Among them, the second and seventh [through which the root takes form as an inflected word and gender takes form as an inflected wordtl together are the common
substratum
(samanadhikarar;a) of affixation and the declensions (vibhakti).
Dudjom Rinpoche - Fundamentals and History of the Nyingmapa
2, v.
202cd and Ch.
lO, v.
458cd) says:
When the mind becomes transformed There is neither vehicle nor mover.
Therefore, one should know that the statement of an exact, definitive order, saying "all such teachings necessarily have this but not that as their sole limit" is an indication that the manifestations of the intellect have not been turned in the direction of the genuine abiding reality.
In this [Nyingmapa tradition], for the while, the vehicle is precisely enumerated in nine sequences. Accordingly, the Tantra of the Great Natural Arising of Awareness says:
There are siltras and extensive teachings And extremely extensive teachings.
The extremely extensive teachings
Are the inconceivable eighty-four thousand
[components] ,
An exceedingly vast number,
Inconceivable and immeasurable,
Ineffable and most unthinkable.
The extensive teachings, in the same way)--
Are held to have nine divisions:
Those of pious attendants and self-centred buddhas,
Transmitted Precepts 87
And similarly bodhisattvas,
The Kriya and the Ubhaya
And likewise the Yoga vehicles are explained; Then the Mahayoga and the Anuyoga
And likewise the Great Perfection, Atiyoga. Explained in nine such divisions
Is the great teaching of the doctrine.
So this is the way that the vehicle which disciplines those requiring training was proportionately revealed, divided into three groups of three for situations involving those of lowest, middling and superior acumen.
It is said in the Great Array of the Highest:
The doctrines of my teaching
Were revealed in two stages
Through greater and lesser distinctions
Among the intellectual degrees of sentient beings. Each has its own view and basic position.
These respective views are classified into the erroneous and the genuine, the latter of which is outlined as follows in the same text:
The genuine [view] has three stages.
For those of lesser and greater intellect,
And likewise for those of middling intellect,
It is revealed in three stages.
The three lesser kinds
Are the doctrines corresponding to the following
intellects:
That of the pious attendants for those polluted by ideas, That of self-centred buddhas for the perceptive,
And that of bodhisattvas for those who penetrate ideas. As for the teaching given to those of the three middling
[intellects] ,
The KriyiHantra is for the lowest,
The Caryatantra is for the low,
And the Yogatantra for those endowed with [higher]
consciousness.
For those endowed with the three greater degrees [of intelligence], '
The creation [of Mahayoga] is for those who have transcended mind,
The perfection [of Anuyoga] is for those having the essence of mind[-as-such],
And Great Perfection is for [those intent on] That which is supreme and most secret.
The vehicle of the gods and the vehicle of Brahma. . .
5 Treatises
rebirth. Inother it ofrefinement
d protection, It IS a treatIse. Such IS SaId In the Ratzonal System of an . ' 66
EXposltlO n :
That which refines the enemies, conflicting emotions, without exception,
And affords protection from rebirth in evil existences, Is a treatise, for it has the attributes of refinement and
protection.
Treatises having both these attributes do not exist in
other traditions.
The treatises are classified in six ways according to: (1) the standard of their composition, (2) the purpose of their composition, (3) their individual composers, (4) the manner of their composition, (S) the transmitted precepts which they explain, and (6) the meaning which they express.
[28a. S-41a. 6] The definitive order of the treatises which comment on the intention [of these transmitted precepts] is explained under three headings: characteristic, verbal definition and classification.
Primarily, for one who is motivated by the thought of composing treatises, a mere treatise is characterised as an authoritative doctrine set forth in order that the philosophical system of one's own inclination might be revealed to others. Some which possess four special attributes are characterised as pure treatises, while those lacking any of the four special attributes are characterised as ostensible treatises.
The four special attributes are the attribute of motivation, when a composer ofundistracted mind is motivated by discriminative awareness realised in words and their meaning, and by compassion which desires to benefit others; the attribute of expressive words which form refined metrical verses; the attribute of the expressed meaning which teaches the essential means for those requiring training, who aspire to liberation; and the attribute of purposeful composition which has the power [to inspire] the attainment of liberation by study of and reflection upon those words. The Supreme Continuum of the Greater Vehicle (Ch. S, v. 19) says:
There are some who teach with undistracted mind, Referring solely to the Conqueror, the Teacher, Conforming to the path which attains to liberation. Let them be reverently accepted
Like the Sage's transmitted precepts.
Concerning the verbal definition, the [Tibetan] word bstan-bcos [or treatise] is derived from [the Sanskrit] sastra, which is a compound of sasana, to refine [or instruct], and of traya, to protect. A treatise is so called because in its causal aspect it refines the three poisonous conflict- ing emotions into the possession of the three trainings, and in its result-
ant aspect it offers protection from the suffering of evil existences and
TREA TISES
ACCORDING
TO THE
ST ANDARD
OF COMPOSITION
Firstly, when classified according to the standard of their composition, there are four kinds of treatise. As the Binding of the Chapters of the Gathering of the Sugatas (bde-'dus-kyi sa-gcod tshoms-kyi chings) says:
One should know that there are four kinds of treatise: The meaningless, the low in meaning, the erroneous, and the meaningful.
The meaningless [treatises] are exemplified by a treatise on dentistry crows those which are low in meaning y treatIses of the four common sciences, the erroneous by the of the eternalistic extremists who are Outsiders, and the mean-
Ingful by the treatises of the inner science of the Buddhists.
[oihen,. in the Yogacara Lez:el (Yogacarabhami, T 403S), nine kinds treatIse] are explained:
The meaningless, erroneous and the meaningful;
The hypocritical, the merciless and those which renounce suffering;
devoted to worldly study, polemics and attainment: hese are the nine kinds of treatise.
When divid d .
of ea h e Into these three groups of three, the first two members
group are ostensible treatises of low standard, while the last er of each group is a genuine treatise of high standard.
Treatises 89
90 Fundamentals: Doctrines ofSalflsiira and Nirvii1Ja
Treatises 91
TREATISES ACCORDING TO THE PURPOSE OF COMPOSITION
Secondly, when classified according to the purpose oftheir composition, there are three sorts of treatise: those which summarise the vast meaning of the transmitted precepts, those which rectify disorder [concerning the doctrine], and those which disclose profundity. Basic examples of these three are respectively the Compendium of the Abhidharma (Abhidharmasamuccaya, T 4049), the Root Sutra of the Vinaya (Vinaya- mulasutra, T 4117), and the Supreme Continuum ofthe Greater Vehicle.
are earliest among the commentaries. But this is doubtful for the follow- ing reason: Just as there is a distinct Abhidharmapitaka in the greater vehicle, so also the pious attendants must have had one, and the doubt arises that there is surely no reason for [the pious attendants] to have had the other two pitaka in their separate volumes but not the
Abhidharma. Hence, the tradition of the would seem to be correct.
Supreme scholars say that the great master Vasubandhu71 maintained the Sautrantika view and therefore held these [Seven Sections] to be basic examples of treatises composed by arhats. Elsewhere, there are some who talk meaninglessly, saying the Seven Sections are not transmit- ted precepts because they many errors, and that rather they
were composed by the likes of Sariputra. Such talk would seem to be extremely foolish, for if such great arhats as the Supreme Pair [Sariputra and Maudgalyayana] who had been produced by the Teacher himself, through his emanational power, had misinterpreted the transmitted precepts, there would be no referential basis for recognising any genuine witness [to the Buddha's teaching] because the genuine witness would have all but come to an end. And if even the arhats had not seen the
truth, it is implicit that there would have been no individual who saw the truth in the tradition of the pious attendants.
Furthermore, the treatises composed upon the teaching given by
sublime bodhisattvas are exemplified by the extensive treatises of the
Five Sections ofthe Levels,72 and the abbreviated treatises known as the
Two Summations, namely, the Compendium of the Abhidharma and the
Collection of the Greater Vehicle (Mahiiyiinasan:zgraha, T 4048), all of
which were composed by the sublime Asailga who was abiding on the third level. 73
The treatises which were composed after prophetic declarations had been obtained from the meditational deities are exemplified by Dig- naga's74 Compendium of Valid Cognition (Pramii1Jasamuccaya, T 4203) and the Seven Treasuries ofthe Scriptures (gsung-rab mdzod-bdun) by the great all-knowing Longcen Rapjampa.
The treatises which were composed by ordinary learned panditas to advocate their own philosophical systems and to reject the ideas of others are exemplified by the Eight Dissertations (Astaprakarana/5 composed by the best of scholars Vasubandhu. . . .
Therefore, when the are classified according to the individu- als who composed them, they are gathered into these five divisions.
TREATISES ACCORDING TO THE MANNER OF THEIR COMPOSITION
FOUrth, when treatises are classified according to the manner of their composition, they fall into two categories: those which are labelled as
TREA TISES
ACCORDING TO
THEIR
INDIVIDUAL
COMPOSERS
Thirdly, when classified according to their individual composers, there are five kinds. The treatises composed upon the teaching given by perfect buddhas are exemplified by the Five Transmissions ofthe Gather- ing of the Sugatas (bde-'dus-kyi lung-Inga), which were composed by Vajradharma,68 and the Five Doctrines ofMaitreya (byams-chos sde-Inga).
The treatises composed upon the teaching given by arhats are exemplified by the Seven Sections of the Abhidharma (mngon-pa sde- bdun). Concerning the Seven Sections, the Commentaries on the Treasury of the Abhidharma (Abhidharmakosabhiisya)69 says:
It is reported that the Components of the Doctrine (Dharmaskandha) is by Sariputra,
The Treatise on Description (Prajiiaptisiistra) is by Maudgalyayana,
The Body of the Elemental Bases (Dhiitukiiya) is by purl). a,
The Body of Consciousness (Vijiiiinakiiya) is by Devasarman,
The Entrance to Knowledge (Jiiiinaprasthiina) is by Katyayanaputra,
The Dissertation (Prakara1Japiida) is by Vasumitra, And the Enumeration of Classes (San:zgftiparyiiya) is by
70
According to the tradition of the since the teachings given in fragments by the Teacher in different places and times to different individuals were compiled by the likes of Sariputra, they are transmitted precepts similar to the Collection of Meaningful Expression. Therefore, they say that the Treasury ofDetailed Exposition is earliest among the commentaries. According to the Sautrantika; however, the Seven Sections of the Abhidharma were formulated by ordinary pious attendants. They hold the compilation of these words of the Teacher by arhats to be an ill rumour and say therefore that the Seven Sections
92 Fundamentals: Doctrines ofSa1? lsara and NirzxlrJa
Treatises 93
commentaries on the transmitted precepts themselves, and those which are composed independently on the meaning of the transmitted pre- cepts.
The former treatises are also of four kinds. Those which establish both word and meaning in detail are the extensive commentaries such as the Commentary on the Satra in Fifty Sections T 4 1 0 6 ) , a n d t h e g r e a t c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e Kalacakra Tantra entitled the Taintless Light (Vimalaprabha, T 845). Those which explain the words in conjunction with annotations are verbal commentaries such as the Commentary on the Collection ofMean- ingful Expressions (Udanavargavrtti, T 4100), and the Commentary on the Secret Nucleus entitled Dispelling Darkness in the Ten Directions (snying- 'grel phyogs-bcu mun-sel). Those which disclose points which are hard to understand are the commentaries on difficulties such as the Comment- ary on the Verse Summation ofthe Transcendental Perfection ofDiscriminat- ive Awareness (Saficayagiithapafijika, T 3798 or T 3792). And those which subsume and establish the primary meaning are the commentaries of summarised meaning such as Vimalamitra's Condensed Commentary on the Secret Nucleus (GuhyagarbhapirJejartha, P 4755), and the Chapter- less Commentary on the Supplementary Magical Net (le-Iag-gi sa-rna 'grel) by the great Rongzompa.
The latter category of treatises composed independently on the mean- ing of the transmitted precepts are of three kinds. Those which com- pletely teach the meaning of one transmitted precept are exemplified by the Root Sutra of the Vinaya, the Ornament of Emergent Realisation (Abhisamayala1? lkara, T 3786), and Buddhaguhya's Sequence ofthe Path of the Magical Net. Those which teach the meaning of a fragmentary transmitted precept are exemplified by the Stanzas on the Novitiate (Sramanerakarika, T 4124). And those which teach the meaning of many transmitted precepts are exemplified by Santideva's76 Com- pendium of Lessons T 3939-40) and the all-knowing Jikme Lingpa's77 Precious Treasury of Enlightened Attributes (yon-tan mdzod).
TREATISES ACCORDING TO THE TRANSMITTED PRECEPTS THEY EXPLAIN
Fifth, when classified according to the transmitted precepts which they explain, those treatises which comment on the transmitted precepts as a whole include commentaries on their verbal structure such as the grammatical treatises of the Kalapasutra (T 4282) and"the Grammar of Candragomin (CandravyakararJa, T 4269), and Gommentaries on their meaning such as the Seven Sections ofValid Cognition [by Dharmaklrtif8 and the Sutra [i. e. the Compendium of Valid Cognition by Dignaga].
