide range of scores indicate the same thing.
The group differences in average degree of ethnocentrism are of some interest. Among the groups taking Form 45, the three which stand clearly at the head of the list in terms of mean E score are the San Quentin Men
(4. 6r), the Maritime School Men (4. 34), and the Employment Service Men Veterans (4. 26), these means being significantly higher than the others (3. 34-3. 67). That the San Quentin Men are so ethnocentric makes it clear that being in a subordinate group is not a guarantee against ethnocentrism. The results for the San Quentin group, and the psychological affinity be-
tween criminality and fascism, are considered in detail in Chapter XXI.
It is unclear why, in the Veteran and Maritime School groups, the EA
Group
1. 2-7. 0 1. 0-7. 0
? THE STUDY OF ETHNOCENTRIC IDEOLOGY I 37
means should be so different in Form 40 as compared with Form 45 (Table I7(IV) C). Thus, for the Veterans, the EA mean drops from 4. 67 to 4. 2 I, while for the Maritime School it increases from 4. 82 to 5. 08. Although these differences are not statistically significant (at the 5 per cent level), they might, if they were both in the same direction, suggest a general systematic difference between the two Forms. It might he hypothesized, for example, that the presence of the anti-Semitic items in EB makes some people defensive and thus lowers the mean on the entire scale in Form 45? This hypothesis is opposed, however, by the facts that neither difference is significant, that in the Maritime School the EA mean is higher in Form 40 than in Form 45, and that the EA means in the other Form 40 groups (Table I7(IV) B) are of the order of magnitude as in the Form 45 groups. It would appear, in short, that the presence of the EB items in Form 45 produces no systematic increase
or decrease in scores on the other items.
The mean E score of 3. 7, as well as the wide range and the large S. D. , for
the Psychiatric Clinic patients indicates that no simple relationship exists between psychological ill health and ethnocentrism. The degree of ethno- centrism in this group of neurotic and psychotic-primarily the former- individuals just about equals the average of all groups tested. It would appear incorrect, therefore, to assume that there is on the average more pathology, psychologically speaking, in ethnocentrists than in nonethnocentrists or conversely. 18 Evidence to be presented later, however (Chapter XXII), will show that high and low scorers differ significantly with respect to type of pathology. The least ethnocentric groups taking Form 45 and 40 are the Testing Class Women and the Working-Class Men and Women. The low mean for the former group is consistent with previous results on University groups in California and Oregon. The EA mean for the Form 45 group of Working-Class subjects is slightly but nonsignificantly lower than for the larger Working-Class group taking Form 40. This difference is apparently due to the fact that the Form 45 sample contains a greater proportion of sub- jects from the California Labor School, a subgroup with an extremely low E mean. Further discussion of the relation of economic class and politico-eco- nomic ideology to ethnocentrism is reserved for Chapter V. From the results in Table I7(1V), particularly for the groups taking Form 40, it would appear that socioeconomic class, as such, is not a major determinant of dif- ferences in ethnocentrism. The means for the Middle-Class groups are almost identical with those for the Working-Class groups. This is not to
18 This conclusion depends, of course, on the representatives of our sample. What can be stated unequivocally is that every quartile on E contains some psychologically dis- turbed individuals. We may suspect, however, that a truly random sample of seriously disturbed individuals would show a higher average degree of ethnocentrism than is shown by the present sample, which includes, for the most part, individuals who recognize their problems as primarily psychological and who are willing to undergo psychological treatment-personality trends associated, as later chapters will show, with lack of ethno- centrism.
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
say that economic forces play no role in ethnocentrism, or that class member- ship is unimportant. However, the average amount of ethnocentrism in the two classes appears to be the same, to the extent that the measuring instru- ment is valid and the sample adequate. Moreover, there are wide variations within each class, some groups being very high in ethnocentrism, others very low. Thus, within the middle class, the service clubs are significantly more ethnocentric than the university groups. Individual and group differences in E score within each class are associated with differences in ideology (political, religious, and so forth) and in personality as shown by the chapters which follow.
c. ITEM ANALYsis: FoRMs 45 AND 40. The item means and D. P. 's for the groups taking Forms 45 and 40 are presented in Table r8(IV). While the item means for men average slightly higher than those for women, the rank orders of the individual item means and D. P. 's are similar for the two sexes. Furthermore, the wide range of the over-all item means and D. P. 's suggests that similar consistency exists among the various groups of men and women comprising the total sample. In other words, the relative level of acceptability (mean) and "goodness" (D. P. ) of the items is fairly stable from group to group.
