20 In the case of Girri and Cadenas, both authors engage with Taoist and Zen texts, as well as the
writings
of J.
Trakl - T h e Poet's F ad in g Face- A lb e rto G irri, R afael C ad en as a n d P o s th u m a n is t Latin A m e ric a n P o e try
In the essay "The Question Concerning Technology" (1954), Heidegger prefigures in many ways Foucault's description of the modern episteme. Heidegger employs the word Gestell or "Enframing" to signify the way the human being seeks knowledge of the world, bringing forth things into unconcealment through a controlling mastery and "fixing" of them, securing them for himself and ordering them for his use. In this arrangement, "Man," Heidegger writes, "becomes that being upon which all that is, is grounded as regards the manner of its Being and its truth. Man becomes the relational center of that which is as such. " ("The Age" 128). In this context, language is restricted to instrumentality and representation, as Man attempts to overcome its ambiguity in order to assure the total objectification and "unhiddenness" of all beings, rendering them statically present and at his disposal. Heidegger suggests that this approach to language and the world is the culmination of the Nietzschean will to power, in that it places Being and beings at the
18 CONFLUENCIA, FALL 2014
? service of the individual subject, a process through which their meaning and value is assigned ("The Word of Nietzsche" 80-83).
Reflecting critically on writing as a tool for subjectivity, in terms that echo Heidegger, Girri elaborates on the procedure at work in his early poetic constructions-- one that could equally apply to Cadenas-- and his realization of its intrinsic inadequacies: "Por un lado, significaba o significa una voluntad de poderi? o, de dominio sobre la naturaleza, sobre la cosa, sobre si? mismo, y, por otro, es una manifestacio? n de la notable inferioridad o invalidez del hombre, para defenderse de las cuales no hace sino dorarse la pi? ldora con este yo" (Torres Fierro 18-19). This manner of writing characterizes both authors' first poetry-- what Girri meaningfully terms the "vi? a de la representacio? n" (Torres Fierro 41)-- and which they attempt to overcome in their later works. Girri writes of the failed "vi? a de representacio? n" as an incorrect way of seeing: "el ojo izquierdo en efecto es el que mira al tiempo, mientras que el derecho mira a la eternidad. Y demostrar que el ojo izquierdo es el que engan? a, armando una representacio? n tras otra, y provocando asi? un deseo insaciable de propiedad" (. Diario de un libro 54). Cadenas sums up the inevitable result of this mode of subjectivity and technological thought in an untitled poem from Intemperie (1977): "Nada, nada se repite. / So? lo yo, en la memoria, me tengo/ como un vestigio/ entre mis propias manos" (143). These verses echo Heidegger's diagnosis of the human being in the age of technology: "It seems as though man everywhere and always encounters only himself" ("The Question" 27). It is important to note that in the same passage Heidegger goes on to explain that "In truth, however, precisely nowhere does man today any longer encounter himself, i. e. , his essence" (27) because this mode of being effectively banishes all other kinds of relationships with the world-- and with oneself--that are not Enframing. Unsatisfied with this solipsism, as I will discuss in the next section, Girri's and Cadenas' later poetry is a testimony to their fidelity to a thinking beyond the self-perpetuation of Man.
II. The Voluntary Fading of the Subject
Foucault, and Heidegger before him, discover in the writings of certain authors a way to think and be that is other to the constitutive knowledge of the modern human being that is helpful for situating Girri's and Cadenas' later poetry, and which we can identify as posthumanist. Foucault perceives in the works of Ste? phane Mallarme? , Antonin Artaud, Raymond Roussel, Georges Bataille, Pierre Klossowski and Blanchot an experience of language in which the historically-based construct of Man disappears. Indeed, Foucault famously predicts the "death of Man" as a new epistemic arrangement unfolds in which Man will be erased "like a face drawn in sand at the edge of the sea" (The Order 387), alluding here to the human being's eventual separation from the epistemological center and his incorporation into language. In the void of a naming subject, literature offers a unique means of thought, born of and always leading back to itself. In an interview published the same year as The Order o f Things, Foucault states that "literature has been the place where man has never stopped disappearing in favor of language. Where "9a parle," man no longer exists" ("L'homme est-il mort ? " 572). 16Foucault follows Blanchot's understanding that, as a site for the subject's dispersion, literature aims "to escape any essential determination, any affirmation that stabilizes it or even fulfills it" (273). Blanchot
VOLUME 30, NUMBER 1 19
? and Foucault participate here in a greater debate of French literary criticism of the time that produced analogous ideas, such as Derridas theory of grammatology and Barthes' notion of the "neutral" and his groundbreaking call for the "death" of the author.