Then, there are those which comment on the intention ofthe different particular promulgations of the transmitted precepts. Commentaries on the intention of the first promulgation of the doctrinal wheel are divided into those which establish the view, those which establish con- duct and those which establish the integration of view and conduct.
The first [those which establish the view] are exemplified by the Treasury ofthe Abhidharma. After an introduction which gives the de- finitive order of the body [of the text], the first of its eight chapters teaches the objects of perception, the components, psychophysical bases and activity fields. The second teaches the nature of the sense organs and the manner in which things that are compounded arise, along with their causal basis, conditions and results. The third teaches the truth of origination of the world, the container and its contents, [which
experience] the truth of suffering. The fourth teaches of [world-forming] deeds, and the fifth the definitive order of the conflicting emotions. The sixth, teaching of paths and individuals, reveals how the path is experientially cultivated. The seventh reveals the manner in which complete knowledge of the result is attained; and the eighth teaches the definitive order of the concentrative absorptions and so forth, be- cause they are necessary to support the truth of the path which is the antidote expounded previously in the sixth chapter.
Secondly, those commentaries which teach the aspect of conduct are
exemplified by the Root Sutra ofthe Vinaya. This text details the seven-
teen pada [of the Vinayavastu, T 1], the first of which teaches the
ordination of a renunciate (pravrajya). Thereafter, based on the sixteen
remaining pada and the Two Analyses [of the Vows of Monks and Nuns
- T 3 and T 5], it explains the
Vinaya instructions of the Supreme Text (Vinaya-uttaragrantha, T 7),
the Analyses, and so forth, with suitable excerpts from the chapters of
the Minor Transmissions. These commentaries are also exemplified by
the Flower Garland o/the Vinaya (Vinayapu$pamala, T 4123) which,
based on the Analyses, explains the Vinaya in conjunction with various other quotations.
Thirdly, those commentaries which teach the integration of view and
are exemplified by the Great Treasury of Detailed Exposition,
III which it is the meaning of the philosophy of the Vaibhasika that is
explained in detail. This text is said to have been composed in the time
79
by all the arhats in common, and there are also some
of Upagupta
hold it to be the work of Yasal). , Sarvakamin and others. The
Ibetans have confused these two reports, claiming that it was composed five hundred arhats such as Sarvakamin and Kubjita at the Narttaka Vlhara in the Northern Vindhya Mountains. Actually, it would seem correct to say that the words of these arhats were transmitted by the
elders (sthavira) from ear to ear in one continuous arrangement and later written down. '
94 Fundamentals: Doctrines ofSarrzsara and Nirvar;a
Treatises 95
Again, the commentaries on the intention of the intermediate promul- gation of the doctrinal wheel are also divided into treatises which estab- lish the view, those which establish conduct and those which establish the integration of view and conduct.
First, [those which establish the view] are exemplified by Nagar- juna's80 Collection ofMadhyamaka Reasoning (dbu-ma rigs-tshogs). There are four such collections of reasoning which refute the elaborate ex- tremes that others seek to prove, namely, the Root Stanzas on the Madhyamaka entitled Discriminative Awareness (Prajiianamamula- madhyamakakarika, T 3824), the Sixty Verses on Reason T 3825), the Seventy Verses on Emptiness (Sunyatasaptati, T 3827), and the Refutation of Disputed Topics (Vigrahavyavartanf, T 3828). Then,
with the inclusion of the Technique of Pulverisation (Vaidalyasutra, T 3826), a collection of reasons which refute the arguments of sophists, there are reputed to be five collections of reasoning; or six with the further addition ofthe Vindication ofConventional Truth (Vyavaharasid- dhi) which teaches that, although ultimately there is no substantial existence, conventions are valid with reference to relative appearances.
None the less, according to the intention ofthe Clearly Worded Comment-
ary, the enumeration of five collections of reasoning is said to be
correct. 81
Secondly, those commentaries which teach conduct are exemplified
by the Introduction to the Conduct ofa Bodhisattva (Bodhisattvacaryava- tara, T 3871) by Santideva. This text teaches in ten chapters: the beneficial attributes of the enlightened mind; the importance of the repentance of sins; the seizing of the enlightened mind; vigilance with respect to [the enlightened mind]; the guarding of awareness of the present; [the transcendental perfections of] patience; perseverance;
meditation; and discriminative awareness; and the dedication of merit. Thirdly, those commentaries which teach the integration of view and conduct are exemplified by the Ornament ofEmergent Realisation. This
text affirms (Ch. 1, v. 4) that:
The transcendental perfection of discriminative
awareness
Is correctly explained through eight topics.
Accordingly, the eight topics are the three concerned with the entry into objective understanding [namely, understanding all aspects of omnis- cience - rnam-mkhyen, Skt. sarvakarajiulna; the understanding of the path _ lam-shes-nyid, Skt. margajiiata; and understanding all bases of omni- science - thams-cad shes-pa-nyid, Skt. sarvajiiata]; the four concerned with the entry into the properties of the doctrine [namely, manifestly realizing
all aspects of omniscience - rnam-kun mngon-rdzogs rtogs-pa, Skt. sar- vakarabhisambodha; the reaching of the summit of existence - rtse-mor phyin-pa, Skt. murdhabhisamaya; the culmination of sarpsara - mthar-
gyis-pa, Skt. anupurvabhisamaya; and the instantaneous perfect en- lightenment - skad-cig-ma-gcig-gis mngon-rdzogs byang-chub-paJi sbyor- ba, Skt. and the buddha-body of reality (chos-sku, Skt. dharmakaya) which is the result of these entrances. These eight topics are established through seventy points.
Then, the commentaries on the intention of the final transmitted pre- cepts, the third promulgation of the doctrinal wheel, are also divided into treatises which establish the view, those which establish conduct and those which establish the integration of view and conduct.
First, [those which establish the view] are exemplified by the Supreme Continuum of the Greater Vehicle and the Two Analyses [the Analysis of the Middle and Extremes, Skt. Madhyantavibhanga, T 4021, and the Analysis of Phenomena and Reality, Skt. Dharmadharmatavibhanga, T 4022]. In the Supreme Continuum of the Greater Vehicle (Ch. 1, v. 1), it is stated that:
Buddha, doctrine, community, seed and enlightenment, Enlightened attributes and finally activities of the
Buddha:
The body of this entire treatise when condensed Consists of these seven topics of indestructible reality.
Accordingly, this text establishes seven topics: the Three Precious Jewels, their causal basis or seed which is the nucleus of the tathagata (tathagatagarbha), its result which consists of enlightenment, the sixty- four enlightened attributes, and the enlightened activities of the buddhas. The Analysis of the Middle and Extremes dispels the extremes of existence and non-existence, or of eternalism and nihilism, and then teaches the path. The Analysis ofPhenomena and Reality teaches the distinct- Hons between the apparitional reality or phenomena of samsara and reality of nirva1). a. 82 In this way, these two are or vzbhanga.
Secondly, those commentaries which teach conduct are exemplified
by the Twenty Verses on the Bodhisattva Vow (Bodhisattvasam-
varavirrzsaka, T 4081). This text establishes the four root downfal"ts
and forty-six transgressions which confront a bodhisattva of average ability.
Thirdly, those which teach the integration of view and conduct are exemplified by the Ornament of the Sutras of the Greater Vehicle. Its twenty-one chapters, beginning with the "Proof of the Transmitted of t? e Greater . vehicle" establish [ hIS mtegratIOn] accordmg to ten categones such as [the gradation of] the families (gotra), volition with respect to the doctrine (dharma- Paryegya) and so on.
96 Fundamentals: Doctrines ofSaJ? lsara and Nirva7Ja
Similarly, with reference to the Fourth PiTaka, or the PiTaka of the Awareness-holders, also, there are treatises which comment on the intention of the four or six classes of tantra. For example, the master Padmasambhava's Garland of Views: A Collection of Esoteric Instructions and Kawa Peltsek's83 Seventeenfold Appearance of the Sequence of the View are representative ofthose which teach the view. LIlavajra's Clarifi- cation ofCommitments (Samayavivyakti, P 4744) exemplifies those which
teach conduct, and the master Buddhaguhya's Sequence of the Path of the Magical Net84 exemplifies those which teach the integration of view and conduct.
TREATISES ACCORDING TO THE MEANING THEY EXPRESS
Sixth when the treatises are classified according to the meaning they there are those which teach quantitatively, qualitatively, and those which teach the means for attammg lIberation and omniscience.
6 Quantitative Treatises
The treatises which teach quantitatively are both common and uncom- mon.
COMMON
QUANTIT A TIVE
TREA TISES
The common sort are exemplified by the treatise on worldly behaviour entitled the Point of Human Sustenance T 4330) a n d CaJ)akya's85 Treatise on the Behaviour o f Kings (Ca7Jakyarajanftisastra, T 4334). Although these are actually the causal bases for birth in the higher realms [of gods and humans], one may still proceed through them to [a rebirth which is] receptive to liberation. It is said in the Hundred Verses on Discriminative Awareness (Prajiia- satakanamaprakara7Ja, T 4328):
If human traditions are well practised,
Progress to the god realms is not far distant.
If one ascends the stairway of the gods and men, One is close to liberation.
The common treatises also include the eight subjects of scrutiny, con- cerning which [Rongzompa]86 says:
These are the scrutiny of precious gems, land, Garments, trees, horses, elephants, men and women.
UNCOMMON QUANTIT A TIVE TREA TISES
The Outer Sciences
[34? 2-40b. 4] The uncommon sort of [quantitative] treatises are those whIch emphatically establish the first four sciences. In the Sutra Repaid
98 Fundamentals: Doctrines ofSarrzsara and NirvaIJa
with Gratitude (thabs-mkhas-pa chen-po sangs-rgyas drin-Ian bsab-pa'i
mdo, T 353) it is said:
If a bodhisattva does not study the five sciences, he can never obtain all-knowing pristine cognition in the unsurpas- sed, genuine and perfect enlightenment. This being the case, in order to obtain unsurpassed enlightenment, the five sci- ences should be studied.
And in the Yogacara Level:
If one were to ask what are the five sciences, they are as follows: the sciences of medicine, logic, grammar and ar- tistic crafts, in addition to the inner science [of Buddhism].
The necessity of training in the first four of these sciences is also mentioned by the regent Ajita [Maitreya, in the Ornament ofthe SLltras of the Greater Vehicle, Ch. 11, v. 60c]:
In this way they eradicate [the faults] of others And bring them into the fold.
Thus grammar and logic are the two sciences which respectively eradi- cate wrong understanding in the words and meaning of others, while art and medicine are the two which respectively bring into the fold seekers of many useful skills in general, and the advantage of sound health in particular.
The Arts
Since the arts gather within them the other three, it is opportune first to explain the science of the arts. If one were to wonder how this gathering comes about, then it has been said:
Through emphasising the body, the speech or neither, The arts are divided into those of body, of speech and of
mind.
Accordingly, those emphasising movements of the body and expressions of speech, which are related to the mind, are assigned to the arts of body and speech, while those in which the mind refers to thought alone, unrelated to those two, are called the arts of the mind. For this reason, the arts contain infinite means of attaining many useful skills such as the sixty-four crafts explained in the commentaries on the Scam ofExtensive Play (Lalitavistarasfitra, T 95) and the Minor Transmissions, the thirty designated arts, the eighteen appendages of music such as dancing and drama, the seven harmonious tones beginning with the middle tone and the tone of the sages, and the nine dramatic airs such as erotic grace - all of which are explained in the Mahavyutpatti
Quantitath'e Treatises 99
(T eighteen artistic techniques explained in the sutras; and the eIght subjects of scrutiny.
Supreme . among the arts of the body, in particular, are the methods of constuctmg the receptacles and contents which represent the Tathagata's body, speech and mind [i. e. images, books and stlipas]. Supreme among the arts of speech are the songs of praise in the form of offerings to the conquerors, and supreme among the arts of the mind are the extraordinary aspects of discriminative awareness88 produced by processes of thought such as study, reflection and meditation. The
textual traditi? n . which teaches these art forms comprises the Slltra Requested by Sarzputra (Sariputra$? aka, P 5812), scriptures such as the Tantra (T 3621 and the Emergence of Cakrasarrlvara (Srf- mahasarrzvarodayatantraraja, T 373), along with their commentaries the. Notebook on Iconomeuy T 4316) whIch was composed by the Atreya, the Alchemical Transmutation into Gold (Rasayanasastroddhrti, T 4314) and other such artistic treatises.