The best items in Form 45 deal with Negroes, Jews, zootsuiters, and foreigners. For the women two items, 32 (Negroes' own fault) and 40 (Jew- ish neighborhoods), had means of below 3. 0 and D. P. 's ranking ro and 9 respectively. Even the lowest D. P. for men and for women (3. 0 in each case) is sufficient to differentiate high from low scorers with a minimum of overlap. The only item in Form 45 with a mean of over 5. 0 for both men and women is number 45 (World organization). While this item dis- criminates very well between low and high scorers on the total scale, the low scorers are apparently less sure of themselves on the issue of national sovereignty than on the other issues; the high scorers almost uniformly rate this item +3, but the low scorers are less emphatic and more divided.
The significantly higher means for men than for women on both forms may not reflect a true sex difference since they are not based on comparable groups of men and women. Thus, the four highest men's groups (San Quen- tin, Veterans, Maritime School, Service Clubs) have no high-scoring coun- terparts among the women. The absence of a significant sex difference is also suggested by the very similar means obtained by comparable sex groups (see Table r7(IV) B): Working-Class, Middle-Class, and Los Angeles Men and Women. Significant differences between comparable groups of men and women might, of course, be found on various individual items; this problem has not been systematically explored.
The differences in means and D. P. 's between Forms 45 and 40 may also be less significant than they appear at first glance. That the mean D. P. is almost one point higher for both sexes on Form 40 than on Form 45 is
? Mean
4. 14
(Negro rights)
15. (Foreign ideas) 3. 81
D. P. Rank D. P. Mean D. P. Rank D. P. Mean
5. 10.
4. 57
3. 57 (7) 4. 58 (1) 3. 34 (9) 4. 54 (2) 4. 04 (4) 3. 49 (8) 3. 82 (5) 4. 35 (3) 3. 71 (6) 3. 01 (10)
3. 84
4. 10 4. 26 (5) 3. 64 4. 25 4. 92 (2) 3. 93 3. 64 4. 44 (3) 3. 26
4. 05 4. 91 3. 99 4. 60 3. 88 3. 50 2. 99 4. 24 3. 26 3. 50
3. 89
(4) 3. 48 ( 1) 3. 96 (5) 3. 25 (2) 3. 86 (6)
Item
(Zootsuiters)
D. P. R1Ulk D. P. Mean D. P. Rank D. P.
No.
20. (Negro foremen) 24. (J. businessmen) 28. (Marry a Jew)
32. (Negroes live) 36. (Jews alike)
40. (Jewish Neighb. ) 45. (World org. )
4. 50 (4) 5. 21 (1) 4. 49 (5) 5. 15 (2)
TABLE 18 (IV)
MEANS AND DISCRIMINATORY POWERS OF THE E-SCALE ITE1dS (FORMS 45 AND 40)
MEN'S GROUPSa (N = 969) WOMEN'S GROUPBP (N = 599)
Form 45 (N=440) Form 40 (N=529) Form 45 (N=130) Form 40 (N=469)
4. 32 4. 11 3. 25 3. 10 4. 03 3. 55 5. 54
4. 04
4. 07
4. 93
(1)
4. 00 3. 48 3. 24 2. 42 3. 20 2. 96 5. 16
3. 53
4. 97
4. 20
4. 38
4. 59
(4)
(7. 5) (10) (3) (9) (7. 5)
4. 58
3. 83
5. 07 (3)
4. 88
aThe data were obtained from the following groups of men:
Service Men Veterans (N = 106)? Maritime School Men (N = 343). California Service Club Men (N = 63). Psychi- atric Clinic Men (N = 50). Middle-Class Men (N = 69), Working-Class Men (N = 61). Los Angeles Men (N = 117). The Working-Class Men and Women (N = 50) were also included here since 34 of these 50 subjects were men.
bThe data were obtained from the following groups of women: Extension Testing Class Women (N =59)? George Washington University Women Students (N = 132). Psychiatric Clinic Women (N = 71)? Middle-Class Women (N = 154). Working-Class Women (N = 53). Los Angeles women (N = 130).
Cin obtaining the over-all means and D. P,? s, the individual group values were not weighted by N.
San Quentin Men Prisoners (N = 110).
Employment
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
due in part to the smaller number of items in Form 40 (each item therefore contributing a larger portion of the total score). It is also partly due to sampling factors: the composition of the various samples taking Form 40 was more heterogeneous, resulting in larger S. D. 's (Table 17(1V)), more extreme scorers, and thus higher D. P. 's. Both men and women had slightly lower EA means on Form 40 than on Form 45 (4. 48-4. 20 for men, 4. oo-3. 83 for women). For reasons discussed earlier, these differences in means may be attributed mainly to sampling differences (both systematic and random) rather than to the nature of the forms themselves.