Predating these poststructuralist formulations, Heidegger goes further still, finding in literature--particularly in the poetry of Friedrich Holderlin, Georg Trakl, Stefan George and Gottfried Benn-- the place where ontological truth is established in language. Heidegger's lifelong project spirals around the question of Being, taking several prominent turns (Kehre), the first being a move away from understanding Being through the analytic of Dasein-- Heidegger's term for human existence as a "Being-there" or "Being-in-the- world"-- to a disclosure of Being as truth through art, and particularly poetry. 17Heidegger sees poetic language, liberated from the binds of Enframing and the metaphysics of subjectivity, as the most propitious ground for a thinking of Being. Whereas language as "technicity" seeks a totalizing, controlling and exhaustive revealing of things to the human subject, the poetic word allows things to be brought into presence without requiring them to be fully disclosed. Hans-Georg Gadamer explains: "In the work of art, we experience an absolute opposition to this will-to-control, not in the sense of a rigid resistance to the presumption of our will, which is bent on utilizing things, but in the sense of the superior and intrusive power of a being reposing in itself" (227). Being is always only partial, and aletheia-- the ontological structure of truth, which is the unconcealing of beings-- is "always accompanied by concealedness" (Cobussen 68). Heidegger posits art and specifically poetic language as the "house of Being" ("What Are Poets For? " 129), as it is the dimension in which Being's revealing-concealing duality is made evident, as Marc Froment-Meurice elaborates: "The word is not, properly speaking, because it would signify totally, present its transparent sense without obstacles, but because, cut off, it remains open to. . . (The ellipses mark what remains to be said. ) The word is dedicated, promised, and yet, in this promise, nothing else promises itself" (74). Being is brought to the word in language, for it renders apparent the impossibility of absolute univocity for all things, oneself included. This is because poetic language allows us to experience the "excess" of beings over our means and ability to disclose them, due to the "undisclosedness" present in language itself.
Although Girri and Cadenas do not adopt Heidegger's very particular vocabulary, their poetry and paratexts belong to its same situated inquiry. Cadenas directly engages these ideas, for example, in Anotaciones:
'En Heidegger, la verdad no consiste en conocimiento, sino en las cosas mismas, tal como se manifiestan. ' En ellas esta? presente el misterio. [. . . ] Nos encontramos en el reino de la ale? theia, el descubrimiento, la revelacio? n, y lo que aparece en todo su poder es lo ignoto, inseparable de lo que existe. La verdad seri? a mostracio? n de las cosas, que descansan en el misterio, siempre, y lo rezuman inconteniblemente. (562)
In accordance with Heidegger's appreciation of literature, Cadenas ventures that poetry's essential gift is its preservation of the unconcealment of concealment that is experienced in language, which is analogous to the nature of the presencing of things
20 CONFLUENCIA, FALL 2014
? and the world. In an interview with Danubio Torres Fierro, Girri similarly affirms that a different knowledge or experience of the world is indeed possible for the human being through poetry: "hay algo no conocido en el conocimiento, con lo cual no so? lo manifiesta esa duda, pero tambie? n que la realidad debe ser observada mediante vi? as que no son las del conocimiento habitual, y que el hombre se enfrenta con ma? s de un mundo. La poesi? a puede ser un medio de acceso a tales mundos" (Quincepoetas 36). A briefpoem by Cadenas about a flower illustrates what this type of knowledge might look like through the lens of poetry: "Desde que? profundidad surges/ como llama/ para esconderla" (Memorial 231). In approaching a flower as an ungraspable flame that appears and conceals itself in its own profundity, Cadenas practices what Girri proposes in Lo propio, lo de todos: "Que el poema refleje las cosas con la espontaneidad que ostentan al aparece? rsenos" (75). This attentive disposition opens the human being up for the manifestation of other things and beings in their own unconcealedness and hiddenness.