Medicine
The second of the sCienc. es, medicine, is exemplified by Yutokpa's
Co. mmentary on the Intentwn of the Four Glorious Tamras of Aledical
SCIence. (dpal-ldan rgyud-bzhi'i dgongs-pa bkral-pa, SP Vol. 72). 89 The
Exegetzcal Tantra on the Eight Divisions ofMedicine ryan-lag bshad-rgyud, the second of the Four Tantras] says:
In order to maintain health and heal sickness in the human body,
Superior the classes of living And to attam longevIty, the wealth of the doctrine and
happiness,
The topics of medical science, when condensed
Are explained under these four headings: '
That which is to be healed and the remedy which heals The mode of healing and the healer. '
that which is to be healed includes the disease and the
the remedy which heals includes regimen, medication and diag-
the of healing or therapy include the prolonging of life ree
h from dIsease and the healing of sickness when it occurs and the ealer includes the doctor and the nurses. These are also
and taught in S- , E· h D· . .
h d . ura s Ig t IVIswns of Medical Science [Astanga-
r ayasarrzhua, T 4310 by Vagbhata]. 9o . .
Grammar
'.
e SCIences, grammar, IS exemplIfied by the eight great
The third f th g . 0
.
rammatical sl1tras which, as explained in the Cornmentary of Panini
100 Fundamentals: Doctrines o fS arrzsara and N irvar;a
Quantitati'De Treatises 101
(Par;inivyakarar;asutra, T 4420), were known in India, or, in particular, by the treatises and instructions of the Kalapasutra and the Grammar ofCandragomin which are known here in Tibet like the sun and moon.
The common purpose ofgrammar is [the utilisation of] nouns, words and syllables. As the Ornamental Flower of Speech (smra-ba rgyan-gyi me-tog) says:
The support for the teaching of both
The essence alone and its distinctive attributes Comprises nouns, words and syllables.
Then, the distinctive meaning [of grammar] is stated in the Clear Nucleus Grammar (brda'-sprod snying-po gsal-ba):
Natural stems, affixation and morphological changes Are the concepts to be expressed in grammatical texts.
Now, the basis on which various morphological changes (rnam-'gyttr) are made by means of affixation (rkyen) is the natural stem (rang-bzhin). And when it is classified:
There are natural roots and nouns among which The former contains the meaning of the verb. [The latter] comprises the three genders,
With final vowels and consonants.
Both of these natural grammatical forms [roots and nouns] are subject to affixation or the adjuncts of grammar which cause nouns, words and phrases to be appropriately formed. There are in this respect seven kinds of affixation through which the root takes form as gender, the root takes form as an inflected word, the root takes form as a root, gender takes form as gender, nominal stems take form as nominal stems, gender takes form as a root, and gender takes form as an inflected word.
Among them, the second and seventh [through which the root takes form as an inflected word and gender takes form as an inflected wordtl together are the common substratum (samanadhikarar;a) of affixation and the declensions (vibhakti). Tense and meaning are dif- ferentiated by means of the second kind of inflection through which roots endowed with tense-affixes (ti-adi) take form as words. Mor- phological change therefore includes strengthening and elision which result from the conjunction of natural stems and inflections, or of the interconnecting syllables. As the great Pang Lotsawa [Lodro Tenpa] has said:
Strengthening and elision are morphological changes Which occur by conjunction of natural stems and affixes, Or by conjunction of the syllables alone.
Furthermore, the basic paradigms are revealed by the rules for euphonic
conjunction (sandhi), the tables of nouns, the rules for syllabic quantity (vrtta) and so forth, while their branches include the paradigms of the verbal roots, prepositional prefixes (upasarga) and suffixes (ur;adi). 92
Dignaga
Logic
The fourth of the sciences, logic, is explained according to eight cate- gories of dialectics. As the Compendium of Valid Cognition (Prama- 1Jasamuccayavrtti, T 4204, Ch. l, v. 2) says:
Direct perception and inference, Along with their invalid forms, Are for one's own understanding. Proof and refutation
Along with their invalid forms Cause others to understand. 93
In this way, each of the four - direct perception, inference, formal argument and reductio ad absurdum - is ascertained to have both valid and invalid forms, [making eight categories]. When they are condensed, they are gathered under two headings: the means of comprehending
102 Fundamentals: DoctrinesofSalflsaraandNirvarJ,a
that which is to be appraised by oneself, and the means of communicat- ing that comprehension to others.
Now since the same text says:
The characteristic is one of infallible knowledge94
logic is characteristically said to be reason which is infallible with respect to the objects of one's own experience as they newly arise. Therefore, it establishes an epistemic standard for making appraisals, in the manner of a measuring container or a scale-balance. There are three kinds of objects to be appraised, namely, the directly evident, the indirectly evident, and the indirectly evident to an extreme degree. As for their means of appraisal: There are three kinds of direct percep- tions for appraising directly evident objects, namely, the direct percep- tion of the sense organs, the direct perception of intrinsic awareness, ' and the direct perception of yoga. There are three logical axioms of implicit inference for the appraisal and proof of the indirectly evident objects, namely, the axiom of the result, the axiom of identity and the axiom of absence of the objective referent. 95 The axiom concerning those objects of appraisal which are indirectly evident to an extreme degree necessarily relies on scriptural authority of which the purity is established by three types of scrutiny, for it is not proven by the [other] two kinds of axiom - direct perception and implicit inference.
The treatises of logic are exemplified by the Sutra of Valid Cognition which was composed by the master Dignaga, and the commentaries on its intention, the Seven Sections of Valid Cognition, which were composed by the glorious Dharmaklrti. Among them, the dissertations (prakararJ,a) of the Seven Sections include three treatises which are com- parable to the main body [of the Sutra] , namely, the extensive Exposition of Valid Cognition, the intermediate Ascertainment of Valid Cognition (PramarJ,aviniscaya, T 4211), and the condensed Point of Reason (Nya- yabindu, T 4212). And they also include four treatises which proceed from them, comparable to the separate limbs, namely, the Point of the Axioms (Hetubindu, T 4213) and the Inquiry into Relations (Samban- T 4214), which proceed from [the topic] concerning infer- ence for one's own sake; and the ProofofOther Minds (Salfltanantarasid- dhi, T 4219) and the Reasoning of Polemics (Vadanyaya, T 4218), which proceed from [the topic] concerning inference for others' sake.
Again, there are certain great scholars who say that the logical treatises
are treatises of the inner science [of the true doctrine] because they
belong to the Abhidharmapitaka, but this would appear to be incor-
96
rect.
resembling the following quotation from the Compendium of Valid Cog- nition (Ch. 6):
By means of the true expression of logic and of objects which are to be appraised, the tenets of the extremists are [seen to
Quantitative Treatises 103 be] without essence. This [treatise] has been composed in
order to oppose those who cling to their view. Yet <: h·
. . , lor t IS
very reason, It IS not concerned with providing an entrance
to the teaching; for his doctrine is not an object of SophIstry.
And also [PramarJ,asamuccayakarika, T 4203, Ch. 6]: The idea that one is lead to reality
By the path of sophistry
Is very remote from the teaching of the Sage.
We think as much because in many sources statements are found
Dharmakfrti
Minor Sciences
[38aA-40b. 4] Th
nated as branches remam. fi:e mmor sciences which are desig- been said: eIther the artIstIc or the grammatical sciences. It has
As for the quintet of astrology, poetics, Prosody, synonymics and drama
Their in India as the "five sciences" Resounded lIke a banner in the wind.
. . .
104 Fundamentals: DoctrinesofSa1? lsaraandNirvalJa Astrology
Among these five, concerning astrology: There are ten planets demarcat- ing celestial longitude, along with the moving band of constellations and
97
Quantitative Treatises 105
topics, subsumes the techniques throu h h' h
formed the meaning desired in all w IC t? e masters of the past that body of verse prose and m' d expreSSIOns, and embellished
, Ixe verse and prose I th M'
with reference to the objective basis [of space], and the
Poetics(Ch. l,vv. lO-llab)itsays:
They excellently reveal the body And also the ornaments of poetics. The body is the string of words Determining the desired meaning'
It consists both of verse and Or of a blend of verse and prose.
And (Ch. 2, v. lab):
The features which embellish poetry Are well expressed as ornaments.
. n e zrrorof
lunar mansions
years, months, days, and two-hour periods
which basis celestial longitude is determined. Astrology is a procedure for correctly determining the degrees of celestial longitude demarcated by these [planets and constellations] and their quarterly aspects (rkang-pa). As a direct result of this, with reference to their cyclical motion, the cal- culations of the ascendent conjunctions in the sky are explained along with the calendrical cycle ofthe four seasons on earth, the rising and set- ting of the planets through their respective aspects, the eclipsing of the sun and moon through orbital direction, and the fading and rising of malign circumstances which occur in accordance with the respective celestial longitudes [of the planets and constellations].
When abbreviated, astrology is gathered under the two headings of that which is to be calculated and the calculation. Such are the astrolo- gical treatises which follow the Commentary on the Kalacakra Tantra, the Commentary on the Four Seats T 1607), and other such uncommon treatises of the Teacher's [doctrine], as well as those treatises which are held in common with the Outsiders, including the Astrological Treatise entitled Martial Conquest (Yud- dhajayanamatantrarajasvarodaya, T 4322).
Other than astrology, the science ofelemental divination or geomancy ('byung-rtsis), also known as Chinese divination because it originated from China, is very necessary for the scrutiny of individual awareness. Among the cycle of texts concerning the five elements, which are the object of the calculation, there are two sets of techniques - those con- cerning the natural basic calculation, and those concerned with the appearances bewildered by ignorance which are subsumed within four kaptse or diagrams. The latter depict the discrete entities ofthe elements, the objective appearances, the acting intellect and the grasping mind. The method of calculation comprises nine topics:
Bases (khams), years, numbers (sme-ba) and trigrams (spar-kha) ,99
Months, days, two-hour periods, planets and stars.
The treatises which explain elemental divination are mentioned in the tantras, and would appear to be taught in their esoteric instructions such as the Mother and Son ofthe Clarifying Lamp (gsal-sgron ma-bu). lOO
Poetics
The treatises of poetics are exemplified by the Mirror of Poetics (Kavyadarsa, T 4301) of Da1). <;lin,101 an exegesis which, in two special
98
with reference to time, on
Accordin,gly, ,when classified, these ornaments include th
sort, whIch IS divided b h ' , e uncommon darbha] 102 and th etween t e [of GaU(;ia and Vai-
, e common sort whIch consist f h' fi
ments of sense (arthalamkara) 'h s o t Irty- Ive orna-
brjod-pa), simile (dpe) an'd meta as natural description (rang-bzhin (sabdala1? lkara) of which it is (gzugs), and of phonetic ornaments
There many such enumerations
Of preCIse composition which are hard to execute Such as al1iteration and geometric poetrv 103 '
Assonance and so forth. And there are sixteen orna
,
emgmatic mnuendo (gab-tshig, Skt.
prahelika). Prosody
ments 0
f ' "
The treatises ofprosod
T X bythe SoureeofProsody whIch in general is the b ' t e Santlpa [Ratnakarasanti], those who, followin uor metncal composition. There are
SK Vol 5) which g 0 ectzon of Prosody (sdeb-sbyor-gyi tshoms
with th c? mposed by the doctrine master Sakya Pandita 104
CUt the flow ofe claiming that Sakya Pandita
th M' 0 t etwoworks]doagre b
'
e
zrror of Poetics (Ch 1 80 e, . ,VV. -1):
When there are rna
t ' , n y compounded expressions,
The
E IS sustamed by passages of prose
'
h' cOmpOSItIOn mto pada . I I' "
t mk the intentions [ f h or metnca meso However I
". ecause It IS saId in
ven m verse with th ' .
Thi " e eXCeptIOn of the southerners 105
, S Custom alone IS observed: ' WItness the heavy and light syllables,
106 Fundamentals: Doctrines ofSartZsara and Nirva'fJ,a
The varying number of syllables, The undulations in form,
Its expression and so forth.
Such an arrangement would appear to be a basis for investigation for those who have said that no such thing has been mentioned in this text on poetics [Mirror of Poetics], and it is clearly necessary to explain that the teaching in the Precious Source refers to the prosody of verse alone.
With reference to this text [Precious Source], verse is the basis ofany metrical composition. When classified it consists of rules concerning syllabic quantity (vrtta) and metrical feet[jati, groups of morae]. As the text says [cf. Mirror of Poetics, Ch. l, v. llcd]:
These four pada [i. e. lines] of verse
Are classified according to syllabic quantities Or in metrical feet.
Vrtta is the counting of syllables,
And jati is the counting of morae.
Syllabic quantities are of three types: those in which the syllables form lines of equal length, those which form semi-equal lines, and those which form unequal lines. Metrical feet, on the other hand, form the arya or sublime metre, the matra or morae metres, and lines ofequal feet.
Synonymics
The treatises of synonymics are exemplified by the Treasury of AmarasirtZha (Amarakosa, T 4299). This text contains homonyms such as the [Sanskrit] word go, and synonyms such as the epithets for the sun which include "green-horsed", "hot-rayed" and more than a hundred others. As the text says:
There are single words conveying many meanings, clearly expressed.