d. CoRRELATIONAL ANALYSIS: FoRM 45? It was possible, using the group of 517 University of California student women mentioned above, to make a correlational analysis of theE scale (Form 45). 19 Only the highlights of these results need be presented here. The group was near the average of the total sample with respect to mean (3. 64), S. D. (1. 52), and reliability (. 79 for EA vs. EB, . 87 for odd vs. even halves). For the single items the means ranged from 2. 25 for Item 32 (Negroes' own fault) to 5. oo for Item 45 (World organization), while the S. D. 's ranged from 1. 77 for Item 32 to 2. 47 for Item 28 (Marry a Jew). The average of the interitem correlations was . 42. The lowest interitem r's, . 25 and . 26, were between Item 15 (Foreign ideas) and Items 40 (Jewish neighborhoods) and 32 (Negroes' own fault), respectively. The highest r's, . 61 and . 62, were between Items 24 (Jewish businessmen) and 36 (Jews alike), and between Items ro (Negro rights) and 20 (Negro foremen), respectively. The correlations between each item and the sum of the remaining items averaged . 59; the two lowest values, ? 43 and . 46, were for Items 15 and 45, the two highest, . 67 and . 69, for Items
ro and 36. Six of the ten items correlated . 6o or higher with the sum of the remaining ones. These results, including the rank order of goodness of items and the general level of magnitude of the correlations, are consistent with the results for the other groups. While there is a tendency for items refer- ring to a given group to cluster somewhat, the predominant trend is toward broad internal consistency. That the consistency is incomplete is shown by the fact that the correlations are far from perfect. In terms of statistical rigor, the scale shows about the same degree of unidimensionality (consistency) , as the standard intelligence tests.
e. AGE AND ETHNOCENTRISM. The total sample from which the above data were obtained was not randomly distributed with respect to age. Its mem- bers were predominantly in their twenties and thirties, a disproportion- ately small number being in their forties or older. It was hypothesized that younger people tend to be less conservative and less ethnocentric than their elders, and that the mean E scores for the present sample might consequently
19 We wish to express our thanks to the Social Science Research Council for the funds which made this aspect of the research possible.
? THE STUDY OF ETHNOCENTRIC IDEOLOGY
141
be lower than for the population at large. As a partial check on this hypoth- esis, correlations between age and E score (Form 45) were computed for the Psychiatric Clinic Men and W omen (N = I 2 I ) . This group, despite its atypicality with respect to psychological health, appeared to be the most diverse group taking Form 45, and its E-scale results (mean, reliability, in- ternal consistency, and correlations with other scales) were fairly representa- tive of the total sample. Approximately So per cent of this group was between I 8 and 40 years old, the mean (and median) being 34 years. The figures for men were very similar to those for women.
The correlation between age and E score for both men and women was . I 9? This value for men and women combined is significantly above zero at the 5 per cent (lowest acceptable) level of confidence. It suggests that there is a slight but consistent tendency for younger adults to be less ethnocentric than those of middle or old age. That the correlation is not likely to be higher for the general population is indicated by the fact that very high
E-scale means were made by such young adult groups as the Employment Service Veterans and the Maritime School Men. The sampling bias in favor of younger age levels appears, then, to be of minor importance in our final results: the average degree of ethnocentrism found is slightly but significantly lower than would be found in a more representative sample.
3. A SUGGESTED FINAL E SCALE
The above data indicate that even the brief ten-item E scale in Form 45 can be used as a dependable measure of ethnocentrism. Whenever pos- sible, however, it would appear advantageous to use a longer form which is likely to be more reliable and which can cover in a more systematic fashion various aspects of ethnocentric ideology. Table I9 (IV) contains a suggested finalE scale of 20 items-short enough to meet most demands of practicality, yet sufficiently long to meet theoretical and statistical requirements. These items were selected, on the basis of both statistical adequacy and theoretical significance, from previous forms of the Ethnocentrism and Anti-Semitism scales. The wording of several items has been shortened and simplified. Sub- scales have been reinstated: six items dealing with Jews, six with Negroes, and eight with other Minorities and Patriotism.
In some cases the demands of time or administrative expediency may re- quire that the scale be shortened or that certain items be deleted. From the experience of the present research it would appear that such changes can be made without seriously damaging the effectiveness of the scale in pro- viding an adequate index of ethnocentrism. From a broader point of view, however, it is desirable to have further data on the internal structure of ethnocentric ideology, as revealed by the total scale, and on the social and psychological structures with which this ideology is associated.
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
TABLE 19 (IV) ETHNocENTRISM ScALE: SuGGESTED FINAL FoRM A. Jews
I. One trouble with Jewish businessmen is that they stick together and prevent other people from having a fair chance in competition.
2. I can hardly imagine myself marrying a Jew.
3? There may be a few exceptions, but in general Jews are pretty much alike.
4? The trouble with letting Jews into a nice neighborhood is that they gradually
give it a typical Jewish atmosphere.
5? To end prejudice against Jews, the first step is for the Jews to try sincerely
to get rid of their harmful and irritating faults.
6. There is something different and strange about Jews; it's hard to tell what
they are thinking and planning, and what makes them tick.