Such a task requires that one ask oneself, as Girri does in the poem "Preguntarse, cada tanto": "Que? hacer/ del viejo yo li? rico, erra? tico esti? mulo,/ al ir avecina? ndonos a la fase/ de los silencios, la de no desear/ ya doblegarnos animosamente/ ante cada impresio? n que hierve . . . " (Quien habla 188). If the poetic subject is to be reconceived, no longer as the protagonistic "I" in the romantic vein or the locus for representation, the question remains as to how to redefine the human being in, what we are calling here, posthumanist terms. A later poem of Girri's, with the suggestive title "Cuando la idea del yo se aleja," outlines an initial answer, entailing a radical shedding of the "I": "De lo que va adelante/ y de lo que sigue atra? s,/ de lo que dura y de lo que cae,/ me deshago,/ abandonado quedo/
[. . . ]/ abjurando de armas, faltas,/ de oraciones donde borrar las faltas,/ blando organismo, entidad/ que ignora co? mo decir: "Yo soy" (El ojo 46). The loss of subjectivity that Girri proposes here does not equate with self-annihilation, but rather with a vital attitude that Heidegger calls Gelassenheit, a reverent and quiet sheltering that attends to things in their mysterious and ungraspable self-unfolding by letting go of representational thought and subjective will. Cadenas offers a new self-portrait, following this same line o f thinking, by tracing the negative outline of his own presence: "No soy lo que llevo/ sino el recipiente. / Lugar de la presencia,/ lugar del vaci? o" (Memorial 236). Shorn of personal features, the self is recast as an open receptacle that adheres impersonally to the world in its natural unfolding. This way of being is distinguished by its quiet, simple engagement with what is, as Cadenas affirms in another poem: "Soy esta vigilancia. / Soy esta vacilante disponibilidad,/ [. . . ]/ Soy e? ste en que se extingue/ hasta la idea de hombre" (Memorial272). With this new self-definition, any fixed notion of Man and the defining parameters of his relationship with the world are extinguished, inverting his role as the center of knowledge to that of a conscious and purposeful emptiness, available for the fresh presencing of Being and beings.
In his 1950 essay "The Thing," Heidegger envisages human beings--here referred to as "mortals"--as decentered and brought together on equal footing with the other elements of the world: earth, sky and divinities. These elements, called das Geviert or the "fourfold," are betrothed to each other and freely appropriate one another in an unique relationship described as a "round dance," a play of reciprocal mirroring that sets "each of the four free into its own, but it binds these free ones into the simplicity of their essential being toward one another" (177). This fourfold is best understood, not in fixed
VOLUME 30, NUMBER 1 21
? representational terms, but rather as a dynamic shining or flashing forth, allowing for the illumination and concealedness of all things through their interplay. 18A similar mirror play seems to be at work in Cadenas' poem "Rilke" in which things and man come into themselves through their mutual belonging and lighting:
Las cosas supieron, ma? s que los hombres, de su mirada
a la que se abri? an
para otra existencia.
El las acogi? a transforma? ndolas
en lo que eran, devolvie? ndolas a su exactitud, ban? a? ndolas en su propio oro,
pues ? que? sabe de su regia condicio? n
lo que se entrega?