The very word go has ten such meanings, Including: a topic for discussion, light rays and
cattle.
There are also many words conveying a single
meaning:
The sun itself is known as "green-horsed" and
"hot-rayed" ,
And as "gem of the sky", "friend of the lotus", and
so on.
Drama
The treatises on drama are exemplified by the Dramatical Treatise (Natyasastra) of Bharata and the Utter Delight of the Nagas (Naganan-
T 4154). Drama means that certain works of verse prose and a mIxture of and prose are presented in a blend of four [Sansknt, Prakrit, PaisacI, and Apabhra11lsa]. These five of dramatic juncture (sandhi) begin- mng WIth a. lon. g with four dramatic manners (vrti)
such as WIth theIr SIxteen aspects such as the elucidation
WIthm these, there are interwoven [dramatic features] in-
cludmg seven harmonious tones, the thirty-six characteristics such
as embellIshment and abbreviation and artistI'C sk'll h f dd - ' ISsuc asgraceul
song . ance (lasya), the wearing of garlands, and aspects of othe dramatIc Junctures. r
Quantitative Treatises 107
7 Treatises of Inner Science
Alternatively. , they are to be explained through five calculated ap- pr? ach. es . which to five headings given [by the Teacher]. As It IS saId In the Clarifyzng Lamp (Pradfpodyotana, T 1785);
What is this tantra's title?
For whose benefit is it composed?
Who is the composer? What is its scope?
And what is its purpose?
This the anthology through which the doctrines of samsara and mrval). a are recognised in general and their characteristics first book, the Feast in which Eloquence Appears, :vh1ch IS a. ordenng of the precious teaching of the vehicle of mdestructtble realIty according to the Ancient Translation School.
QUALIT A TIVE
TREA TISES
[40b. 4] The treatises which teach qualitatively are exemplified by thos( of Madhyamaka which emphatically establish the two kinds of selfless ness [of individuals and phenomena].
TREA TISES TEACHING LIBERA TION AND OMNISCIENCE
[40b. 5-41a. 6] The treatises which teach the means of attaining libera- tion and omniscience are exemplified by the Bodhisattva Level (Bodhisattvabhumi, T 4037) and the Introduction to the Conduct of a Bodhisattva. If one were to wonder what sort of character the masters who compose such treatises have, the superior type includes masters who perceive the truth of reality, such as the glorious lord Nagarjuna and the sublime Asanga. The middling type includes masters, such as Dignaga and Candragomin,106 to whom permission has been actually granted by the meditational deities, and the lesser type includes those who are learned in the five sciences and possess the esoteric instructions
107 Then, the instructions of the lineage which they possess have five
ofthe lineage ofthe gurus, such as masters Srlgupta and Sakyamati.
aspects. As the Rational System of Exposition says (cf. BST 4, p. 277):
To those who wish to explain the sutras
I must give instructions.
The following are the aspects of instruction Which are to be explained:
One must give exegeses by relating
The purpose and the condensed meaning, The words along with the meaning,
And also with response to objections, And the outline which connects the text.
Treatises ofInner Science 109
Part Two The Nature of the Teacher endowed with the Buddha-bodies
Introduction
[41b. 1-41b. 4] Having recognised the respective doctrines of sarpsara and nirva1). a, and generally outlined the structure of the true doctrine, now I shall reveal the structure of the Teacher endowed with the three buddha-bodies (trikiiya), the Conqueror who is the ground from which that profound, true doctrine originated.
This is divided into four sections, namely, (1) the mode of awakening in the buddha-body of reality which is the Primordial Lord [Saman- tabhadra], (2) the manner in which his emanation Vajradhara attained the quiescence [ofnirva1). a] in this'field [of the trichiliocosm] ,108 (3) the manner in which the two buddha-bodies of form emanate from him, and (4) the distinctive attributes of the buddha-bodies and pristine cognitions as revealed in the causal and resultant vehicles.
Samantabhadra, the Buddha-body of Reality
[41b. 4-45a. 4] In general, it is the opinion of the lower vehicles that one such as this teacher ofours [Sakyamuni Buddha], after accumulating the provisions [of merit and pristine cognition] conducive to liberation over three "countless" aeons109 as an ordinary person, in his final existence subjugated Mara at dusk in Vajrasana, the Point of Enlightenment. 110 Developing the path of connection in his mind at midnight by means of the actual foundation of the four meditative concentrations, he manifested the six transcendental perfections at the very moment when the pale light of dawn appeared, and attained buddhahood endowed with the bodies of reality and form. Apart from his promulgation of the doctrinal wheel to [the five noble companions]l11 - from Ajfiatakau:t;lc;linya to Bhadrika and so forth - [these lower vehicles] do not admit the complete definitive structure of [the Teacher's] three buddha-bodies.
Then, in the sutras of the greater vehicle the three buddha-bodies are taught, while the mantra texts also refer to the five outer and inner awakenings, as well as to the holder of indestructible reality who em- bodies cause and result, the emanational buddha-body (ninna7Jakaya) which comprises the physical form and energy channels [of that Teacher], the buddha-body of perfect rapture (sambhagakaya) which is his speech and vital energy, the buddha-body of reality (dhannakaya) which is his mind and seed in the form of nectar, the essential body (svabhavikakaya) which is his nucleus and the vital energy of pristine cognition, and so forth. These, however, have all been revealed only according to the acumen of those requiring training and the volition of the yogin on the path.
. In this [Nyingmapa tradition], however, it is explained in accordance WIth the uncommon transmission of the Indestructible Nucleus of Inner Radiance ('ad-gsaIrda-rje snying-pa),112 supreme and unsurpassed among vehicles, that pristine cognition itself, or intuitive awareness, is
Iberated right where it is through having recognised is nature as Saman- ta? hadra to be self-manifesting - at the very moment when the ground artses as phenomena from the primordial ground. Samantabhadra is
116 Fundamentals: Nature ofthe Buddha-bodies
· whom both samsara and nirvana are indivisible, the
is knowable], along with their propensities which are bewildering ap- pearances non-existent in reality, are totally purified in that intrinsic essence. It is also supreme realisation because great pristine cognition, which does not divide consciousness and its object in two, sees existence and quiescence all-pervasively and without partiality. And it is supreme mind which naturally performs spontaneously present enlightened ac- tivity by means of [the aforementioned renunciation and realisation] for the sake of all living beings without qualification. As it is said in the Ornament of Emergent Realisation (Ch. l, v. 43):
Inasmuch as three supreme qualities are present In the trio of mind, renunciation and realisation, Which are supreme among all sentient beings, This purposeful activity of the self-emergent ones
should be known.
Now, this buddhahood is the pristine cognition of the expanse of reality (dharmadhatujfiiina), which is without object of reference and free from all elaborate extremes, and the pristine cognition of sameness (samata- jiiana) which does not abide in the extremes of existence and quiescence because it sees neither good nor evil throughout the extent of sarpsara and nirvaJ)a equally. The hollowness of mere explanations through which the causal vehicles explain how all that is manifest abides in the expanse of reality, firm in the cessation of quiescent [nirvaJ)a], is sur- passed by mastery over that pristine cognition which qualitatively knows [the view, ji-lta-ba ye-shes] 14 The subtle natural expression of that pristine cognition continues to abide in the great field of the inwardly radiant youthful vase body (gzhon-nu bum-pa sku),llS as if it were the light contained within a crystal. It is also unobscured when formally absorbed as the ground or causal basis of the range of objects perceived by the tathagatas' pristine cognition of discernment. These are, namely: the buddha-body of form (rnpakaya) which appears before the eyes of the conquerors' sons or lords of the tenth level,116 and of the host of those to be trained; the buddha-speech which is heard by their ears; the fragrance of sublime moral discipline which they scent; the savour of the doctrine which they relish; the bliss of contemplation Which they feel; the appraisal of the doctrine which they make through
their discriminative awareness endowed with ideas and scrutiny; and so forth.
Then, in the spontaneously present Realm of the Bounteous Array (Ghanavyuha), a field which is manifest in and of itself through the or consecration of this [youthful vase body], far removed from objects of thought, expression and symbolism, and which is unlimited an? without direction, the Teachers of the Five Enlightened Families abIde in a great display of undifferentiated buddha-body and pristine Cognition. These teachers are identified with the ma1). <;iala of the body
. 'd'. h' tiret and who is the expanse 0 rea lty an . .
the teacher III .
antecedent of all, who holds sway ovefr
t elr enTh! s'buddhahood is attained in the naturally pnstIne t
without thoughts of the three times, end, or of all else that can be known. As the Supreme ontmuum 0 e
Greater Vehicle (Ch. 2, v. 38ab) says:
Without beginning, middle, or end, and
It is neither two, nor three,l13 taintless and WIthout thought.
Samantabhadra and Consort
And in the Magical Net of Maiijufri (vv. 99cd-100ab):
Spontaneously present without thought, .
Is the agent of the buddhas of the three urnes; Buddha without beginning or end,
He is the original, impartial Buddha.
. ' This buddhahood is supreme
b e the two kinds of at which
suddenly arisen obscuration [of confllCtlng emotlOns and th
Samantabhadra 117
118 Fundamentals: Nature of the Buddha-bodies
of perfect rapture (sambhogaktiya) which manifests in of is endowed with five certainties and is subsumed by the pnstIne cogmtIOn of buddhahood.
However at other times, they perceive that when the expressive power by the ground arises as phenomena from primor? ial ground is not intrinsically recognised, there dream-lIke sent. lent beings who, bewildered without cause for move In a cycle of ostensible suffering. Generating loving compaSSIOn the of these beings, they emanate an extensive array of fields IncludIng those situated on the contemplative hand gesture of Vairocana the Great Glacial Lake (gangs-chen mtsho), who embodies the five kinds of pristine cognition and the self-manifesting body of perfect rapture. II7 array also includes the great fields which extensively fill all the space In each ofVairocana's pores occupied by indivisible atomic particles ofthe elements, and which are absolutely beyond all objects of expreSSIOn such as shape, extent and altitude. . .
All these fields have distinct features; for the expanse of reahty IS filled with oceans offields and buddha-bodies which do not intermingle, take birth or change into other forms, alter or decline, and which are not even slightly covered by extraneous matter. As it is said in the Sutraofthe Arrayed Bouquet (Ga1Jejavyuhasutra, T 44, cf. Ch. 34, v. 28):
Even on a single hair-tip,
Is an unthinkable array of fields. Though they have various shapes, They do not differ,
And they do not become intermingled.
And in the Sutra of Inconceivable Secrets (Tathtigatacintyaguhyanir- desasutra, T 47):
Santamati, all that is pervaded by space
Is pervaded by the tathagatas' fields and bodies.
Similarly, these fields are arrayed in three dissimilar are respectively occupied by the buddhas' three bodies. In the dImensIOn of the buddha-body of reality they are called Fields of the ible Nucleus of Inner Radiance (,od-gsal rdo-rje snying-po). In the dImen- sion of the buddha-body of perfect rapture, manifest in and of itself, they are called the Fields ofBrahma's Drumbeat (tshangs-pa'i rnga-sgra). And in the dimension of the emanational body they are called the Aeon of Great Brahma (tshangs-chen-gyi bskal-pa). Oceans of buddhas who are emanations of the Primordial Lord [Samantabhadra] himself, appear in these dimensions throughout the three times, and there are also oceans of world systems of sentient beings which exist, but their extent, encompassed by the four elements and space, is confined wlthlll this Aeon of Great Brahma.
In . this aeon, diverse appearances of happiness and suffering are expenenced; for example, the impure sentient beings transfer conscious- ness at death and emerge at birth, buddhas pass into nirvana the endures and path is attained and so on.
lll. the ofeach atomIC partIcle, measureless fields containing moun- talllS, contInents and oceans appear, and in addition, each atomic par- ticle of the world on the surface of a single atom consists of measureless world systems of sentient beings well furnished with causes and condi- tions . . These emanations of the sugatas, the most powerful of
bodhIsattva aspIratIOns to purify lands [into buddha-fields], the accumu- latio. n of manifestly gathered by the bewildered perceptions of and excellent attainments which spring from reality. As It IS saId In the Great Bounteousness of the Buddhas:
Since the object of the buddhas' pristine cognition is unthinkable,
So are these emanations of their blessing.
Teaching in oceans of fields, without extreme or centre
Vairocana has totally purified them through the
In accord with enlightened mind, which is the thought ofall
He has purified unthinkable oceans of aspirations. '
Since the oceans of deeds of sentient beings are unthinkable,
All the oceans of fields in all directions emerge. The emanations of all the bodhisattvas and
The approach to all-knoWing reality
. Have. beenactuallyattainedbyalltheoceansofaspirations,
And III the expanse of space, infinite fields emerge.
By oceans of conduct, beings without extreme or centre practise,
And enter the range of measureless sugatas. Purifying all the oceans of fields in the directions They purify each field for infinite aeons. '
All the oceans of fields of deeds
Which the thoughts of sentient beings, InconceIVable in expanse, emerge.