B. Negroes
I. Negroes have their rights, but it is best to keep them in their own districts and schools and to prevent too much contact with whites.
2. It would be a mistake ever to have Negroes for foremen and leaders over whites.
3? Negro musicians may sometimes be as good as white musicians, but it is a mistake to have mixed Negro-white bands.
4? Manual labor and unskilled jobs seem to fit the Negro mentality and ability better than more skilled or responsible work.
5? The people who raise all the talk about putting Negroes on the same level as whites are mostly radical agitators trying to stir up conflicts.
6. Most Negroes would become overbearing and disagreeable if not kept in their place.
C. Other Minorities and Patriotism
I. Zootsuiters prove that when people of their type have too much money and freedom, they just take advantage and cause trouble.
2. The worst danger to real Americanism during the last 50 years has come from foreign ideas and agitators.
3? Now that a new world organization is set up, America must be sure that she loses none of her independence and complete power as a sovereign nation.
4? Certain religious sects who refuse to salute the flag should be forced to con-
form to such a patriotic action, or else be abolished.
5? Filipinos are all right in their place, but they carry it too far when they dress
lavishly and go around with white girls.
6. America may not be perfect, but the American Way has brought us about as
close as human beings can get to a perfect society.
7? It is only natural and right for each person to think that his family is better
than any other.
8. The best guarantee of our national security is for America to have the biggest
army and navy in the world and the secret of the atom bomb.
? THE STUDY OF ETHNOCENTRIC IDEOLOGY
143
E. V ALIDA TION BY CASE STUDIES: THE RESPONSES OF MACK AND LARRY ON THE E SCALE
In order to throw some light upon the validity of the E scale, we may compare the responses of Mack and Larry on the scale with their ideas about groups and group relations as brought out by the interview. The scores of these two subjects for each of the items of theE scale (Form 78), together with the group means and D. P. 's, are shown in Table 20(IV).
TABLE 20 (IV)
RESPONSES OF MACK AND LARRY ON THE E SCALE
Item
(Discrimination illegal) (Zootsuiters)
(Foreign ideas)
(World organization) (Negroes have rights) (Feminine positions) (Negroes lazy)
(American way)
(Negro foremen) (Germans and Japs) (Remove corrupt people) (Population incaPable) (Radicals pro-Negro) (No JaPs in California)
In the analysis of Mack's interview, in Chapter II, it was shown that he exhibited in a clear-cut fashion all of the trends which, according to the present theory, are most characteristic of ethnocentrism. That he should score near the top of the high quartile on the E scale may therefore be taken as evidence of its validity. He agrees with 12 of the 14 scale items, thus presenting a picture of very general ethnocentrism. His idealization of the ingroup is as marked as his hostility toward outgroups. His rejection of Negroes, zootsuiters, and Japanese is particularly pronounced, and decidedly more extreme than his rejection of Jews. (His mean score on the five items pertaining to the former minority groups is 5. 8 as compared with his mean score of 4. 6 on the A-S scale. ) It may be recalled that Mack's ideology con-
No.
4.
7. 18. 25. 29. 34. 37. 41. 45. 48. 51. 54. 57. 64.
3. 95 3. 38 3. 17 4. 60 3 . 4 1
Over-all mean
5. 3 1. 8 3. 29
2. 90 aThe group means and D. P. ? s are based on all four groups taking Form 78.
Mack Larry
5 1
6 1
5 l
7 7
6 ~11
3 hi 2. 74
5 t1 5 2 6 :1 6 '1 5 1 3 5 6 1 6 1
Group a Mean
1. 92 4. 34 4. 09 2. 50 3. 15 3. 79 2. 60 2. 24
Group a D. P.
1. 51 4. 02 3. 26 3. 28 4. 00 2. 18 2. 16 3. 05 3. 48 3. 08 2. 34 2. 66 2. 86 2. 69
? 144 THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
cerning Jews has a somewhat special quality. He wishes to make the point that Jews ought to participate more fully in American life and that they would be accepted and liked were it not for the fact that they would rather stay apart. In order to make this point, it is necessary for him to disagree with statements pertaining to the exclusion of Jews, and this lowers his mean score. It seems that he is impressed by what he conceives to be Jewish power. The interview, unfortunately, concentrating as it did upon anti-Semitism, did not explore Mack's imagery of other minority groups. It is fairly safe to assume, however, that he considers Negroes, zootsuiters, and Japanese weaker and more submerged than the Jews, and hence more suitable objects of hostility; certainly his scale responses express strong opposition to the idea of these groups participating more fully in American life.
Mack's failure to agree with Item 34 (Feminine positions) may have to do with the fact that he is engaged to be married to a school teacher; this is a matter that will be discussed more fully later on. The other item with which he disagrees, and the one on which he scores below the group mean is 54 (Population incapable); some light may be shed upon this inconsistency by considering that Item 54 is an unusually strong statement, one that includes no pseudodemocratic rationalization, and that Mack in his interview does not make extremely aggressive statements.
