No More Learning

a
1
whereas Xenocrates needed the spur. (Ding. Laërt. | mathematics to be illiberal studies, cared not to know
iv. 6. ) And while he recommended the latter “to anything about philosophy, and looked upon the
sacrifice to the Graces," he appears rather to have accomplished man of the world and the clever rhe-
warned Aristotle against the “ too much. " Aris torician as the true philosophers. On this occasion
totle lived at Athens for twenty years, til B. c. Aristotle published his first rhetorical writings.
347. (Apoll. ap. Ding. Laëri. v. 9. ) During the That during this time he continued to maintain
whole of this period the good understanding his connexion with the Macedonian court, is inti-
which subsisted between teacher and scholar con- mated by his going on an embassy to Philip of
tinued, with some trifiing exceptions, undisturbed. Macedonia on some business of the Athenians.
For the stories of the disrespect and ingratitude of (Diog. Laërt. v. 2. ) Moreover, we have still the
the latter towards the former are nothing but ca- letter in which his royal friend announces to him
lumnies invented by his enemies, of whom, accord- the birth of his son Alexander. (B. C. 356 ; Gell.
ing to the expression of Themistius (Orat. iv. ), ix. 3; Dion Chrysost. Orat. xix. )
Aristotle had raised a whole host. (Ael. V. H. ji. 19, After the death of Plato, which occurred during
iv. 9; Euseb. Praep. Ev. xv. 2 ; Diog. Laërt. ii. the above-mentioned embassy of Aristotle (B. C.
109, v. 2 ; Ammon. Vit. Arist. p. 45. ) Neverthe- 317), the latter left Athens, though we do not
less, we can easily believe, that between two men exactly know for what reason. Perhaps he was
who were engaged in the same pursuits, and were offended by Plato's having appointed Speusippus
at the same time in some respects of opposite cha- as his successor in the Academy. (Diog. Laert.
racters, collisions might now and then occur, and v. 2, iv. 1. ) At the same time, it is more probable
that the youthful Aristotle, possessed as he was of that, after the notions of the ancient philosophers,
a vigorous and aspiring mind, and having possibly he esteemed travels in foreign parts as a necessary
a presentiment that he was called to be the founder completion of his education. Since the death of
of a new epoch in thought and knowledge, may Plato, there had been no longer any ties to detain
have appeared to many to have sometimes entered him at Athens. Besides, the political horizon there
the lists against his grey-headed teacher with too had assumed a very different aspect. The under-
much impetuosity. But with all that, the position takings of Philip against Olynthus and most of
in which they stood to each other was, and con- the Greek cities of Chalcidice filled the Athenians
tinued to be, worthy of both. This is not only with hatred and anxiety. The native city of
proved by the character of each, which we know Aristotle met with the fate of many others, and
from other sources, but is also confirmed by the was destroyed by Philip at the very time that
truly amiable manner and affectionate reverence Aristotle received an invitation from his former
with which Aristotle conducts his controversies pupil, Hermins, who from being the confidential
with his teacher. In particular, we may notice a friend of a Bithynian dynast, Eubulus (comp. Pol-
passage in the Nicomachean Ethics (i. 6), with lux, ix. 6; Arist. Polit
. ii. 4. SS 9, 10), bad, as
which others (as Ethic. Nic. ix. 7, Polit. ii. 3. & 3) already stated, raised himself to be the ruler of
may be compared. According to a notice by the cities of Atarneus and Assos. On his journey
Olympiodorus (in his commentary on Plato's Gor- thither he was accompanied by his friend Xeno-
gias), Aristotle even wrote a biographical Noyos crates, the disciple of Plato. Hermias, like his
éYKWMIDOTinos on his teacher. (See Cousin, Journ. predecessor Eubulus, had taken part in the at-
d. Savans, Dec. 1832, p. 744. )
tempts made at that time by the Greeks in Asia
During the last ten years of his first residence to free themselves from the Persian dominion.