Piedras, flores, nubes
renaci? an
en otro silencio
para un distinto transcurrir. (Gestiones 443)
In this poem, things-- stones, flowers, clouds-- are allowed to be
through a practice of silence in which the human being also participates, receiving their presence so that they and he shine in their "propio oro. "
This role involves the voluntary fading of the poetic subject, an example of which Girri discovers in Keats's experience of writing: "despojarse, mientras el poema progresa (esto a expensas de aquello), de los incontables yoes que en e? l conviven, y cuya fase u? ltima, el sentimiento de nulidad, coincidiri? a con la culminacio? n del poema" {Lopropio 71). The human being is not eliminated, but rather reappropriated to his world through his open attention to it, which, Girri and Cadenas advise, is also the necessary condition for writing poetry. Girri's poem "Dormir que hace el poema" further exemplifies the relationship between the work, the reality that inspired it, and the "hacedor"-- the term Girri adopts instead of "poet," as a nod to Borges and a way to eschew certain connotations of the latter word, particularly those stemming from the Romantic tradition and its reformulations:
22
CONFLUENCIA, FALL 2014
El poema, desprendido de la visio? n,
y del que no podri? as explicar, so? lo ofrecerlo,
y ofrecerlo
en homenaje a lo recibido pero no su enigma,
asi? como
un bebedor no penetra en su vino,
themselves
? lo bebe,
pero no sabe que? es,
adema? s de a? spero y seco,
subido de color. (Existenciales 99-100)
In these verses, the poem is described as being "separated" or "disjoined" from the vision that inspired it, having its own existence. The poem is autonomous and ultimately inscrutable; it is not the subjects stage, domain or possession. It is first "received" through the undivided attention of the "hacedor" and then offered back to the world in its homage as a thanking. The "hacedor" partakes of the poetic experience, as writer and then as reader, but renounces all efforts to apprehend the word and world by imposing upon them a determinate order or meaning. These verses are directives for an exercise in observing, inhabiting and attending to the world by adhering to the present with a lucid gaze and detached attention, thus forgoing fixed goals. An epigrammatic poem by Cadenas distills the same message: "Atencio? n/ redoma hechizada,/ ne? ctar de estar presente" (. Memorial 246).
This attention, and the poetry that results, should not be confused with the dominant Latin American poetic trend identified by Ca? rcamo-Huechante and Mazzotti characterized by its "fe en la representacio? n y trascendencia de la poesi? a [que] subyace una cadena estable de identidad y correspondencia entre los componentes de una totalidad universal, donde la poesi? a es capaz de otorgarles una configuracio? n armo? nica de representacio? n y unidad" (12). Unlike this paradigm, Girri and Cadenas are not interested in writing as universal representation, nor do they seek transcendence of the world. Rather, as Girri writes,
En vez de ser edificada con lo recordado, que la escritura, sin memoria y sin yo, se convierta en construccio? n del presente.
Que el escribir sea mecanicidad, estado en el que no se dan li? neas ni de mayor ni de menor resistencia. Como en la reiteracio? n de mantras.
Que el ser siempre lo mismo, el escribir ya no tenga un objetivo, y que de haberlo sea el vaci? o; o el silencio, versio? n ma? s suave de ese vaci? o. (El motivo es el
poema 287)
Girri's and Cadenas' poetry, like Heidegger's thinking, ultimately points to a non-saying that is only possible when the "yo" is reconceived in posthumanist terms, as an open space for language to speak and the world to presence. The poem demands a thoughtful listening that leads one away from a form of speech that seeks to define and apprehend things through language, and back to an area of ambiguity where in the interstices of the verses, things and the subject present themselves through revealing and concealing, in a dynamic relationship in the present moment. This mode of writing challenges the demands and restrictions of the modern episteme, with the human being at its center as the articulator of knowledge and the wielder of language. Naturally, such a position is tenuous and paradoxical, for the "hacedor" must be engaged in his attention but simultaneously abandon the habitual structures of the self; as such, the poem is not of the poet's dominion, but without him, the poem would not come to fruition. This poetry, therefore, exhorts
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23
? that it be practiced as an ascetic and meditative exercise that (re)moves and displaces the subject. Cadenas aptly observes that this existential path, however, is rarely chosen, as Man is his own obstacle: "Los hombres esta? n atascados,/ hacen ruido para no escuchar,/ su corazo? n ya no los soporta. / Todo respiray da gracias,! menos ellos" [Gestiones 454). Girri's and Cadenas' poetry, ultimately, is the exploration of such a possibility, an opportunity to give thanks.
In concluding, I would like to briefly touch upon some of the implications of Girri's and Cadenas' poetry with regard to the question of the subject and the methodology pursued in the present essay. First, by formulating my theoretical approach within the immediate resonances of the chosen corpus, I seek to shed light on a posthumanist literary current alternative to canonic readings of Latin American poetry and its central figures in the second half of the 20th century. While recent theoretical vogues may consider it problematic to refer to the works of Heidegger or the most poststructuralist Foucault (as opposed to his later works at the College de France that constitute the foundation for current posthumanist agendas that I discussed earlier), their texts directly and indirectly form the philosophical and discursive backdrop of much of Girri's and Cadenas'writing. 19 Not only are they historically relevant, but they also serve as a starting point to revisit and elucidate the basic question of the subject in relation to Being and epistemic knowledge, which is central to the poets' works.