The group differences in average degree of ethnocentrism are of some interest. Among the groups taking Form 45, the three which stand clearly at the head of the list in terms of mean E score are the San Quentin Men
(4. 6r), the Maritime School Men (4. 34), and the Employment Service Men Veterans (4. 26), these means being significantly higher than the others (3. 34-3. 67). That the San Quentin Men are so ethnocentric makes it clear that being in a subordinate group is not a guarantee against ethnocentrism. The results for the San Quentin group, and the psychological affinity be-
tween criminality and fascism, are considered in detail in Chapter XXI.
It is unclear why, in the Veteran and Maritime School groups, the EA
Group
1. 2-7. 0 1. 0-7. 0
? THE STUDY OF ETHNOCENTRIC IDEOLOGY I 37
means should be so different in Form 40 as compared with Form 45 (Table I7(IV) C). Thus, for the Veterans, the EA mean drops from 4. 67 to 4. 2 I, while for the Maritime School it increases from 4. 82 to 5. 08. Although these differences are not statistically significant (at the 5 per cent level), they might, if they were both in the same direction, suggest a general systematic difference between the two Forms. It might he hypothesized, for example, that the presence of the anti-Semitic items in EB makes some people defensive and thus lowers the mean on the entire scale in Form 45? This hypothesis is opposed, however, by the facts that neither difference is significant, that in the Maritime School the EA mean is higher in Form 40 than in Form 45, and that the EA means in the other Form 40 groups (Table I7(IV) B) are of the order of magnitude as in the Form 45 groups. It would appear, in short, that the presence of the EB items in Form 45 produces no systematic increase
or decrease in scores on the other items.
The mean E score of 3. 7, as well as the wide range and the large S. D. , for
the Psychiatric Clinic patients indicates that no simple relationship exists between psychological ill health and ethnocentrism. The degree of ethno- centrism in this group of neurotic and psychotic-primarily the former- individuals just about equals the average of all groups tested. It would appear incorrect, therefore, to assume that there is on the average more pathology, psychologically speaking, in ethnocentrists than in nonethnocentrists or conversely. 18 Evidence to be presented later, however (Chapter XXII), will show that high and low scorers differ significantly with respect to type of pathology. The least ethnocentric groups taking Form 45 and 40 are the Testing Class Women and the Working-Class Men and Women. The low mean for the former group is consistent with previous results on University groups in California and Oregon. The EA mean for the Form 45 group of Working-Class subjects is slightly but nonsignificantly lower than for the larger Working-Class group taking Form 40. This difference is apparently due to the fact that the Form 45 sample contains a greater proportion of sub- jects from the California Labor School, a subgroup with an extremely low E mean. Further discussion of the relation of economic class and politico-eco- nomic ideology to ethnocentrism is reserved for Chapter V. From the results in Table I7(1V), particularly for the groups taking Form 40, it would appear that socioeconomic class, as such, is not a major determinant of dif- ferences in ethnocentrism. The means for the Middle-Class groups are almost identical with those for the Working-Class groups. This is not to
18 This conclusion depends, of course, on the representatives of our sample. What can be stated unequivocally is that every quartile on E contains some psychologically dis- turbed individuals. We may suspect, however, that a truly random sample of seriously disturbed individuals would show a higher average degree of ethnocentrism than is shown by the present sample, which includes, for the most part, individuals who recognize their problems as primarily psychological and who are willing to undergo psychological treatment-personality trends associated, as later chapters will show, with lack of ethno- centrism.
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
say that economic forces play no role in ethnocentrism, or that class member- ship is unimportant. However, the average amount of ethnocentrism in the two classes appears to be the same, to the extent that the measuring instru- ment is valid and the sample adequate. Moreover, there are wide variations within each class, some groups being very high in ethnocentrism, others very low. Thus, within the middle class, the service clubs are significantly more ethnocentric than the university groups. Individual and group differences in E score within each class are associated with differences in ideology (political, religious, and so forth) and in personality as shown by the chapters which follow.
c. ITEM ANALYsis: FoRMs 45 AND 40. The item means and D. P. 's for the groups taking Forms 45 and 40 are presented in Table r8(IV). While the item means for men average slightly higher than those for women, the rank orders of the individual item means and D. P. 's are similar for the two sexes. Furthermore, the wide range of the over-all item means and D. P. 's suggests that similar consistency exists among the various groups of men and women comprising the total sample. In other words, the relative level of acceptability (mean) and "goodness" (D. P. ) of the items is fairly stable from group to group.