at Athens, Aristotle himself had already assembled Perhaps, therefore, the journey of Aristotle had
around him a circle of scholars, among whom we even a political object, as it appears not unlikely
may notice his friend Hermias, the dynast of the that Hermias wished to avail himself not merely
cities of Atarneus and Assos in Mysia. (Strabo, xiii. of his counsel, but of his good offices with Philip,
p. 614. ) The subjects of his lectures were not so in order to further his plans. A few years, how-
much of a philosophical * as of a rhetorical and ever, after the arrival of Aristotle, Hermias, through
perhaps also of a political kind. (Quintil. xi. 2. the treachery of Mentor, a Grecian general in the
§ 25. ) At least it is proved that Aristotle entered Persian service, fell into the hands of the Persians,
the lists of controrersy against Isocrates, at that and, like his predecessor, lost his life. Aristotle
time the most distinguished teacher of rhetoric. bimself escaped to Mytilene, whither his wife,
Indeed, he appears to have opposed most decidedly Pythias, the adoptive daughter of the assassinated
all the earlier and contemporary theories of rhetoric. prince, accompanied him. A poem on his unfor-
(Arist. Rhet. i. 1, 2. ) His opposition to Isocrates, tunate friend, which is still preserved, testifies the
however, led to most important consequences, as it warm affection wbich he had felt for him. He
accounts for the bitter hatred which was afterwards afterwards caused a statue to be erected to his
manifested towards Aristotle and his school by all memory at Delphi. (Diog. Laërt. v. 6, 7. ) He
the followers of Isocrates. It was the conflict of transferred to his adoptive daughter, Prthias, the
profound philosophical investigation with the super- almost enthusiastic attachment which he had en-
ficiality of stylistic and rhetorical accomplishment; tertained for his friend; and long after her death
of systematic observation with shallow empiricism he directed in his will that her ashes should be
and prosaic insipidity; of which Isocrates might be placed beside his own. (Diog. v. 16. )*
looked upon as the principal representative, since Two years after his flight from Atarneus (B. C.
he not only despised poetry, but held physics and
Respecting the mode of writing the name
On the other hand, Angustin (de Civit. Dei, Hermias, see Stahr, Aristotelia, i. p. 75, where it
viii. 12) says,
“Quum Aristoteles, vir excellentis must be added, that according to the testimony of
ingenii, sectam Peripateticam condidisset, et pluri- Choeroboscus in the Etym. Magn. p. 376, Sulb,
mos discipulos, praeclara fama excellens, vivo adhuc who appeals to Aristotle bimself, 'Epuías and not
pracccptore in suam hacresin congregasset. ” 'Epuelas must be written.


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342) we find the philosopher accepting an invita- | marks, and as a closer consideration of the po-
tion from Philip of Macedonia, who summoned him litics of Aristotle is of itself sufficient to prove.
to his court to undertake the instruction and (Comp. Polit
. iii. 9, vii. 6, i. 1. ) On the other hand,
eduction of his son Alexander, then thirteen years this connexion had likewise important consequences
of age. (Plut. Aler. 5; Quintil. i. 1. ) Here as regards Aristotle himself. Living in what was
Aristotle was treated with the most marked re- then the centre and source of political activity,
spect. His native city, Stageirn, was rebuilt at bis survey of the relations of life and of states, as
his request, and Philip caused a gymnasium (called well as his knowledge of men, was extended. The
Nymphaeum) to be built there in a pleasant grove position in which he stood to Alexander occasioned
expressly for Aristotle and his pupils. In the time and favoured several studies and literary works.
of Plutarch, the shady walks (aeplaatoi) and stone In his extended researches into natural science,
seats of Aristotle were still shewn to the traveller. and particularly in his zoological investigations. he
(Plut. l. c. 5. ) Here, in quiet retirement from the received not only from Philip, but in still larger
intrigues of the court at Pella, the future conqueror measure from Alexander, the most liberal support,
of the world ripened into manhood. Plutarch in- a support which stands unrivalled in the history of
forms us that several other noble youths enjoyed the civilisation. (Aelian, V. H. v. 19; Athen. ix. p.