Second, new iterations of this same question lie at the heart of the poetry of various younger writers such as Mexicans Elsa Cross (1946), Alberto Blanco (1951), Coral Bracho (1951) and Leo? n Plascencia N? ol (1968), Cuban Jose? Kozer (1940), and Peruvian Jose? Watanabe (1945), among others, who also actively explore the displacement of the modern subject. Perhaps it is no coincidence that all of the above writers have been drawn to Asian philosophies and/or religious practices as part of their rethinking, reformulating and experience of the self through their poetry, a connection that must be explored in full as an integral variant ofLatin American Orientalism, and one that has mostly been overlooked by critics.
20 In the case of Girri and Cadenas, both authors engage with Taoist and Zen texts, as well as the writings of J. Krishnamurti, in poems and prose pieces I have not touched on in the present essay for lack of space. Badiou reminds us that a truth inquiry is multiple and potentially infinite, unbound by time, space or culture, and, as many academics have noted, the articulations of the subject in these philosophical frameworks, although fundamentally different from traditional Western approaches to subjectivity, complement
many of Heidegger's posthumanist theories, as discussed here. 21The need to reconsider the intersections of the first current of posthumanism and/or Asian thought and recent Latin American poetry signals the potential limitations of contemporary cultural studies, that privilege the politics of identity and the human body but sometimes underplay the epistemological and ontological conditions of possibility of their enunciating subjects.
Finally, the poetry of Girri, and Cadenas, in its search for a way to speak beyond the constraints of the modern subject, like Heidegger's often tortuous thinking of Being, highlights the inherent conundrum at the heart of their projects: a true eclipse of the subject's speaking must be something Man cannot say. Can such an undertaking be anything but solitary and silent? Girri explicitly identifies this contradictory challenge: "lo ilusorio/ de verse uno mismo so? lo/ como un yo que percibe. / Intentar corregir,
24 CONFLUENCIA, FALL 2014
? corregirnos/ ensayando con la vi? a negativa/ [. . . ]/ no mueren/ los pensamientos cuando callan,/ cesan/ para que aflore, se exponga/ la continuidad del silencio" (A? rbol 303). Or, as Cadenas asks: "? Necesita palabras/un rostro? / ? La flor/ quiere sonidos? / ? Pide vocablos/ el perro, la piedra, el fuego? / ? No se expresan con so? lo estar? " (. Memorial 262). Does the possible incommunicability and experiential nature of their task make for infertile grounds for writing, especially for academic explorations? Cadenas' humble and tentative answer, however, is also worth reproducing: "Soy/ apenas/ un hombre que trata de respirar/ pol- los poros del lenguaje. " (Gestiones 420). It is to this space, between this question and this answer, between the revealed and the concealed, between the present and the absent, that Girri and Cadenas invite us to dwell and from where, perhaps, new paths of thinking can emerge.
Notas
1Ca? rcamo-Huechante and Mazzotti do note that "en los ma? rgenes" of this trend are poets like Jose? Lezama Lima with "poe? ticas de la interrogacio? n y la inestabilidad" (11), and that various important anthologies, such as Pristina y u? ltima piedra: Antologi? a de la poesi? a latinoamericana edited by Ernesto Lumbreras and Eduardo Mila? n, Julio Ortegas Antologi? a de lapoesi? a latinoamericana delsigloXXI, and Medusario: Muestra de
poesi? a latinoamericana edited by Roberto Echavarren, Jose? Kozer and Jacobo Sefami? privilege the idea of "la heterogeneidad e inestabilidad de la representacio? n" (19) of writers from the '60s on.
21will use the term "Man" with the uppercase, as it appears in The Order o f Things, when referring to
the Foucauldian epistemological figure within the context of modernity except when it appears with the lowercase in a quote.
3 The group known as the "Ateneo de la Juventud" was formed by young intellectuals from various disciplines who promoted Western cultural heritage in modern Mexico in the years immediately preceding the Revolution, forming an alliance that criticized and opposed Porfirio Diaz's government, which in turn was heavily influenced by the predominant wave ofEuropean 19thcentury positivism. The groups members were, among others, Antonio Caso, Marti? n Luis Guzma? n, Henri? quez Uren? a, Reyes and Vasconcelos. Their project generated discussion about a "Mexican being" that was later followed by influential thinkers such as Samuel Ramos, and subsequently Octavio Paz in his seminal El laberinto de la soledad (1950).