The best items in Form 45 deal with Negroes, Jews, zootsuiters, and foreigners. For the women two items, 32 (Negroes' own fault) and 40 (Jew- ish neighborhoods), had means of below 3. 0 and D. P. 's ranking ro and 9 respectively. Even the lowest D. P. for men and for women (3. 0 in each case) is sufficient to differentiate high from low scorers with a minimum of overlap. The only item in Form 45 with a mean of over 5. 0 for both men and women is number 45 (World organization). While this item dis- criminates very well between low and high scorers on the total scale, the low scorers are apparently less sure of themselves on the issue of national sovereignty than on the other issues; the high scorers almost uniformly rate this item +3, but the low scorers are less emphatic and more divided.
The significantly higher means for men than for women on both forms may not reflect a true sex difference since they are not based on comparable groups of men and women. Thus, the four highest men's groups (San Quen- tin, Veterans, Maritime School, Service Clubs) have no high-scoring coun- terparts among the women. The absence of a significant sex difference is also suggested by the very similar means obtained by comparable sex groups (see Table r7(IV) B): Working-Class, Middle-Class, and Los Angeles Men and Women. Significant differences between comparable groups of men and women might, of course, be found on various individual items; this problem has not been systematically explored.
The differences in means and D. P. 's between Forms 45 and 40 may also be less significant than they appear at first glance. That the mean D. P. is almost one point higher for both sexes on Form 40 than on Form 45 is
? Mean
4. 14
(Negro rights)
15. (Foreign ideas) 3. 81
D. P. Rank D. P. Mean D. P. Rank D. P. Mean
5. 10.
4. 57
3. 57 (7) 4. 58 (1) 3. 34 (9) 4. 54 (2) 4. 04 (4) 3. 49 (8) 3. 82 (5) 4. 35 (3) 3. 71 (6) 3. 01 (10)
3. 84
4. 10 4. 26 (5) 3. 64 4. 25 4. 92 (2) 3. 93 3. 64 4. 44 (3) 3. 26
4. 05 4. 91 3. 99 4. 60 3. 88 3. 50 2. 99 4. 24 3. 26 3. 50
3. 89
(4) 3. 48 ( 1) 3. 96 (5) 3. 25 (2) 3. 86 (6)
Item
(Zootsuiters)
D. P. R1Ulk D. P. Mean D. P. Rank D. P.
No.
20. (Negro foremen) 24. (J. businessmen) 28. (Marry a Jew)
32. (Negroes live) 36. (Jews alike)
40. (Jewish Neighb. ) 45. (World org. )
4. 50 (4) 5. 21 (1) 4. 49 (5) 5. 15 (2)
TABLE 18 (IV)
MEANS AND DISCRIMINATORY POWERS OF THE E-SCALE ITE1dS (FORMS 45 AND 40)
MEN'S GROUPSa (N = 969) WOMEN'S GROUPBP (N = 599)
Form 45 (N=440) Form 40 (N=529) Form 45 (N=130) Form 40 (N=469)
4. 32 4. 11 3. 25 3. 10 4. 03 3. 55 5. 54
4. 04
4. 07
4. 93
(1)
4. 00 3. 48 3. 24 2. 42 3. 20 2. 96 5. 16
3. 53
4. 97
4. 20
4. 38
4. 59
(4)
(7. 5) (10) (3) (9) (7. 5)
4. 58
3. 83
5. 07 (3)
4. 88
aThe data were obtained from the following groups of men:
Service Men Veterans (N = 106)? Maritime School Men (N = 343). California Service Club Men (N = 63). Psychi- atric Clinic Men (N = 50). Middle-Class Men (N = 69), Working-Class Men (N = 61). Los Angeles Men (N = 117). The Working-Class Men and Women (N = 50) were also included here since 34 of these 50 subjects were men.
bThe data were obtained from the following groups of women: Extension Testing Class Women (N =59)? George Washington University Women Students (N = 132). Psychiatric Clinic Women (N = 71)? Middle-Class Women (N = 154). Working-Class Women (N = 53). Los Angeles women (N = 130).
Cin obtaining the over-all means and D. P,? s, the individual group values were not weighted by N.
San Quentin Men Prisoners (N = 110).
Employment
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
due in part to the smaller number of items in Form 40 (each item therefore contributing a larger portion of the total score). It is also partly due to sampling factors: the composition of the various samples taking Form 40 was more heterogeneous, resulting in larger S. D. 's (Table 17(1V)), more extreme scorers, and thus higher D. P. 's. Both men and women had slightly lower EA means on Form 40 than on Form 45 (4. 48-4. 20 for men, 4. oo-3. 83 for women). For reasons discussed earlier, these differences in means may be attributed mainly to sampling differences (both systematic and random) rather than to the nature of the forms themselves.