And in th A . " if G T e spzratlOn 0
44 and T 1095, v. 29bcd):
p". ,
ractisIllg and manifesting for oceans of aeons.
When the mind becomes transformed There is neither vehicle nor mover.
Therefore, one should know that the statement of an exact, definitive order, saying "all such teachings necessarily have this but not that as their sole limit" is an indication that the manifestations of the intellect have not been turned in the direction of the genuine abiding reality.
In this [Nyingmapa tradition], for the while, the vehicle is precisely enumerated in nine sequences. Accordingly, the Tantra of the Great Natural Arising of Awareness says:
There are siltras and extensive teachings And extremely extensive teachings.
The extremely extensive teachings
Are the inconceivable eighty-four thousand
[components] ,
An exceedingly vast number,
Inconceivable and immeasurable,
Ineffable and most unthinkable.
The extensive teachings, in the same way)--
Are held to have nine divisions:
Those of pious attendants and self-centred buddhas,
Transmitted Precepts 87
And similarly bodhisattvas,
The Kriya and the Ubhaya
And likewise the Yoga vehicles are explained; Then the Mahayoga and the Anuyoga
And likewise the Great Perfection, Atiyoga. Explained in nine such divisions
Is the great teaching of the doctrine.
So this is the way that the vehicle which disciplines those requiring training was proportionately revealed, divided into three groups of three for situations involving those of lowest, middling and superior acumen.
It is said in the Great Array of the Highest:
The doctrines of my teaching
Were revealed in two stages
Through greater and lesser distinctions
Among the intellectual degrees of sentient beings. Each has its own view and basic position.
These respective views are classified into the erroneous and the genuine, the latter of which is outlined as follows in the same text:
The genuine [view] has three stages.
For those of lesser and greater intellect,
And likewise for those of middling intellect,
It is revealed in three stages.
The three lesser kinds
Are the doctrines corresponding to the following
intellects:
That of the pious attendants for those polluted by ideas, That of self-centred buddhas for the perceptive,
And that of bodhisattvas for those who penetrate ideas. As for the teaching given to those of the three middling
[intellects] ,
The KriyiHantra is for the lowest,
The Caryatantra is for the low,
And the Yogatantra for those endowed with [higher]
consciousness.
For those endowed with the three greater degrees [of intelligence], '
The creation [of Mahayoga] is for those who have transcended mind,
The perfection [of Anuyoga] is for those having the essence of mind[-as-such],
And Great Perfection is for [those intent on] That which is supreme and most secret.
The vehicle of the gods and the vehicle of Brahma. . .
5 Treatises
rebirth. Inother it ofrefinement
d protection, It IS a treatIse. Such IS SaId In the Ratzonal System of an . ' 66
EXposltlO n :
That which refines the enemies, conflicting emotions, without exception,
And affords protection from rebirth in evil existences, Is a treatise, for it has the attributes of refinement and
protection.
Treatises having both these attributes do not exist in
other traditions.
The treatises are classified in six ways according to: (1) the standard of their composition, (2) the purpose of their composition, (3) their individual composers, (4) the manner of their composition, (S) the transmitted precepts which they explain, and (6) the meaning which they express.
[28a. S-41a. 6] The definitive order of the treatises which comment on the intention [of these transmitted precepts] is explained under three headings: characteristic, verbal definition and classification.
Primarily, for one who is motivated by the thought of composing treatises, a mere treatise is characterised as an authoritative doctrine set forth in order that the philosophical system of one's own inclination might be revealed to others. Some which possess four special attributes are characterised as pure treatises, while those lacking any of the four special attributes are characterised as ostensible treatises.
The four special attributes are the attribute of motivation, when a composer ofundistracted mind is motivated by discriminative awareness realised in words and their meaning, and by compassion which desires to benefit others; the attribute of expressive words which form refined metrical verses; the attribute of the expressed meaning which teaches the essential means for those requiring training, who aspire to liberation; and the attribute of purposeful composition which has the power [to inspire] the attainment of liberation by study of and reflection upon those words. The Supreme Continuum of the Greater Vehicle (Ch. S, v. 19) says:
There are some who teach with undistracted mind, Referring solely to the Conqueror, the Teacher, Conforming to the path which attains to liberation. Let them be reverently accepted
Like the Sage's transmitted precepts.
Concerning the verbal definition, the [Tibetan] word bstan-bcos [or treatise] is derived from [the Sanskrit] sastra, which is a compound of sasana, to refine [or instruct], and of traya, to protect. A treatise is so called because in its causal aspect it refines the three poisonous conflict- ing emotions into the possession of the three trainings, and in its result-
ant aspect it offers protection from the suffering of evil existences and
TREA TISES
ACCORDING
TO THE
ST ANDARD
OF COMPOSITION
Firstly, when classified according to the standard of their composition, there are four kinds of treatise. As the Binding of the Chapters of the Gathering of the Sugatas (bde-'dus-kyi sa-gcod tshoms-kyi chings) says:
One should know that there are four kinds of treatise: The meaningless, the low in meaning, the erroneous, and the meaningful.
The meaningless [treatises] are exemplified by a treatise on dentistry crows those which are low in meaning y treatIses of the four common sciences, the erroneous by the of the eternalistic extremists who are Outsiders, and the mean-
Ingful by the treatises of the inner science of the Buddhists.
[oihen,. in the Yogacara Lez:el (Yogacarabhami, T 403S), nine kinds treatIse] are explained:
The meaningless, erroneous and the meaningful;
The hypocritical, the merciless and those which renounce suffering;
devoted to worldly study, polemics and attainment: hese are the nine kinds of treatise.
When divid d .
of ea h e Into these three groups of three, the first two members
group are ostensible treatises of low standard, while the last er of each group is a genuine treatise of high standard.
Treatises 89
90 Fundamentals: Doctrines ofSalflsiira and Nirvii1Ja
Treatises 91
TREATISES ACCORDING TO THE PURPOSE OF COMPOSITION
Secondly, when classified according to the purpose oftheir composition, there are three sorts of treatise: those which summarise the vast meaning of the transmitted precepts, those which rectify disorder [concerning the doctrine], and those which disclose profundity. Basic examples of these three are respectively the Compendium of the Abhidharma (Abhidharmasamuccaya, T 4049), the Root Sutra of the Vinaya (Vinaya- mulasutra, T 4117), and the Supreme Continuum ofthe Greater Vehicle.
are earliest among the commentaries. But this is doubtful for the follow- ing reason: Just as there is a distinct Abhidharmapitaka in the greater vehicle, so also the pious attendants must have had one, and the doubt arises that there is surely no reason for [the pious attendants] to have had the other two pitaka in their separate volumes but not the
Abhidharma. Hence, the tradition of the would seem to be correct.
Supreme scholars say that the great master Vasubandhu71 maintained the Sautrantika view and therefore held these [Seven Sections] to be basic examples of treatises composed by arhats. Elsewhere, there are some who talk meaninglessly, saying the Seven Sections are not transmit- ted precepts because they many errors, and that rather they
were composed by the likes of Sariputra. Such talk would seem to be extremely foolish, for if such great arhats as the Supreme Pair [Sariputra and Maudgalyayana] who had been produced by the Teacher himself, through his emanational power, had misinterpreted the transmitted precepts, there would be no referential basis for recognising any genuine witness [to the Buddha's teaching] because the genuine witness would have all but come to an end. And if even the arhats had not seen the
truth, it is implicit that there would have been no individual who saw the truth in the tradition of the pious attendants.
Furthermore, the treatises composed upon the teaching given by
sublime bodhisattvas are exemplified by the extensive treatises of the
Five Sections ofthe Levels,72 and the abbreviated treatises known as the
Two Summations, namely, the Compendium of the Abhidharma and the
Collection of the Greater Vehicle (Mahiiyiinasan:zgraha, T 4048), all of
which were composed by the sublime Asailga who was abiding on the third level. 73
The treatises which were composed after prophetic declarations had been obtained from the meditational deities are exemplified by Dig- naga's74 Compendium of Valid Cognition (Pramii1Jasamuccaya, T 4203) and the Seven Treasuries ofthe Scriptures (gsung-rab mdzod-bdun) by the great all-knowing Longcen Rapjampa.
The treatises which were composed by ordinary learned panditas to advocate their own philosophical systems and to reject the ideas of others are exemplified by the Eight Dissertations (Astaprakarana/5 composed by the best of scholars Vasubandhu. . . .
Therefore, when the are classified according to the individu- als who composed them, they are gathered into these five divisions.
TREATISES ACCORDING TO THE MANNER OF THEIR COMPOSITION
FOUrth, when treatises are classified according to the manner of their composition, they fall into two categories: those which are labelled as
TREA TISES
ACCORDING TO
THEIR
INDIVIDUAL
COMPOSERS
Thirdly, when classified according to their individual composers, there are five kinds. The treatises composed upon the teaching given by perfect buddhas are exemplified by the Five Transmissions ofthe Gather- ing of the Sugatas (bde-'dus-kyi lung-Inga), which were composed by Vajradharma,68 and the Five Doctrines ofMaitreya (byams-chos sde-Inga).
The treatises composed upon the teaching given by arhats are exemplified by the Seven Sections of the Abhidharma (mngon-pa sde- bdun). Concerning the Seven Sections, the Commentaries on the Treasury of the Abhidharma (Abhidharmakosabhiisya)69 says:
It is reported that the Components of the Doctrine (Dharmaskandha) is by Sariputra,
The Treatise on Description (Prajiiaptisiistra) is by Maudgalyayana,
The Body of the Elemental Bases (Dhiitukiiya) is by purl). a,
The Body of Consciousness (Vijiiiinakiiya) is by Devasarman,
The Entrance to Knowledge (Jiiiinaprasthiina) is by Katyayanaputra,
The Dissertation (Prakara1Japiida) is by Vasumitra, And the Enumeration of Classes (San:zgftiparyiiya) is by
70
According to the tradition of the since the teachings given in fragments by the Teacher in different places and times to different individuals were compiled by the likes of Sariputra, they are transmitted precepts similar to the Collection of Meaningful Expression. Therefore, they say that the Treasury ofDetailed Exposition is earliest among the commentaries. According to the Sautrantika; however, the Seven Sections of the Abhidharma were formulated by ordinary pious attendants. They hold the compilation of these words of the Teacher by arhats to be an ill rumour and say therefore that the Seven Sections
92 Fundamentals: Doctrines ofSa1? lsara and NirzxlrJa
Treatises 93
commentaries on the transmitted precepts themselves, and those which are composed independently on the meaning of the transmitted pre- cepts.
The former treatises are also of four kinds. Those which establish both word and meaning in detail are the extensive commentaries such as the Commentary on the Satra in Fifty Sections T 4 1 0 6 ) , a n d t h e g r e a t c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e Kalacakra Tantra entitled the Taintless Light (Vimalaprabha, T 845). Those which explain the words in conjunction with annotations are verbal commentaries such as the Commentary on the Collection ofMean- ingful Expressions (Udanavargavrtti, T 4100), and the Commentary on the Secret Nucleus entitled Dispelling Darkness in the Ten Directions (snying- 'grel phyogs-bcu mun-sel). Those which disclose points which are hard to understand are the commentaries on difficulties such as the Comment- ary on the Verse Summation ofthe Transcendental Perfection ofDiscriminat- ive Awareness (Saficayagiithapafijika, T 3798 or T 3792). And those which subsume and establish the primary meaning are the commentaries of summarised meaning such as Vimalamitra's Condensed Commentary on the Secret Nucleus (GuhyagarbhapirJejartha, P 4755), and the Chapter- less Commentary on the Supplementary Magical Net (le-Iag-gi sa-rna 'grel) by the great Rongzompa.
The latter category of treatises composed independently on the mean- ing of the transmitted precepts are of three kinds. Those which com- pletely teach the meaning of one transmitted precept are exemplified by the Root Sutra of the Vinaya, the Ornament of Emergent Realisation (Abhisamayala1? lkara, T 3786), and Buddhaguhya's Sequence ofthe Path of the Magical Net. Those which teach the meaning of a fragmentary transmitted precept are exemplified by the Stanzas on the Novitiate (Sramanerakarika, T 4124). And those which teach the meaning of many transmitted precepts are exemplified by Santideva's76 Com- pendium of Lessons T 3939-40) and the all-knowing Jikme Lingpa's77 Precious Treasury of Enlightened Attributes (yon-tan mdzod).
TREATISES ACCORDING TO THE TRANSMITTED PRECEPTS THEY EXPLAIN
Fifth, when classified according to the transmitted precepts which they explain, those treatises which comment on the transmitted precepts as a whole include commentaries on their verbal structure such as the grammatical treatises of the Kalapasutra (T 4282) and"the Grammar of Candragomin (CandravyakararJa, T 4269), and Gommentaries on their meaning such as the Seven Sections ofValid Cognition [by Dharmaklrtif8 and the Sutra [i. e. the Compendium of Valid Cognition by Dignaga].