4 Gerald Martin briefly analyzes Neruda's career after his involvement with the Spanish Republic in the 1930s, in particular during the writers' conference against fascism (in which a young Paz also participated), as a change "towards an explicidy political humanist poetry" (120). Although by "humanist" poetry I do have a similar analysis in mind, I will use the term to refer to the type of poetry that acts as a vehicle for a univocal and transcendental representation of subjectivity, of which Neruda and Paz are key examples. 5Several of these recent studies on contemporary poetry refer to discourses of nationalism, debates on modernity and the role of the poetic subject at the core of national traditions. As examples of this trend,
see Silvia Rosman's Being in Common: Nation, Subject and Community in Latin American Literature and Culture (2003), which includes analyses of the works of Paz and Borges, among others, or Michelle Clayton's monograph Poetry in Pieces: Ce? sar Vallejo and Lyric Modernity (2011).
6Girri was honored with the following accolades, among others: "la faja de Honor de la S. A. D. E. , el Premio 'Leopoldo Lugones', el Premio 'Ce? sar Mermet', el Premio Municipal de Poesi? a, el Premio Nacional de Poesi? a, y premios de la Fundacio? n Argentina para la Poesi? a, la Fundacio? n Lorenzutti y la Fundacio? n Dupuytren.
Ha recibido una Medalla de Oro y ha sido condecorado como Caballero Oficial de la Orden al Me? rito por
el gobierno de Italia" (Slade Pascoe 11). Girri also received two J. S. Guggenheim Fellowships (1964, 1977) and was awarded the Rene? Baron Prize (1982) and the Premio de Poesi? a de la Fundacio? n Fortabat (1985). Rafael Cadenas was awarded the "Premio de Ensayo de CON? AC" (1984), the Venezuelan "Premio Nacional de Literatura" (1985) for his complete works, the "Premio San Juan de la Cruz" (1991), the "Premio Internacional de Poesi? a J. A. Pe? rez Bonalde (1992), the Venezuelan "Premio de la Fundacio? n Mozarteum" (1993), the Mexican "Premio FIL de Literatura (Feria Internacional del Libro)" (2009), a Guggenheim Fellowship (1986) and honorary doctoral degrees from the Universidad de los Andes (2001) and the Universidad Central de Venezuela (2005).
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25
? 7Mari? a Victoria Sua? rez's Alberto Girri: existenciay lo? gicapoe? tica offers a dialectical close reading of his works "dentro de los li? mites de la descripcio? n" (11); Muriel Slade Pascoe also takes a chronological approach in La
poesi? a de Alberto Girri, studying the poet's treatment of time as a vehicle for approaching the relationship between the world and language, as well as the self and his reality. Sergio Cuetos Seis estudios girrianos and Alberto Villanueva's Alberto Girri en elpresentepoe? tico offer excellent thematic analyses of topics ranging from Girri's practice of translation to his writing about painting. In the case of Cadenas, Luis Miguel Isava Bricen? o's Voz de amante offers the most complete analysis, tracing chronologically the dialectics between the self and the "you" in his poetry, while simultaneously reconstructing the "intellectual biography" (12) o f the author's sources, readings and affinities. Ilis Alfonzo Perdomo's Rafael Cadenas, o, La poesi? a como existencia. Ejercicio de aproximacio? n a Los cuadernos del destierro, Falsas maniobras, Intemperiey Memorial is less methodical in its approach, focusing on the relationship of the self and the "other," the notion of emptiness and the role of memory. Finally, Lapoesi? a, la vida. En torno a Rafael Cadenas, compiled and edited by Omar Astorga, is a helpful resource that gathers articles and reviews originally appearing in diverse publications. 8Alberto Villanueva sees a disjuncture between Girri's and Heidegger's discussions of the figure of the
poet. Villanueva reduces Heidegger's vision of the poet as a sacred protagonist and deems it inapplicable
to Girri's works {Alberto Girri en elpresentepoe? tico 50-1). This may be due to the fact that Villanueva does not examine Heidegger's nuanced discussion of the poem or language itself in many of his later essays such as On the Way to Language (1959) and those collected in Poetry, Language, Thought, that meditate on the preeminence of the word and the humble, but integral position of the human being.