instruction of Aristotle with him. (Apophth. Reg. 398, c. ; Plin. H. N. viii
. 17. )
vol. v. p. 683, ed. Reiske. ) Among this number In the year B. C. 340, Alexander, then scarcely
we may mention Cassander, the son of Antipater seventeen years of age, was appointed regent by
(Plut. Alex. 74), Marsyas of Pella (brother of his father, who was about to make an expedition
Antigonus, afterwards king), who subsequently against Byzantium. From that time Aristotle's
wrote a work on the education of Alexander; instruction of the young prince was chiefly re-
Callisthenes, a relation of Aristotle, and afterwards stricted to advice and suggestion, which may very
the historian of Alexander, and Theophrastus of possibly have been carried on by means of epis-
Eresus (in Lesbos), Nearchus, Ptolemy, and tolary correspondence.
Harpalus also, the three most intimate friends of In the year B. C. 335, soon after Alexander
Alexander's youth, were probably his fellow pupils. ascended the throne, Aristotle quitted Macedonia
(Plut. Alex. 10. ) Alexander attached himself for ever, and returned to Athens", after an absence
with such ardent affection to the philosopher, of twelve years, whither, as it appears, he had
that the youth, whom no one yet had been able to already been invited. Here he found his friend
manage, soon valued his instructor above his own Xenocrates president of the Academy. He him-
father. Aristotle spent seven years in Macedonia ; self had the Lyceum, a gymnasium in the
but Alexander enjoyed his instruction without in- neighbourhood of the temple of Apollo Lykeios,
terruption for only four. But with such a pupil | assigned to him by the state. He soon assembled
even this short period was sufficient for a teacher round him a large number of distinguished scholars
like Aristotle to fulfil the highest purposes of out of all the Hellenic cities of Europe and Asia,
education, to aid the development of his pupil's to whom, in the shady walks (Tepínatoi) which
faculties in every direction, to awaken susceptibility surrounded the Lyceum, while walking up and
and lively inclination for every art and science, down, he delivered lectures on philosophy. From
and to create in him that sense of the noble and one or other of these circumstances the name Peri-
great, which distinguishes Alexander from all those patetic is derived, which was afterwards given to
conquerors who have only swept like a hurricane his school. It appears, however, most correct to
through the world.
According to the usual mode derive the name (with Jonsius, Dissert. de Hist.
of Grecian education, a knowledge of the poets, Perip. i. 1, pp. 419-425, ed. Elswich) from the
eloquence, and philosophy, were the principal sub- place where Aristotle taught, which was called at
jects into which Aristotle initiated his royal Athens par excellence, ó Tepínatos, as is prored
pupil. Thus we are even informed that he prepared also by the wills of Theophrastus and Lycon. His
a new recension of the Iliad for him (V ŠK TOù lectures, which, according to an old account pre-
váponkos, Wolf, Proleg. p. clxxxi. ), that he instructed served by Gellius (xx. 5), he delivered in the
him in ethics and politics (Plut. Alex. 7), and dis morning (éwéivós tepimatus) to a narrower circle
closed to him the abstrusities of his own speculations, of chosen and confidential (esoteric) hearers, and
of the publication of which by his writings Alex- which were called acroamatic or acroatic, embraced
ander afterwards complained. (Gell. xx. 5. ) Alex- subjects connected with the more abstruse philoso-
ander's love of the science of medicine and every phy (theology), physics, and dialectics. Those
branch of physics, as well as the lively interest which he delivered in the afternoon (derivòs repé-
which he took in literature and philosophy generally Fatos) and intended for a more promiscuous circle
(Plut. Alex. 8), were awakened and fostered by this (which accordingly he called exoteric), extended to
instruction. Nor can the views communicated by rhetoric, sophistics, and politics. Such a separa-
Aristotle to his pupil on politics have failed to tion of his more intimate disciples and more pro-
exercise the most important influence on bis sub- found lectures, from the main body of his other
sequent plans ; although the aim of Alexander, to hearers and the popular discourses intended for
unite all the nations under his sway into one them, is also found among other Greek philosophers.