d. CoRRELATIONAL ANALYSIS: FoRM 45? It was possible, using the group of 517 University of California student women mentioned above, to make a correlational analysis of theE scale (Form 45). 19 Only the highlights of these results need be presented here. The group was near the average of the total sample with respect to mean (3. 64), S. D. (1. 52), and reliability (. 79 for EA vs. EB, . 87 for odd vs. even halves). For the single items the means ranged from 2. 25 for Item 32 (Negroes' own fault) to 5. oo for Item 45 (World organization), while the S. D. 's ranged from 1. 77 for Item 32 to 2. 47 for Item 28 (Marry a Jew). The average of the interitem correlations was . 42. The lowest interitem r's, . 25 and . 26, were between Item 15 (Foreign ideas) and Items 40 (Jewish neighborhoods) and 32 (Negroes' own fault), respectively. The highest r's, . 61 and . 62, were between Items 24 (Jewish businessmen) and 36 (Jews alike), and between Items ro (Negro rights) and 20 (Negro foremen), respectively. The correlations between each item and the sum of the remaining items averaged . 59; the two lowest values, ? 43 and . 46, were for Items 15 and 45, the two highest, . 67 and . 69, for Items
ro and 36. Six of the ten items correlated . 6o or higher with the sum of the remaining ones. These results, including the rank order of goodness of items and the general level of magnitude of the correlations, are consistent with the results for the other groups. While there is a tendency for items refer- ring to a given group to cluster somewhat, the predominant trend is toward broad internal consistency. That the consistency is incomplete is shown by the fact that the correlations are far from perfect. In terms of statistical rigor, the scale shows about the same degree of unidimensionality (consistency) , as the standard intelligence tests.
e. AGE AND ETHNOCENTRISM. The total sample from which the above data were obtained was not randomly distributed with respect to age. Its mem- bers were predominantly in their twenties and thirties, a disproportion- ately small number being in their forties or older. It was hypothesized that younger people tend to be less conservative and less ethnocentric than their elders, and that the mean E scores for the present sample might consequently
19 We wish to express our thanks to the Social Science Research Council for the funds which made this aspect of the research possible.
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141
be lower than for the population at large. As a partial check on this hypoth- esis, correlations between age and E score (Form 45) were computed for the Psychiatric Clinic Men and W omen (N = I 2 I ) . This group, despite its atypicality with respect to psychological health, appeared to be the most diverse group taking Form 45, and its E-scale results (mean, reliability, in- ternal consistency, and correlations with other scales) were fairly representa- tive of the total sample. Approximately So per cent of this group was between I 8 and 40 years old, the mean (and median) being 34 years. The figures for men were very similar to those for women.
The correlation between age and E score for both men and women was . I 9? This value for men and women combined is significantly above zero at the 5 per cent (lowest acceptable) level of confidence. It suggests that there is a slight but consistent tendency for younger adults to be less ethnocentric than those of middle or old age. That the correlation is not likely to be higher for the general population is indicated by the fact that very high
E-scale means were made by such young adult groups as the Employment Service Veterans and the Maritime School Men. The sampling bias in favor of younger age levels appears, then, to be of minor importance in our final results: the average degree of ethnocentrism found is slightly but significantly lower than would be found in a more representative sample.
3. A SUGGESTED FINAL E SCALE
The above data indicate that even the brief ten-item E scale in Form 45 can be used as a dependable measure of ethnocentrism. Whenever pos- sible, however, it would appear advantageous to use a longer form which is likely to be more reliable and which can cover in a more systematic fashion various aspects of ethnocentric ideology. Table I9 (IV) contains a suggested finalE scale of 20 items-short enough to meet most demands of practicality, yet sufficiently long to meet theoretical and statistical requirements. These items were selected, on the basis of both statistical adequacy and theoretical significance, from previous forms of the Ethnocentrism and Anti-Semitism scales. The wording of several items has been shortened and simplified. Sub- scales have been reinstated: six items dealing with Jews, six with Negroes, and eight with other Minorities and Patriotism.
In some cases the demands of time or administrative expediency may re- quire that the scale be shortened or that certain items be deleted. From the experience of the present research it would appear that such changes can be made without seriously damaging the effectiveness of the scale in pro- viding an adequate index of ethnocentrism. From a broader point of view, however, it is desirable to have further data on the internal structure of ethnocentric ideology, as revealed by the total scale, and on the social and psychological structures with which this ideology is associated.
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TABLE 19 (IV) ETHNocENTRISM ScALE: SuGGESTED FINAL FoRM A. Jews
I. One trouble with Jewish businessmen is that they stick together and prevent other people from having a fair chance in competition.
2. I can hardly imagine myself marrying a Jew.
3? There may be a few exceptions, but in general Jews are pretty much alike.
4? The trouble with letting Jews into a nice neighborhood is that they gradually
give it a typical Jewish atmosphere.
5? To end prejudice against Jews, the first step is for the Jews to try sincerely
to get rid of their harmful and irritating faults.
6. There is something different and strange about Jews; it's hard to tell what
they are thinking and planning, and what makes them tick.
B. Negroes
I. Negroes have their rights, but it is best to keep them in their own districts and schools and to prevent too much contact with whites.
