To under-
stand the attitude of this ‘over-blamed people, one must appreciate
the fact that the Sikhs had been driven out of their homes, contrary
to all their hopes and expectations; that they had been deprived
of their lands and property, their shrines and holy places; that
their losses in men and property had been comparatively greater
than those of any other community affected by the communal up-
heaval; that nearly 40 per cent of the entire Sikh community had
been reduced to penury and had become refugees with the neces-
sity of having to start life afresh.
stand the attitude of this ‘over-blamed people, one must appreciate
the fact that the Sikhs had been driven out of their homes, contrary
to all their hopes and expectations; that they had been deprived
of their lands and property, their shrines and holy places; that
their losses in men and property had been comparatively greater
than those of any other community affected by the communal up-
heaval; that nearly 40 per cent of the entire Sikh community had
been reduced to penury and had become refugees with the neces-
sity of having to start life afresh.
Cambridge History of India - v4 - Indian Empire
It should not have exported food-stuffs
from Bengal to feed troops overseas. It should not have forgotten
that Burma which could send rice to Bengal, was in the hands of
the Japanese and there was no way to fill up the gap created by
the Government even if without thinking. The people contended
that both in times of peace and war it was the duty of the Govern-
ment to see that the people had enough to eat and they put all
the blame on Lord Linlithgow for his failure. It could not be said
in his defence that he had no time or energy to look to this aspect
of the matter as his mind was otherwise busy with the war-effort.
India under Wavell had a stable government. The Congress
leaders were in jails. The Muslim League was carrying on its
propaganda in favour of Pakistan without any opposition from any
quarter. It was towards the end of his regime that the Muslim
League became a menace which was difficult to control. It was
during his regime that the Indian army steadily moved forward
into Burma and ultimately captured it. The war was also won
in his time.
As soon as the war ended, the Congress leaders were released
from their jails and they were invited to the Simla Conference
alongwith other leaders. In a very sincere spirit, Lord Wavell
tried to resolve the constitutional deadlock. He tried to prevail
upon the Congress and the Muslim League to join his Executive
Council and help him in the administration of the country. How-
ever, the Simla Conference failed on account of the attitude adopt-
ed by Mr. Jinnah. He was not prepared to allow the Congress to
nominate a Muslim from their quota and the Congress would not
give up its claim to di so. Critics point out that the Congress was
not acting wisely. It is contended that the Congress made a mis-
take in 1939 when it advised the Congress Ministries to resign. If
the Congress Ministries had not resigned, they could have fought
with the British Government from a position of strength. As the
Congress decided to go into exile, its enemies took advantage of it
and during the period between 1939 and 1942, they added to their
strength. They got all the help from the British Government in
this matter. It is contended that the Congress again made a mis-
take in 1942 when it did not accept the Cripps proposals and lost
an opportunity to come to power. This again gave a chance to the
Muslim League to be in the good books of the Government and
## p. 969 (#1013) ###########################################
I. N. A. TRIAL
969
also carry on uninterrupted its propaganda for Pakistan. If the
Congress Ministries had been in office between 1942 and 1945, the
Muslim League would not have got a free hand to do whatever it
pleased. The Congress leaders would have been there to check it.
However, it may be said in defence of the Congress that all these
are the “ifs” of history and nothing can be said with certainty as
to what would have happened if the Congress Ministries had not
resigned or had taken up office again in 1942. Experience shows
that if the Muslim League and its leaders were determined to divide
the country and if there were Englishmen who were equally deter-
mined to help them, the Congress leaders would not have been able
to stop them. Anyway, the failure of the Simla Conference was
unfortunate. Mr. Jinnah got the impression that the things as
they were, the British Government was not prepared to displease
him and this fact he could always keep in his mind in future while
dealing with the British Government. The British Government
would not impose a solution on India which was not acceptable to
Mr. Jinnah.
Two important events took place at this time. The Conserva-
tive Government was replaced by the Labour Government in Eng-
land in July, 1945. The Japanese war also came to a sudden end
in August, 1945. The British Government decided to test the
strength of the Congress and the Muslim League by means of fresh
provincial and Central elections. These elections had been post-
poned throughout the war. The situation was such that the elec-
tions should have been held as soon as possible but the machinery
of the Government moved slowly and it took about six months to
accomplish the job. The electoral machinery proved itself to be
very slow moving. During this period, tension continued to mount.
At this time, the I. N. A. trials took place. The Indian National
Army consisted of those Indian soldiers who had surrendered after
the fall of Singapore and who were later on organized by Subhash
Chandra Bose into a fighting force to assist the Japanese. The
ultimate aim of the Indian National Army was to hoist the National
flag on the Red Fort in Delhi. When the British conquered
Burma, most of the I. N. A. soldiers lost their lives. A few of them
fell into British hands. They were brought to India and court-
martialled in the Red Fort at Delhi. The Congress and the people
of India refused to consider these soldiers as traitors and there was
a lot of resentment in the country. The most prominent Indian
lawyers, headed by Bhulabhai Desai, defended them. Even Jawa-
harlal Nehru put on his gown to defend them. They were found
guilty but the Government remitted their sentences.