9 In the case of Girri, Maria Kodama's division of Girri's work is typical, signaling the publication of his Antologi? a tema? tica (1969) as a turning point. Alberto Villanueva and Horacio Castillo, on the other hand, have studied his poetic production in three phases (Villanueva En idiomas 67). In her monograph covering Girri's literary production until 1985, Muriel Slade Pascoe also examines the poet's treatment of time in three periods: denunciation and testimony (1946-1955), solutions (1956-1963) and lucidity (1964-1985). Although I have chosen to read Girri's production as a two-part movement-- all divisions being arbitrary to some degree-- Slade Pascoe's observations are useful in understanding the position of Girri's poetic subject, in what I refer to here as his first movement.
10Girri's books published between 1946 and 1962 are: Playa sola (1946), Coronacio? n de la espera (1947),
Trecepoemas (1949), El tiempo que destruye (1951), Esca? ndaloy soledades (1952), Li? nea de la vida (1955), Examen de nuestra causa (1956), La penitencia y el me? rito (1957), Propiedades de la magia (1959), La condicio? n necesaria (1960) and Elegi? as italianas (1962). His later works are: El ojo (1963), Envi? os (1967), Casa de la mente (1970), Valores diarios (1970), En la letra, ambigua selva (1972), Diario de un libro (1972, prose), Poesi? a de la observacio? n (1973), Quien habla no esta? muerto (1975), El motivo es elpoema (1976), Arbol de la estirpe humana (1978), Lo propio, lo de todos (1980), Homenaje a W. C. Williams (1981), Li? rica de percepciones (1983), Monodias (1985), Existenciales (1986), Tramas de conflictos (1988), and 1989/1990 (1990).
11Girri coincides chronologically with the Argentinean "generacio? n del 40," that poet and critic Ce? sar Ferna? ndez Moreno catalogues as including: Daniel Devoto, Roberto Paine, Basilio Uribe, Carlos Latorre, Carlos Alberto Alvarez, Alfonso Sola Gonza? lez, Ana Maria Chouhy Aguirre, Eduardo Jonquie? res, Juan Rodolfo Wilcock, Alberto Ponce de Leo? n, E? dgar Bayley, Olga Orozco, Jose? Mari? a Castin? eira, Vicente Barbieri, Silvina Ocampo, Juan Ferreyra Basso, Enrique Molina, Miguel Angel Go? mez, Leo? n Benaro? s
and Miguel Etchebarne (225). Greatly influenced by Federico Garcia Lorca, Rainer Maria Rilke, Neruda's Residencia en la tierra and French poetic tradition, the confluence of neo-romanticism and surrealism is the dominant shared parentage of their poetry, manifested in the their expressions of melancholy, pessimism, rebellion and longing for infinitude (Ferna? ndez Moreno 227). With their romantic tone and turbulent, grandiloquent first-person poetic subject, Girri's earliest books-- Playa sola (1946) and Coronacio? n de la espera (1947), in particular-- coincide with this aesthetic trend, but these characteristics fade in his following collections.
12Cadenas is associated with the Venezuelan "generacio? n del 60" whose most prominent poets--Alfredo Silva Estrada, Guillermo Sucre, Luis Garcia Morales, Alfredo Chaco? n, Rafael Jose? Mun? oz, Juan Calzadilla, Caupolica? n Ovalles, Vi? ctor Valera Mora, Gustavo Pereira, Hesnor Rivera, Amoldo Acosta Bello, Francisco Pe? rez Perdomo and Jose? Barroeta-- generally follow one or more of these four poetic lines: 1) linguistic and political subversion; 2) surrealist and oneiric experimentation; 3) telluric expression; and 4) formalist/ textualist/ transcendentalist approaches (Miranda 103-4). These poets also formed several important groups-- Cantaclaro, Sardio, El Techo de la Ballena, Tro? pico Uno and Tabla Redonda-- that produced collective manifestos and magazines. Cadenas was a founding member of the leftist Tabla Redonda
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? group (1959-61), affiliated with the Communist party, which was founded to "1. Denunciar con voz revolucionaria la realidad venezolana. 2. Oponerse a las tendencias intelectualistas de algunos grupos literarios. 3. Defender la libertad del creador" (Vera 43). Cadenas later renounced his political affiliations, and his publications from Falsas maiobras (1966) on approach poetry as an ascetic search for individual authenticity.