kingdom, without due regard to their individual (Plat. Theaet. p. 152, c. , Phaedon, p. 62, b. ) As
peculiarities (Plut. de Virt. Alex. i. 6, vol. ix. pp. regards the external form of delivery, he appears
38, 42, ed. Hutten), was not (as Joh. v. Müller to have taught not so much in the way of conver-
maintains) founded on the advice of Aristotle, but, sation, as in regular lectures. Some notices bave
on the contrary, was opposed to the views of the
philosopher, as Plutarch (1. c. p. 88) expressly re- The story that Aristotle accompanied Alex-
ander on his expeditions, which we meet with in
According to Diogenes Laërtius (v. 4), Aris later writers, as e. g. in David ad Cuteg. i. p. 21,
totle drew up a new code of laws for the city. a. , 33, ed. Brand. , is fabulous.


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ARISTOTELES.
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orators.
been preserved to us of certain external regulations founded. Alexander, according to all historical
of his school, e. 9. , that, alter the example of testimony, died a natural death, and no writer
Xenocrates, he created an archon every ten days mentions the name of Aristotle in connexion with
among his scholars, and laid down certain laws of the rumour of the poisoning except Pliny. (II. N.
good breeding for their social meetings (vóuoi xxx. 53. ) Nay, even the passage of Pliny has
O ULTIOT. NO, Ding. Laërt. ii. 130; Athen. v. p. 186, been wrongly understood by the biographers of
a. e. ). Neither of the two schools of philoso- Aristotle (by Suhr as well, i. p. 130); for, far
phy which flourished at the same time in Athens from regarding Aristotle as guilty of such a crime,
approached, in extent and celebrity, that of Aris the Roman naturalist, who cverywhere shews that
totle, from which proceeded a large number of dis he cherished the deepest respect for Aristotle, says,
tinguished philosophers, historians, statesmen, and on the contrary, just the reverse,—that the rumour
We mention here, beside Callisthenes of bad been“ magna cum infamia Aristotelis erca
Olynthus, who has been already spoken of, only gitatum. "
the names of Theophrastus, and his countryman The movements which commenced in Greece
Phanias, of Eresus, the forner of whom suc- against Macedonia after Alexander's death, B. C.
ceeded Aristotle in the Lyceum as president of the 323, endangered also the peace and security of
school ; Aristoxenus the Tarentine, surnamed Aristotle, who was regarded as a friend of Mace-
MOVOKós; the brothers Eudemus and Pasicrates of donia. To bring a political accusation against hin
Rhodes; Eudemus of Cyprus; Clearchus of Soli; was not easy, for Aristotle was so spotiess in this
Theodectes of Phaselis ; the historians Dicaear- respect, that not even his name is mentioned by
chus and Satyrus; the celebrated statesman, orator, Demosthenes, or any other contemporary orator, as
and writer, Demetrius Phalereus ; the philosopher implicated in those relations. He was accordingly
Ariston of Cos; Philon; Neleus of Scepsis, and accused of impiety (doebeias) by the hierophant
many others, of whom an account was given by Eurymedon, whose accusation was supported by an
the Alexandrine grammarian Nicander in his lost Athenian of some note, named Demophilus. Such
work, Περί των 'Αριστοτέλους μαθητών.
accusations, as the rabulist Euthyphron in Plato
During the thirteen years which Aristotle spent remarks, seldom missed their object with the mul-
at Athens in active exertions amongst such a circle titude. (Plato, Euthyph. p. 3, B. , Evdiábola tá
of disciples, he was at the same time occupied with Tolaita apòs tous monoủs. ) The charge was
the composition of the greater part of his works. In grounded on his having addressed a hymn to
these labours, as has already been observed, he was his friend Hermias as to a god, and paid liim
assisted by the truly kingly liberality of his former divine honours in other respects. (Diog. Laërt.
pupil, who not only presented him with 800 v. 5; Ilgen, Disquisit. de Scol. Poesi, p. 69 ;
talents, an immerse sum even for our times, but and the 'Atoloyia doebelas attributed to Aris-
also, through his vicegerents in the conquered pro totle, but the authenticity of which was doubted
vinces, caused large collections of natural curiosities even by the ancients, in Athen. xv. 16, p. 696. )
to be made for him, to which posterity is in- Certain dogmas of the philosopher were also
debted for one of his most excellent works, the used for the same object. (Origen. c. Ceis. i.