2. It would be a mistake ever to have Negroes for foremen and leaders over whites.
3? Negro musicians may sometimes be as good as white musicians, but it is a mistake to have mixed Negro-white bands.
4? Manual labor and unskilled jobs seem to fit the Negro mentality and ability better than more skilled or responsible work.
5? The people who raise all the talk about putting Negroes on the same level as whites are mostly radical agitators trying to stir up conflicts.
6. Most Negroes would become overbearing and disagreeable if not kept in their place.
C. Other Minorities and Patriotism
I. Zootsuiters prove that when people of their type have too much money and freedom, they just take advantage and cause trouble.
2. The worst danger to real Americanism during the last 50 years has come from foreign ideas and agitators.
3? Now that a new world organization is set up, America must be sure that she loses none of her independence and complete power as a sovereign nation.
4? Certain religious sects who refuse to salute the flag should be forced to con-
form to such a patriotic action, or else be abolished.
5? Filipinos are all right in their place, but they carry it too far when they dress
lavishly and go around with white girls.
6. America may not be perfect, but the American Way has brought us about as
close as human beings can get to a perfect society.
7? It is only natural and right for each person to think that his family is better
than any other.
8. The best guarantee of our national security is for America to have the biggest
army and navy in the world and the secret of the atom bomb.
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143
E. V ALIDA TION BY CASE STUDIES: THE RESPONSES OF MACK AND LARRY ON THE E SCALE
In order to throw some light upon the validity of the E scale, we may compare the responses of Mack and Larry on the scale with their ideas about groups and group relations as brought out by the interview. The scores of these two subjects for each of the items of theE scale (Form 78), together with the group means and D. P. 's, are shown in Table 20(IV).
TABLE 20 (IV)
RESPONSES OF MACK AND LARRY ON THE E SCALE
Item
(Discrimination illegal) (Zootsuiters)
(Foreign ideas)
(World organization) (Negroes have rights) (Feminine positions) (Negroes lazy)
(American way)
(Negro foremen) (Germans and Japs) (Remove corrupt people) (Population incaPable) (Radicals pro-Negro) (No JaPs in California)
In the analysis of Mack's interview, in Chapter II, it was shown that he exhibited in a clear-cut fashion all of the trends which, according to the present theory, are most characteristic of ethnocentrism. That he should score near the top of the high quartile on the E scale may therefore be taken as evidence of its validity. He agrees with 12 of the 14 scale items, thus presenting a picture of very general ethnocentrism. His idealization of the ingroup is as marked as his hostility toward outgroups. His rejection of Negroes, zootsuiters, and Japanese is particularly pronounced, and decidedly more extreme than his rejection of Jews. (His mean score on the five items pertaining to the former minority groups is 5. 8 as compared with his mean score of 4. 6 on the A-S scale. ) It may be recalled that Mack's ideology con-
No.
4.
7. 18. 25. 29. 34. 37. 41. 45. 48. 51. 54. 57. 64.
3. 95 3. 38 3. 17 4. 60 3 . 4 1
Over-all mean
5. 3 1. 8 3. 29
2. 90 aThe group means and D. P. ? s are based on all four groups taking Form 78.
Mack Larry
5 1
6 1
5 l
7 7
6 ~11
3 hi 2. 74
5 t1 5 2 6 :1 6 '1 5 1 3 5 6 1 6 1
Group a Mean
1. 92 4. 34 4. 09 2. 50 3. 15 3. 79 2. 60 2. 24
Group a D. P.
1. 51 4. 02 3. 26 3. 28 4. 00 2. 18 2. 16 3. 05 3. 48 3. 08 2. 34 2. 66 2. 86 2. 69
? 144 THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
cerning Jews has a somewhat special quality. He wishes to make the point that Jews ought to participate more fully in American life and that they would be accepted and liked were it not for the fact that they would rather stay apart. In order to make this point, it is necessary for him to disagree with statements pertaining to the exclusion of Jews, and this lowers his mean score. It seems that he is impressed by what he conceives to be Jewish power. The interview, unfortunately, concentrating as it did upon anti-Semitism, did not explore Mack's imagery of other minority groups. It is fairly safe to assume, however, that he considers Negroes, zootsuiters, and Japanese weaker and more submerged than the Jews, and hence more suitable objects of hostility; certainly his scale responses express strong opposition to the idea of these groups participating more fully in American life.
Mack's failure to agree with Item 34 (Feminine positions) may have to do with the fact that he is engaged to be married to a school teacher; this is a matter that will be discussed more fully later on. The other item with which he disagrees, and the one on which he scores below the group mean is 54 (Population incapable); some light may be shed upon this inconsistency by considering that Item 54 is an unusually strong statement, one that includes no pseudodemocratic rationalization, and that Mack in his interview does not make extremely aggressive statements.