Then, there are those which comment on the intention ofthe different particular promulgations of the transmitted precepts. Commentaries on the intention of the first promulgation of the doctrinal wheel are divided into those which establish the view, those which establish con- duct and those which establish the integration of view and conduct.
The first [those which establish the view] are exemplified by the Treasury ofthe Abhidharma. After an introduction which gives the de- finitive order of the body [of the text], the first of its eight chapters teaches the objects of perception, the components, psychophysical bases and activity fields. The second teaches the nature of the sense organs and the manner in which things that are compounded arise, along with their causal basis, conditions and results. The third teaches the truth of origination of the world, the container and its contents, [which
experience] the truth of suffering. The fourth teaches of [world-forming] deeds, and the fifth the definitive order of the conflicting emotions. The sixth, teaching of paths and individuals, reveals how the path is experientially cultivated. The seventh reveals the manner in which complete knowledge of the result is attained; and the eighth teaches the definitive order of the concentrative absorptions and so forth, be- cause they are necessary to support the truth of the path which is the antidote expounded previously in the sixth chapter.
Secondly, those commentaries which teach the aspect of conduct are
exemplified by the Root Sutra ofthe Vinaya. This text details the seven-
teen pada [of the Vinayavastu, T 1], the first of which teaches the
ordination of a renunciate (pravrajya). Thereafter, based on the sixteen
remaining pada and the Two Analyses [of the Vows of Monks and Nuns
- T 3 and T 5], it explains the
Vinaya instructions of the Supreme Text (Vinaya-uttaragrantha, T 7),
the Analyses, and so forth, with suitable excerpts from the chapters of
the Minor Transmissions. These commentaries are also exemplified by
the Flower Garland o/the Vinaya (Vinayapu$pamala, T 4123) which,
based on the Analyses, explains the Vinaya in conjunction with various other quotations.
Thirdly, those commentaries which teach the integration of view and
are exemplified by the Great Treasury of Detailed Exposition,
III which it is the meaning of the philosophy of the Vaibhasika that is
explained in detail. This text is said to have been composed in the time
79
by all the arhats in common, and there are also some
of Upagupta
hold it to be the work of Yasal). , Sarvakamin and others. The
Ibetans have confused these two reports, claiming that it was composed five hundred arhats such as Sarvakamin and Kubjita at the Narttaka Vlhara in the Northern Vindhya Mountains. Actually, it would seem correct to say that the words of these arhats were transmitted by the
elders (sthavira) from ear to ear in one continuous arrangement and later written down. '
94 Fundamentals: Doctrines ofSarrzsara and Nirvar;a
Treatises 95
Again, the commentaries on the intention of the intermediate promul- gation of the doctrinal wheel are also divided into treatises which estab- lish the view, those which establish conduct and those which establish the integration of view and conduct.
First, [those which establish the view] are exemplified by Nagar- juna's80 Collection ofMadhyamaka Reasoning (dbu-ma rigs-tshogs). There are four such collections of reasoning which refute the elaborate ex- tremes that others seek to prove, namely, the Root Stanzas on the Madhyamaka entitled Discriminative Awareness (Prajiianamamula- madhyamakakarika, T 3824), the Sixty Verses on Reason T 3825), the Seventy Verses on Emptiness (Sunyatasaptati, T 3827), and the Refutation of Disputed Topics (Vigrahavyavartanf, T 3828). Then,
with the inclusion of the Technique of Pulverisation (Vaidalyasutra, T 3826), a collection of reasons which refute the arguments of sophists, there are reputed to be five collections of reasoning; or six with the further addition ofthe Vindication ofConventional Truth (Vyavaharasid- dhi) which teaches that, although ultimately there is no substantial existence, conventions are valid with reference to relative appearances.
None the less, according to the intention ofthe Clearly Worded Comment-
ary, the enumeration of five collections of reasoning is said to be
correct. 81
Secondly, those commentaries which teach conduct are exemplified
by the Introduction to the Conduct ofa Bodhisattva (Bodhisattvacaryava- tara, T 3871) by Santideva. This text teaches in ten chapters: the beneficial attributes of the enlightened mind; the importance of the repentance of sins; the seizing of the enlightened mind; vigilance with respect to [the enlightened mind]; the guarding of awareness of the present; [the transcendental perfections of] patience; perseverance;
meditation; and discriminative awareness; and the dedication of merit. Thirdly, those commentaries which teach the integration of view and conduct are exemplified by the Ornament ofEmergent Realisation. This
text affirms (Ch. 1, v. 4) that:
The transcendental perfection of discriminative
awareness
Is correctly explained through eight topics.
Accordingly, the eight topics are the three concerned with the entry into objective understanding [namely, understanding all aspects of omnis- cience - rnam-mkhyen, Skt. sarvakarajiulna; the understanding of the path _ lam-shes-nyid, Skt. margajiiata; and understanding all bases of omni- science - thams-cad shes-pa-nyid, Skt. sarvajiiata]; the four concerned with the entry into the properties of the doctrine [namely, manifestly realizing
all aspects of omniscience - rnam-kun mngon-rdzogs rtogs-pa, Skt. sar- vakarabhisambodha; the reaching of the summit of existence - rtse-mor phyin-pa, Skt. murdhabhisamaya; the culmination of sarpsara - mthar-
gyis-pa, Skt. anupurvabhisamaya; and the instantaneous perfect en- lightenment - skad-cig-ma-gcig-gis mngon-rdzogs byang-chub-paJi sbyor- ba, Skt. and the buddha-body of reality (chos-sku, Skt. dharmakaya) which is the result of these entrances. These eight topics are established through seventy points.
Then, the commentaries on the intention of the final transmitted pre- cepts, the third promulgation of the doctrinal wheel, are also divided into treatises which establish the view, those which establish conduct and those which establish the integration of view and conduct.
First, [those which establish the view] are exemplified by the Supreme Continuum of the Greater Vehicle and the Two Analyses [the Analysis of the Middle and Extremes, Skt. Madhyantavibhanga, T 4021, and the Analysis of Phenomena and Reality, Skt. Dharmadharmatavibhanga, T 4022]. In the Supreme Continuum of the Greater Vehicle (Ch. 1, v. 1), it is stated that:
Buddha, doctrine, community, seed and enlightenment, Enlightened attributes and finally activities of the
Buddha:
The body of this entire treatise when condensed Consists of these seven topics of indestructible reality.
Accordingly, this text establishes seven topics: the Three Precious Jewels, their causal basis or seed which is the nucleus of the tathagata (tathagatagarbha), its result which consists of enlightenment, the sixty- four enlightened attributes, and the enlightened activities of the buddhas. The Analysis of the Middle and Extremes dispels the extremes of existence and non-existence, or of eternalism and nihilism, and then teaches the path. The Analysis ofPhenomena and Reality teaches the distinct- Hons between the apparitional reality or phenomena of samsara and reality of nirva1). a. 82 In this way, these two are or vzbhanga.
Secondly, those commentaries which teach conduct are exemplified
by the Twenty Verses on the Bodhisattva Vow (Bodhisattvasam-
varavirrzsaka, T 4081). This text establishes the four root downfal"ts
and forty-six transgressions which confront a bodhisattva of average ability.
Thirdly, those which teach the integration of view and conduct are exemplified by the Ornament of the Sutras of the Greater Vehicle. Its twenty-one chapters, beginning with the "Proof of the Transmitted of t? e Greater . vehicle" establish [ hIS mtegratIOn] accordmg to ten categones such as [the gradation of] the families (gotra), volition with respect to the doctrine (dharma- Paryegya) and so on.
96 Fundamentals: Doctrines ofSaJ? lsara and Nirva7Ja
Similarly, with reference to the Fourth PiTaka, or the PiTaka of the Awareness-holders, also, there are treatises which comment on the intention of the four or six classes of tantra. For example, the master Padmasambhava's Garland of Views: A Collection of Esoteric Instructions and Kawa Peltsek's83 Seventeenfold Appearance of the Sequence of the View are representative ofthose which teach the view. LIlavajra's Clarifi- cation ofCommitments (Samayavivyakti, P 4744) exemplifies those which
teach conduct, and the master Buddhaguhya's Sequence of the Path of the Magical Net84 exemplifies those which teach the integration of view and conduct.
TREATISES ACCORDING TO THE MEANING THEY EXPRESS
Sixth when the treatises are classified according to the meaning they there are those which teach quantitatively, qualitatively, and those which teach the means for attammg lIberation and omniscience.
6 Quantitative Treatises
The treatises which teach quantitatively are both common and uncom- mon.
COMMON
QUANTIT A TIVE
TREA TISES
The common sort are exemplified by the treatise on worldly behaviour entitled the Point of Human Sustenance T 4330) a n d CaJ)akya's85 Treatise on the Behaviour o f Kings (Ca7Jakyarajanftisastra, T 4334). Although these are actually the causal bases for birth in the higher realms [of gods and humans], one may still proceed through them to [a rebirth which is] receptive to liberation. It is said in the Hundred Verses on Discriminative Awareness (Prajiia- satakanamaprakara7Ja, T 4328):
If human traditions are well practised,
Progress to the god realms is not far distant.
If one ascends the stairway of the gods and men, One is close to liberation.
The common treatises also include the eight subjects of scrutiny, con- cerning which [Rongzompa]86 says:
These are the scrutiny of precious gems, land, Garments, trees, horses, elephants, men and women.
UNCOMMON QUANTIT A TIVE TREA TISES
The Outer Sciences
[34? 2-40b. 4] The uncommon sort of [quantitative] treatises are those whIch emphatically establish the first four sciences. In the Sutra Repaid
98 Fundamentals: Doctrines ofSarrzsara and NirvaIJa
with Gratitude (thabs-mkhas-pa chen-po sangs-rgyas drin-Ian bsab-pa'i
mdo, T 353) it is said:
If a bodhisattva does not study the five sciences, he can never obtain all-knowing pristine cognition in the unsurpas- sed, genuine and perfect enlightenment. This being the case, in order to obtain unsurpassed enlightenment, the five sci- ences should be studied.
And in the Yogacara Level:
If one were to ask what are the five sciences, they are as follows: the sciences of medicine, logic, grammar and ar- tistic crafts, in addition to the inner science [of Buddhism].
The necessity of training in the first four of these sciences is also mentioned by the regent Ajita [Maitreya, in the Ornament ofthe SLltras of the Greater Vehicle, Ch. 11, v. 60c]:
In this way they eradicate [the faults] of others And bring them into the fold.
Thus grammar and logic are the two sciences which respectively eradi- cate wrong understanding in the words and meaning of others, while art and medicine are the two which respectively bring into the fold seekers of many useful skills in general, and the advantage of sound health in particular.
The Arts
Since the arts gather within them the other three, it is opportune first to explain the science of the arts. If one were to wonder how this gathering comes about, then it has been said:
Through emphasising the body, the speech or neither, The arts are divided into those of body, of speech and of
mind.
Accordingly, those emphasising movements of the body and expressions of speech, which are related to the mind, are assigned to the arts of body and speech, while those in which the mind refers to thought alone, unrelated to those two, are called the arts of the mind. For this reason, the arts contain infinite means of attaining many useful skills such as the sixty-four crafts explained in the commentaries on the Scam ofExtensive Play (Lalitavistarasfitra, T 95) and the Minor Transmissions, the thirty designated arts, the eighteen appendages of music such as dancing and drama, the seven harmonious tones beginning with the middle tone and the tone of the sages, and the nine dramatic airs such as erotic grace - all of which are explained in the Mahavyutpatti
Quantitath'e Treatises 99
(T eighteen artistic techniques explained in the sutras; and the eIght subjects of scrutiny.
Supreme . among the arts of the body, in particular, are the methods of constuctmg the receptacles and contents which represent the Tathagata's body, speech and mind [i. e. images, books and stlipas]. Supreme among the arts of speech are the songs of praise in the form of offerings to the conquerors, and supreme among the arts of the mind are the extraordinary aspects of discriminative awareness88 produced by processes of thought such as study, reflection and meditation. The
textual traditi? n . which teaches these art forms comprises the Slltra Requested by Sarzputra (Sariputra$? aka, P 5812), scriptures such as the Tantra (T 3621 and the Emergence of Cakrasarrlvara (Srf- mahasarrzvarodayatantraraja, T 373), along with their commentaries the. Notebook on Iconomeuy T 4316) whIch was composed by the Atreya, the Alchemical Transmutation into Gold (Rasayanasastroddhrti, T 4314) and other such artistic treatises.