13 Chronologically, Cadenas' poetic oeuvre is composed of: Cantos iniciales (1946), Una isla (1958), Los cuadernos del destierro (1960, 2001), Derrota (1966), Falsas maniobras (1966), Intemperie (1977), Memorial (1977), Amante (1983), Dichos (1992), Gestiones (1992), and Obra entera. Poesi? ay prosa (Editorial Pre- Textos, 2007; Fondo de Cultura Econo? mica, 2000, 2010).
14For an analysis of Foucault's critique of humanism and the concept of Man as it relates to the Latin American tradition and particularly to Borges, see Zavala.
15 Foucault describes the construction of Man through three doublets, or binary oppositions that structure humanistic thought: 1) an empirico-transcendental doublet; 2) the cogito and the unthought; 3) the retreat and return of the origin. Dreyfus and Rabinow elaborate on these categories: "(1) as a fact among other facts to be studied empirically, and yet as the transcendental condition of the possibility of all knowledge; (2) as surrounded by what he cannot get clear about (the unthought), and yet as a potentially lucid cogito, source of all intelligibility; and (3) as the product of a long history whose beginning he can never reach and yet, paradoxically as the source of that very history" (31).
16All translations are mine unless otherwise indicated.
17Heidegger attempts to ask the question of Being explicitly, not in terms of beings themselves (the ontic), or a conceptualization of Being in terms of a highest being. In his earlier works, Heidegger seeks a meaning of Being, but then reformulates his question in the 1930s as an inquiry into the truth of Being. Truth (aletheia) is understood as the way in which the world is opened up, or in other words, the process whereby the horizon within which beings appear is produced. This process and horizon, Heidegger specifies, is historically conditioned, and epochal: "There is Being only in this or that particular historical character: physis, logos, en, idea, energeia, Substantiality, Objectivity, Subjectivity, the Will, the Will to Power, the Will to Will. [. . . ] The manner in which it, Being, gives itself, is itself determined by the way in which it clears itself" (Identity and Difference 66-67). This part of Heideggers thought-- a historical, as opposed to a transcendental approach to Being-- is not far from Foucault's epistemological periodization of knowledge. 18Heidegger's quaternary description of the world, whose terms originate from a poem by Holderlin, has often been criticized by scholars as a flight of poetic fancy in its description of the interrelatedness of things. Graham Harman, however, evocatively suggests that the "fourfold"-- instead of an arbitrary number of categories to classify the things of the world-- is a means to describe the "structure of reality itself" (176) in which "earth" and "sky" are the respective terms for the universal processes of revealing and concealing, and "divinities" and "mortals" are terms that capture how this dualism operates at the ontic level (see Chapter Two, "Beyond Being and Time," particularly section 18 "The Fourfold"). Both understandings of the fourfold, however, are useful in approaching Girri's and Cadenas' poetry.
19I would like to highlight, following Alain Badiou, that the field of cultural studies is possible because of its grounding in a particular humanism of Man that emanates from the hegemonic logic of late capitalism (Ethics 4--5) that, in his view, neutralizes alternative philosophical inquiries. As Foucault suggests, true thinking today is only possible within "the void left by man's disappearance" (The Order o f Things 343). See also Badiou's discussion of the disappearance of Man and God in Le Siecle (243-51).
20 Many studies test Edward Said's classic model of Orientalism in the Hispanic context, concluding that most Latin American authors do not partake in the power dynamics, cultural representations and political doctrines that constitute Said's definition. See: Tinajero (2004) and Kushigian (1991). Few critics have examined in a systematic fashion the appropriation and adaptation of Eastern philosophical concepts by
Latin American authors.
21 See the following books that explore the connections between Heidegger and Eastern philosophies and religious traditions: May (1996) and Parkes (1990).
Works Cited
Alfonzo Perdomo, Ilis M. Rafael Cadenas, o, La poesi? a como existencia. Ejercicio de aproximacio? n a Los cuadernos del destierro, Falsas maniobras, Intemperiey Memorial. Caracas: Contexto Editores, 1996.