History of Animals. ” (Plin. H. N. viii. 17. ) p. 51, ed. Hoeschel. ) Aristotle, however, knew
Meanwhile various causes contributed to throw bis danger sufficiently well to withdraw from
a cloud over the latter years of the philosopher's Athens before his trial. He escaped in the be
life. In the first place, he felt deeply the death of ginning of B. c. 322 to Chalcis in Euboea, where he
his wife Pythias, who left behind her a daughter had relations on his mother's side, and where the
of the same name: he lived subsequently with a Macedonian influence, which was there predominant,
friend of his wife's, the slave Herpyllis, who bore afforded him protection and security. In his will
him a son, Nicomachus, and of whose faithfulness also mention is made of some property wbich he
and attachment he makes a grateful and substan- had in Chalcis. (Diog. Laërt. v. 14. ) Certain ac-
tial acknowledgement in his will
. (Diog. Laërt. v. counts (Strabo, x. p. 448; Diog. Laërt. x. 1) eren
1; v. 13. ) But a source of still greater grief render it exceedingly probable that Aristotle had
was an interruption of the friendly relation in left Athens and removed to Chalcis before the
which he had hitherto stood to his royal pupil. death of Alexander. A fragment of a letter
The occasion of this originated in the opposition written by the philosopher to his friend Antipater
raised by the philosopher Callisthenes against the has been preserved to us, in which he states his
changes in the conduct and policy of Alexander. reasons for the above-mentioned change of resi-
Aristotle, who had in vain advised Callisthenes not dence, and at the same time, with reference to the
to lose sight of prudence in his behaviour towards unjust execution of Socrates, adds, that he wished
the king, disapproved of his conduct altogether, to deprive the Athenians of the opportunity of
and foresaw its unhappy issue. (CALLISTHENES. ] sinning a second time against philosophy. (Comp.
Still Alexander refrained from any expression of Eustath. ad Hom. Od. vii. 120. p. 1573, 12. ed.
hostility towards his former instructor (a story of Rom. 275, 20, Bas. ; Aelian, V. H. j. 36. )
this kind in Diog. Laërt. v. 10, has been corrected From Chalcis he may have sent forth a defence
by Stahr, Aristotelia, p. 133); and although, as against the accusation of his enemies. At least
Plutar expressly informs us, their former cordial antiquity possessed a defence of that kind under
connexion no longer subsisted undisturbed, yet, as his name, the authenticity of which, however, was
is proved bs a remarkable expression (Topicor. ii. already doubted by Athenaeus. (Comp. Phavorin.
1, 7, ed. Buhle ; comp. Albert Heydemann's German ap. Diog. Laërt. 1. c. , who calls it a logos dikavo-
translation and explanation of the categories of kós. ) However, on his refusing to answer the
Aristotle, p. 32, Berlin, 1835), Aristotle never lost summons of the Areiopaguis
, he was deprived of all
his trust in his royal friend. The story, that Aris- the rights and honours which had been previously
totle, irritated by the above-mentioned occurrence, bestowed upon him (Aelian, V. H. xiv. 1), and
took part in poisoning the king, is altogether un condemned to death in his absence. Meantime


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the philosopher continued his studies and lectures | adapted to produce conviction in his hcarers, a gitt
in Chalcis for some time longer without molesta- which Antipater praises highly in a letter written
tion. He died in the beginning of August, in the after Aristotle's death. (Plut. Cat. Maj. p. 354,
year B. C. 322, a short time before Demosthenes Coriol. p. 234. ) He exhibited remarkable atten-
(who died in October of the same year), in the 63rd tion to external appearance, and bestowed much
year of his age, from the effects, not of poison, but care on his dress and person. (Timotheus, ap.
of a chronic disorder of the stomach. (Censorin.