Medicine
The second of the sCienc. es, medicine, is exemplified by Yutokpa's
Co. mmentary on the Intentwn of the Four Glorious Tamras of Aledical
SCIence. (dpal-ldan rgyud-bzhi'i dgongs-pa bkral-pa, SP Vol. 72). 89 The
Exegetzcal Tantra on the Eight Divisions ofMedicine ryan-lag bshad-rgyud, the second of the Four Tantras] says:
In order to maintain health and heal sickness in the human body,
Superior the classes of living And to attam longevIty, the wealth of the doctrine and
happiness,
The topics of medical science, when condensed
Are explained under these four headings: '
That which is to be healed and the remedy which heals The mode of healing and the healer. '
that which is to be healed includes the disease and the
the remedy which heals includes regimen, medication and diag-
the of healing or therapy include the prolonging of life ree
h from dIsease and the healing of sickness when it occurs and the ealer includes the doctor and the nurses. These are also
and taught in S- , E· h D· . .
h d . ura s Ig t IVIswns of Medical Science [Astanga-
r ayasarrzhua, T 4310 by Vagbhata]. 9o . .
Grammar
'.
e SCIences, grammar, IS exemplIfied by the eight great
The third f th g . 0
.
rammatical sl1tras which, as explained in the Cornmentary of Panini
100 Fundamentals: Doctrines o fS arrzsara and N irvar;a
Quantitati'De Treatises 101
(Par;inivyakarar;asutra, T 4420), were known in India, or, in particular, by the treatises and instructions of the Kalapasutra and the Grammar ofCandragomin which are known here in Tibet like the sun and moon.
The common purpose ofgrammar is [the utilisation of] nouns, words and syllables. As the Ornamental Flower of Speech (smra-ba rgyan-gyi me-tog) says:
The support for the teaching of both
The essence alone and its distinctive attributes Comprises nouns, words and syllables.
Then, the distinctive meaning [of grammar] is stated in the Clear Nucleus Grammar (brda'-sprod snying-po gsal-ba):
Natural stems, affixation and morphological changes Are the concepts to be expressed in grammatical texts.
Now, the basis on which various morphological changes (rnam-'gyttr) are made by means of affixation (rkyen) is the natural stem (rang-bzhin). And when it is classified:
There are natural roots and nouns among which The former contains the meaning of the verb. [The latter] comprises the three genders,
With final vowels and consonants.
Both of these natural grammatical forms [roots and nouns] are subject to affixation or the adjuncts of grammar which cause nouns, words and phrases to be appropriately formed. There are in this respect seven kinds of affixation through which the root takes form as gender, the root takes form as an inflected word, the root takes form as a root, gender takes form as gender, nominal stems take form as nominal stems, gender takes form as a root, and gender takes form as an inflected word.
Among them, the second and seventh [through which the root takes form as an inflected word and gender takes form as an inflected wordtl together are the common substratum (samanadhikarar;a) of affixation and the declensions (vibhakti). Tense and meaning are dif- ferentiated by means of the second kind of inflection through which roots endowed with tense-affixes (ti-adi) take form as words. Mor- phological change therefore includes strengthening and elision which result from the conjunction of natural stems and inflections, or of the interconnecting syllables. As the great Pang Lotsawa [Lodro Tenpa] has said:
Strengthening and elision are morphological changes Which occur by conjunction of natural stems and affixes, Or by conjunction of the syllables alone.
Furthermore, the basic paradigms are revealed by the rules for euphonic
conjunction (sandhi), the tables of nouns, the rules for syllabic quantity (vrtta) and so forth, while their branches include the paradigms of the verbal roots, prepositional prefixes (upasarga) and suffixes (ur;adi). 92
Dignaga
Logic
The fourth of the sciences, logic, is explained according to eight cate- gories of dialectics. As the Compendium of Valid Cognition (Prama- 1Jasamuccayavrtti, T 4204, Ch. l, v. 2) says:
Direct perception and inference, Along with their invalid forms, Are for one's own understanding. Proof and refutation
Along with their invalid forms Cause others to understand. 93
In this way, each of the four - direct perception, inference, formal argument and reductio ad absurdum - is ascertained to have both valid and invalid forms, [making eight categories]. When they are condensed, they are gathered under two headings: the means of comprehending
102 Fundamentals: DoctrinesofSalflsaraandNirvarJ,a
that which is to be appraised by oneself, and the means of communicat- ing that comprehension to others.
Now since the same text says:
The characteristic is one of infallible knowledge94
logic is characteristically said to be reason which is infallible with respect to the objects of one's own experience as they newly arise. Therefore, it establishes an epistemic standard for making appraisals, in the manner of a measuring container or a scale-balance. There are three kinds of objects to be appraised, namely, the directly evident, the indirectly evident, and the indirectly evident to an extreme degree. As for their means of appraisal: There are three kinds of direct percep- tions for appraising directly evident objects, namely, the direct percep- tion of the sense organs, the direct perception of intrinsic awareness, ' and the direct perception of yoga. There are three logical axioms of implicit inference for the appraisal and proof of the indirectly evident objects, namely, the axiom of the result, the axiom of identity and the axiom of absence of the objective referent. 95 The axiom concerning those objects of appraisal which are indirectly evident to an extreme degree necessarily relies on scriptural authority of which the purity is established by three types of scrutiny, for it is not proven by the [other] two kinds of axiom - direct perception and implicit inference.
The treatises of logic are exemplified by the Sutra of Valid Cognition which was composed by the master Dignaga, and the commentaries on its intention, the Seven Sections of Valid Cognition, which were composed by the glorious Dharmaklrti. Among them, the dissertations (prakararJ,a) of the Seven Sections include three treatises which are com- parable to the main body [of the Sutra] , namely, the extensive Exposition of Valid Cognition, the intermediate Ascertainment of Valid Cognition (PramarJ,aviniscaya, T 4211), and the condensed Point of Reason (Nya- yabindu, T 4212). And they also include four treatises which proceed from them, comparable to the separate limbs, namely, the Point of the Axioms (Hetubindu, T 4213) and the Inquiry into Relations (Samban- T 4214), which proceed from [the topic] concerning infer- ence for one's own sake; and the ProofofOther Minds (Salfltanantarasid- dhi, T 4219) and the Reasoning of Polemics (Vadanyaya, T 4218), which proceed from [the topic] concerning inference for others' sake.
Again, there are certain great scholars who say that the logical treatises
are treatises of the inner science [of the true doctrine] because they
belong to the Abhidharmapitaka, but this would appear to be incor-
96
rect.
resembling the following quotation from the Compendium of Valid Cog- nition (Ch. 6):
By means of the true expression of logic and of objects which are to be appraised, the tenets of the extremists are [seen to
Quantitative Treatises 103 be] without essence. This [treatise] has been composed in
order to oppose those who cling to their view. Yet <: h·
. . , lor t IS
very reason, It IS not concerned with providing an entrance
to the teaching; for his doctrine is not an object of SophIstry.
And also [PramarJ,asamuccayakarika, T 4203, Ch. 6]: The idea that one is lead to reality
By the path of sophistry
Is very remote from the teaching of the Sage.
We think as much because in many sources statements are found
Dharmakfrti
Minor Sciences
[38aA-40b. 4] Th
nated as branches remam. fi:e mmor sciences which are desig- been said: eIther the artIstIc or the grammatical sciences. It has
As for the quintet of astrology, poetics, Prosody, synonymics and drama
Their in India as the "five sciences" Resounded lIke a banner in the wind.
. . .
104 Fundamentals: DoctrinesofSa1? lsaraandNirvalJa Astrology
Among these five, concerning astrology: There are ten planets demarcat- ing celestial longitude, along with the moving band of constellations and
97
Quantitative Treatises 105
topics, subsumes the techniques throu h h' h
formed the meaning desired in all w IC t? e masters of the past that body of verse prose and m' d expreSSIOns, and embellished
, Ixe verse and prose I th M'
with reference to the objective basis [of space], and the
Poetics(Ch. l,vv. lO-llab)itsays:
They excellently reveal the body And also the ornaments of poetics. The body is the string of words Determining the desired meaning'
It consists both of verse and Or of a blend of verse and prose.
And (Ch. 2, v. lab):
The features which embellish poetry Are well expressed as ornaments.
. n e zrrorof
lunar mansions
years, months, days, and two-hour periods
which basis celestial longitude is determined. Astrology is a procedure for correctly determining the degrees of celestial longitude demarcated by these [planets and constellations] and their quarterly aspects (rkang-pa). As a direct result of this, with reference to their cyclical motion, the cal- culations of the ascendent conjunctions in the sky are explained along with the calendrical cycle ofthe four seasons on earth, the rising and set- ting of the planets through their respective aspects, the eclipsing of the sun and moon through orbital direction, and the fading and rising of malign circumstances which occur in accordance with the respective celestial longitudes [of the planets and constellations].
When abbreviated, astrology is gathered under the two headings of that which is to be calculated and the calculation. Such are the astrolo- gical treatises which follow the Commentary on the Kalacakra Tantra, the Commentary on the Four Seats T 1607), and other such uncommon treatises of the Teacher's [doctrine], as well as those treatises which are held in common with the Outsiders, including the Astrological Treatise entitled Martial Conquest (Yud- dhajayanamatantrarajasvarodaya, T 4322).
Other than astrology, the science ofelemental divination or geomancy ('byung-rtsis), also known as Chinese divination because it originated from China, is very necessary for the scrutiny of individual awareness. Among the cycle of texts concerning the five elements, which are the object of the calculation, there are two sets of techniques - those con- cerning the natural basic calculation, and those concerned with the appearances bewildered by ignorance which are subsumed within four kaptse or diagrams. The latter depict the discrete entities ofthe elements, the objective appearances, the acting intellect and the grasping mind. The method of calculation comprises nine topics:
Bases (khams), years, numbers (sme-ba) and trigrams (spar-kha) ,99
Months, days, two-hour periods, planets and stars.
The treatises which explain elemental divination are mentioned in the tantras, and would appear to be taught in their esoteric instructions such as the Mother and Son ofthe Clarifying Lamp (gsal-sgron ma-bu). lOO
Poetics
The treatises of poetics are exemplified by the Mirror of Poetics (Kavyadarsa, T 4301) of Da1). <;lin,101 an exegesis which, in two special
98
with reference to time, on
Accordin,gly, ,when classified, these ornaments include th
sort, whIch IS divided b h ' , e uncommon darbha] 102 and th etween t e [of GaU(;ia and Vai-
, e common sort whIch consist f h' fi
ments of sense (arthalamkara) 'h s o t Irty- Ive orna-
brjod-pa), simile (dpe) an'd meta as natural description (rang-bzhin (sabdala1? lkara) of which it is (gzugs), and of phonetic ornaments
There many such enumerations
Of preCIse composition which are hard to execute Such as al1iteration and geometric poetrv 103 '
Assonance and so forth. And there are sixteen orna
,
emgmatic mnuendo (gab-tshig, Skt.
prahelika). Prosody
ments 0
f ' "
The treatises ofprosod
T X bythe SoureeofProsody whIch in general is the b ' t e Santlpa [Ratnakarasanti], those who, followin uor metncal composition. There are
SK Vol 5) which g 0 ectzon of Prosody (sdeb-sbyor-gyi tshoms
with th c? mposed by the doctrine master Sakya Pandita 104
CUt the flow ofe claiming that Sakya Pandita
th M' 0 t etwoworks]doagre b
'
e
zrror of Poetics (Ch 1 80 e, . ,VV. -1):
When there are rna
t ' , n y compounded expressions,
The
E IS sustamed by passages of prose
'
h' cOmpOSItIOn mto pada . I I' "
t mk the intentions [ f h or metnca meso However I
". ecause It IS saId in
ven m verse with th ' .
Thi " e eXCeptIOn of the southerners 105
, S Custom alone IS observed: ' WItness the heavy and light syllables,
106 Fundamentals: Doctrines ofSartZsara and Nirva'fJ,a
The varying number of syllables, The undulations in form,
Its expression and so forth.
Such an arrangement would appear to be a basis for investigation for those who have said that no such thing has been mentioned in this text on poetics [Mirror of Poetics], and it is clearly necessary to explain that the teaching in the Precious Source refers to the prosody of verse alone.
With reference to this text [Precious Source], verse is the basis ofany metrical composition. When classified it consists of rules concerning syllabic quantity (vrtta) and metrical feet[jati, groups of morae]. As the text says [cf. Mirror of Poetics, Ch. l, v. llcd]:
These four pada [i. e. lines] of verse
Are classified according to syllabic quantities Or in metrical feet.
Vrtta is the counting of syllables,
And jati is the counting of morae.
Syllabic quantities are of three types: those in which the syllables form lines of equal length, those which form semi-equal lines, and those which form unequal lines. Metrical feet, on the other hand, form the arya or sublime metre, the matra or morae metres, and lines ofequal feet.
Synonymics
The treatises of synonymics are exemplified by the Treasury of AmarasirtZha (Amarakosa, T 4299). This text contains homonyms such as the [Sanskrit] word go, and synonyms such as the epithets for the sun which include "green-horsed", "hot-rayed" and more than a hundred others. As the text says:
There are single words conveying many meanings, clearly expressed.
The very word go has ten such meanings, Including: a topic for discussion, light rays and
cattle.
There are also many words conveying a single
meaning:
The sun itself is known as "green-horsed" and
"hot-rayed" ,
And as "gem of the sky", "friend of the lotus", and
so on.
Drama
The treatises on drama are exemplified by the Dramatical Treatise (Natyasastra) of Bharata and the Utter Delight of the Nagas (Naganan-
T 4154). Drama means that certain works of verse prose and a mIxture of and prose are presented in a blend of four [Sansknt, Prakrit, PaisacI, and Apabhra11lsa]. These five of dramatic juncture (sandhi) begin- mng WIth a. lon. g with four dramatic manners (vrti)
such as WIth theIr SIxteen aspects such as the elucidation
WIthm these, there are interwoven [dramatic features] in-
cludmg seven harmonious tones, the thirty-six characteristics such
as embellIshment and abbreviation and artistI'C sk'll h f dd - ' ISsuc asgraceul
song . ance (lasya), the wearing of garlands, and aspects of othe dramatIc Junctures. r
Quantitative Treatises 107
7 Treatises of Inner Science
Alternatively. , they are to be explained through five calculated ap- pr? ach. es . which to five headings given [by the Teacher]. As It IS saId In the Clarifyzng Lamp (Pradfpodyotana, T 1785);
What is this tantra's title?
For whose benefit is it composed?
Who is the composer? What is its scope?
And what is its purpose?
This the anthology through which the doctrines of samsara and mrval). a are recognised in general and their characteristics first book, the Feast in which Eloquence Appears, :vh1ch IS a. ordenng of the precious teaching of the vehicle of mdestructtble realIty according to the Ancient Translation School.
QUALIT A TIVE
TREA TISES
[40b. 4] The treatises which teach qualitatively are exemplified by thos( of Madhyamaka which emphatically establish the two kinds of selfless ness [of individuals and phenomena].
TREA TISES TEACHING LIBERA TION AND OMNISCIENCE
[40b. 5-41a. 6] The treatises which teach the means of attaining libera- tion and omniscience are exemplified by the Bodhisattva Level (Bodhisattvabhumi, T 4037) and the Introduction to the Conduct of a Bodhisattva. If one were to wonder what sort of character the masters who compose such treatises have, the superior type includes masters who perceive the truth of reality, such as the glorious lord Nagarjuna and the sublime Asanga. The middling type includes masters, such as Dignaga and Candragomin,106 to whom permission has been actually granted by the meditational deities, and the lesser type includes those who are learned in the five sciences and possess the esoteric instructions
107 Then, the instructions of the lineage which they possess have five
ofthe lineage ofthe gurus, such as masters Srlgupta and Sakyamati.
aspects. As the Rational System of Exposition says (cf. BST 4, p. 277):
To those who wish to explain the sutras
I must give instructions.
The following are the aspects of instruction Which are to be explained:
One must give exegeses by relating
The purpose and the condensed meaning, The words along with the meaning,
And also with response to objections, And the outline which connects the text.
Treatises ofInner Science 109
Part Two The Nature of the Teacher endowed with the Buddha-bodies
Introduction
[41b. 1-41b. 4] Having recognised the respective doctrines of sarpsara and nirva1). a, and generally outlined the structure of the true doctrine, now I shall reveal the structure of the Teacher endowed with the three buddha-bodies (trikiiya), the Conqueror who is the ground from which that profound, true doctrine originated.
This is divided into four sections, namely, (1) the mode of awakening in the buddha-body of reality which is the Primordial Lord [Saman- tabhadra], (2) the manner in which his emanation Vajradhara attained the quiescence [ofnirva1). a] in this'field [of the trichiliocosm] ,108 (3) the manner in which the two buddha-bodies of form emanate from him, and (4) the distinctive attributes of the buddha-bodies and pristine cognitions as revealed in the causal and resultant vehicles.
Samantabhadra, the Buddha-body of Reality
[41b. 4-45a. 4] In general, it is the opinion of the lower vehicles that one such as this teacher ofours [Sakyamuni Buddha], after accumulating the provisions [of merit and pristine cognition] conducive to liberation over three "countless" aeons109 as an ordinary person, in his final existence subjugated Mara at dusk in Vajrasana, the Point of Enlightenment. 110 Developing the path of connection in his mind at midnight by means of the actual foundation of the four meditative concentrations, he manifested the six transcendental perfections at the very moment when the pale light of dawn appeared, and attained buddhahood endowed with the bodies of reality and form. Apart from his promulgation of the doctrinal wheel to [the five noble companions]l11 - from Ajfiatakau:t;lc;linya to Bhadrika and so forth - [these lower vehicles] do not admit the complete definitive structure of [the Teacher's] three buddha-bodies.
Then, in the sutras of the greater vehicle the three buddha-bodies are taught, while the mantra texts also refer to the five outer and inner awakenings, as well as to the holder of indestructible reality who em- bodies cause and result, the emanational buddha-body (ninna7Jakaya) which comprises the physical form and energy channels [of that Teacher], the buddha-body of perfect rapture (sambhagakaya) which is his speech and vital energy, the buddha-body of reality (dhannakaya) which is his mind and seed in the form of nectar, the essential body (svabhavikakaya) which is his nucleus and the vital energy of pristine cognition, and so forth. These, however, have all been revealed only according to the acumen of those requiring training and the volition of the yogin on the path.
. In this [Nyingmapa tradition], however, it is explained in accordance WIth the uncommon transmission of the Indestructible Nucleus of Inner Radiance ('ad-gsaIrda-rje snying-pa),112 supreme and unsurpassed among vehicles, that pristine cognition itself, or intuitive awareness, is
Iberated right where it is through having recognised is nature as Saman- ta? hadra to be self-manifesting - at the very moment when the ground artses as phenomena from the primordial ground. Samantabhadra is
116 Fundamentals: Nature ofthe Buddha-bodies
· whom both samsara and nirvana are indivisible, the
is knowable], along with their propensities which are bewildering ap- pearances non-existent in reality, are totally purified in that intrinsic essence. It is also supreme realisation because great pristine cognition, which does not divide consciousness and its object in two, sees existence and quiescence all-pervasively and without partiality. And it is supreme mind which naturally performs spontaneously present enlightened ac- tivity by means of [the aforementioned renunciation and realisation] for the sake of all living beings without qualification. As it is said in the Ornament of Emergent Realisation (Ch. l, v. 43):
Inasmuch as three supreme qualities are present In the trio of mind, renunciation and realisation, Which are supreme among all sentient beings, This purposeful activity of the self-emergent ones
should be known.
Now, this buddhahood is the pristine cognition of the expanse of reality (dharmadhatujfiiina), which is without object of reference and free from all elaborate extremes, and the pristine cognition of sameness (samata- jiiana) which does not abide in the extremes of existence and quiescence because it sees neither good nor evil throughout the extent of sarpsara and nirvaJ)a equally. The hollowness of mere explanations through which the causal vehicles explain how all that is manifest abides in the expanse of reality, firm in the cessation of quiescent [nirvaJ)a], is sur- passed by mastery over that pristine cognition which qualitatively knows [the view, ji-lta-ba ye-shes] 14 The subtle natural expression of that pristine cognition continues to abide in the great field of the inwardly radiant youthful vase body (gzhon-nu bum-pa sku),llS as if it were the light contained within a crystal. It is also unobscured when formally absorbed as the ground or causal basis of the range of objects perceived by the tathagatas' pristine cognition of discernment. These are, namely: the buddha-body of form (rnpakaya) which appears before the eyes of the conquerors' sons or lords of the tenth level,116 and of the host of those to be trained; the buddha-speech which is heard by their ears; the fragrance of sublime moral discipline which they scent; the savour of the doctrine which they relish; the bliss of contemplation Which they feel; the appraisal of the doctrine which they make through
their discriminative awareness endowed with ideas and scrutiny; and so forth.
Then, in the spontaneously present Realm of the Bounteous Array (Ghanavyuha), a field which is manifest in and of itself through the or consecration of this [youthful vase body], far removed from objects of thought, expression and symbolism, and which is unlimited an? without direction, the Teachers of the Five Enlightened Families abIde in a great display of undifferentiated buddha-body and pristine Cognition. These teachers are identified with the ma1). <;iala of the body
. 'd'. h' tiret and who is the expanse 0 rea lty an . .
the teacher III .
antecedent of all, who holds sway ovefr
t elr enTh! s'buddhahood is attained in the naturally pnstIne t
without thoughts of the three times, end, or of all else that can be known. As the Supreme ontmuum 0 e
Greater Vehicle (Ch. 2, v. 38ab) says:
Without beginning, middle, or end, and
It is neither two, nor three,l13 taintless and WIthout thought.
Samantabhadra and Consort
And in the Magical Net of Maiijufri (vv. 99cd-100ab):
Spontaneously present without thought, .
Is the agent of the buddhas of the three urnes; Buddha without beginning or end,
He is the original, impartial Buddha.
. ' This buddhahood is supreme
b e the two kinds of at which
suddenly arisen obscuration [of confllCtlng emotlOns and th
Samantabhadra 117
118 Fundamentals: Nature of the Buddha-bodies
of perfect rapture (sambhogaktiya) which manifests in of is endowed with five certainties and is subsumed by the pnstIne cogmtIOn of buddhahood.
However at other times, they perceive that when the expressive power by the ground arises as phenomena from primor? ial ground is not intrinsically recognised, there dream-lIke sent. lent beings who, bewildered without cause for move In a cycle of ostensible suffering. Generating loving compaSSIOn the of these beings, they emanate an extensive array of fields IncludIng those situated on the contemplative hand gesture of Vairocana the Great Glacial Lake (gangs-chen mtsho), who embodies the five kinds of pristine cognition and the self-manifesting body of perfect rapture. II7 array also includes the great fields which extensively fill all the space In each ofVairocana's pores occupied by indivisible atomic particles ofthe elements, and which are absolutely beyond all objects of expreSSIOn such as shape, extent and altitude. . .
All these fields have distinct features; for the expanse of reahty IS filled with oceans offields and buddha-bodies which do not intermingle, take birth or change into other forms, alter or decline, and which are not even slightly covered by extraneous matter. As it is said in the Sutraofthe Arrayed Bouquet (Ga1Jejavyuhasutra, T 44, cf. Ch. 34, v. 28):
Even on a single hair-tip,
Is an unthinkable array of fields. Though they have various shapes, They do not differ,
And they do not become intermingled.
And in the Sutra of Inconceivable Secrets (Tathtigatacintyaguhyanir- desasutra, T 47):
Santamati, all that is pervaded by space
Is pervaded by the tathagatas' fields and bodies.
Similarly, these fields are arrayed in three dissimilar are respectively occupied by the buddhas' three bodies. In the dImensIOn of the buddha-body of reality they are called Fields of the ible Nucleus of Inner Radiance (,od-gsal rdo-rje snying-po). In the dImen- sion of the buddha-body of perfect rapture, manifest in and of itself, they are called the Fields ofBrahma's Drumbeat (tshangs-pa'i rnga-sgra). And in the dimension of the emanational body they are called the Aeon of Great Brahma (tshangs-chen-gyi bskal-pa). Oceans of buddhas who are emanations of the Primordial Lord [Samantabhadra] himself, appear in these dimensions throughout the three times, and there are also oceans of world systems of sentient beings which exist, but their extent, encompassed by the four elements and space, is confined wlthlll this Aeon of Great Brahma.
In . this aeon, diverse appearances of happiness and suffering are expenenced; for example, the impure sentient beings transfer conscious- ness at death and emerge at birth, buddhas pass into nirvana the endures and path is attained and so on.
lll. the ofeach atomIC partIcle, measureless fields containing moun- talllS, contInents and oceans appear, and in addition, each atomic par- ticle of the world on the surface of a single atom consists of measureless world systems of sentient beings well furnished with causes and condi- tions . . These emanations of the sugatas, the most powerful of
bodhIsattva aspIratIOns to purify lands [into buddha-fields], the accumu- latio. n of manifestly gathered by the bewildered perceptions of and excellent attainments which spring from reality. As It IS saId In the Great Bounteousness of the Buddhas:
Since the object of the buddhas' pristine cognition is unthinkable,
So are these emanations of their blessing.
Teaching in oceans of fields, without extreme or centre
Vairocana has totally purified them through the
In accord with enlightened mind, which is the thought ofall
He has purified unthinkable oceans of aspirations. '
Since the oceans of deeds of sentient beings are unthinkable,
All the oceans of fields in all directions emerge. The emanations of all the bodhisattvas and
The approach to all-knoWing reality
. Have. beenactuallyattainedbyalltheoceansofaspirations,
And III the expanse of space, infinite fields emerge.
By oceans of conduct, beings without extreme or centre practise,
And enter the range of measureless sugatas. Purifying all the oceans of fields in the directions They purify each field for infinite aeons. '
All the oceans of fields of deeds
Which the thoughts of sentient beings, InconceIVable in expanse, emerge.
And in th A . " if G T e spzratlOn 0
44 and T 1095, v. 29bcd):
p". ,
ractisIllg and manifesting for oceans of aeons.