When the elections were held, it was found that the Congress
## p. 970 (#1014) ###########################################
970
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
had won most of the Hindu seats and the Muslim League had won
most of the Muslim seats. It could be pointed out that the two Nation
Theory of Mr. Jinnah had been found to be true. The situation
was such that the Congress could block any solution by the British
Government which did not give India complete independence and
the Muslim League could block any solution acceptable to the
Congress which did not give Pakistan to the Muslims. At this
stage, a new development took place. The British ability to im-
pose a decision or even to maintain the status quo began to dwindle
rapidly. The old attitude "we will hold the ring until the two
parties come to an agreement” began to disappear. The British
had neither the physical force nor the will to power nor the moral
conviction to do so. The public opinion in England was not pre-
pared to make any sacrifices to maintain British supremacy in
India. Power was in the hands of the Labour party which believ-
ed that India should be made independent as soon as possible and
hence there was no point in making sacrifices when India was going
to be given independence as soon as possible. The public opinion
in England demanded that the army must be demobilised as soon as
possible. By the spring of 1946, most of the war military units had
disappeared. It is this fact which explains that the British Govern-
ment had no longer sufficient physical force at its disposal to im-
pose its will on the Muslim League. The result was that the British
Government decided to play the role of a peace-maker and nego-
tiator and under these circumstances the Muslim League which
believed in force was bound to have the upper hand in the race with
the Congress which believed in the policy of non-violence. This
explains as to why the Muslim League had its way in August, 1946,
when it resorted to violence in Calcutta and later on in Noakhali.
That also explains why the use of force by the Muslim League in
the month of March, 1947, in the Punjab and the North-Western
Frontier Province won the day and the Congress ultimately decid-
ed to concede Pakistan.
It is pointed out that Lord Wavell had all the qualities of a great
soldier. He was also possessed of great intellectual power and much
goodwill. He could achieve a lot by his initiative. However, he
was out of his element in the dialectical arguments of the current
polemical politics. He was no match for Mr. Jinnah in this field
and no wonder he was not able to play his part well under the
new circumstances.
It was in the month of March, 1946 that the Cabinet Mission
came to India with a determination to resolve the deadlock in the
country.
After a lot of efforts, the Mission was able to prepare an
ingenious plan. It was in two parts. The long term part provid-
## p. 971 (#1015) ###########################################
THE CABINET MISSION
971
ed for a Federal Union of two tiers. The first tier was to consist
of the British Indian provinces which the Indian States were to
join after negotiations. The second tier was to consist of individual
provinces which were to form subordinate Unions of their own.
The Centre was to have powers less than those given to it under
the Cripps proposals of 1942. It was to have control over Defence,
Foreign Affairs and Communications alone. It was hoped that by
giving more powers to the provinces and by creating Regional
Unions of Provinces where the Muslims were in majority and also
by keeping the Centre very weak, the fears of the Muslims would
be met and at the same time the unity of India would be preserved.
To begin with, the Muslim League accepted the Cabinet Mission
plan but the Congress rejected it. Later on, the Congress accepted
it and the Muslim League rejected. The Congress believed that
under the Cabinet Mission Plan the grouping of the Provinces was
not compulsory. The Congress was not prepared to allow Assam
and the North-Western Frontier Province to join their respective
groups. The Muslim League insisted that the grouping of the
Provinces was compulsory and Assam was bound to join Bengal
and the North-Western Frontier Province was bound to join Pun-
jab and Sind. Ultimately, the British Government decided in
favour of the Muslim League. A perusal of the resolution of the
Muslim League by which it accepted the Cabinet Mission Plan
shows that it considered the Plan to be merely a stepping stone to
the realisation of Pakistan in the long run. The Regional Unions
of the Muslim majority provinces could decide at any time to leave
the Indian Union and in that case Pakistan was to consist of the
whole of the Punjab, North-Western Frontier Province, Sind,
Baluchistan, Bengal and Assam. Such an eventuality was not ac-
ceptable to the Congress. The Congress was not in favour of
giving away the whole of Punjab, Bengal and Assam to the Mus-
lim League. Moreover, the Congress did not approve of a weak
Centre. Nothing could be accomplished under such a weak
Centre. Thus there were bound to be differences and misgivings.
When Lord Wavell did not invite the Muslim League to form
the Interim Government in spite of the rejection of the plan by the
Congress, the Muslim League passed a resolution on 29 July, 1946,
by which it withdrew its consent of the Cabinet Mission Plan and
fixed 16 August, 1946, as the Direct Action Day. That Day was
declared a public holiday in Bengal and Sind. What happened on
16 August, in Calcutta and on the subsequent three days is well-
known. There was a terrible loss of life and property in Calcutta.
The same story was repeated when the trouble spread to Noakhali.
There were repercussions in Bihar.
## p. 972 (#1016) ###########################################
972
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
On 2 September, 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru formed the Interim
Government. When the Muslim League found that Lord Wavell
had invited the Congress to form the Interim Government without
it, it decided to enter the Interim Government as it was not pre-
pared to allow power to pass into the hands of the Congress. Lord
Wavell also accommodated the Muslim League and it was allow-
ed to nominate five members to the Executive Council of the Vice-
roy. When the Constituent Assembly met on 9 December, 1946,
the Muslim League boycotted it.
The situation began to worsen in the country and ultimately
Prime Minister Attlee declared on 20 February, 1947 that the Bri-
tish Government would hand over power into the hands of the
Indians by a date not later than June, 1948. He also declared that
the British Government would send Lord Mountbatten to India to
carry out the new policy. It was under these circumstances that
Lord Wavell was recalled before his term of office expired.
LORD MOUNTBATTEN (1947-48)
Before his appointment as the Governor-General and Viceroy of
India, Lord Mountbatten had been the Supreme Allied Comman-
der in South-East Asia during World War II. He played an im-
portant part in the overthrow of the Japanese power in South-East
Asia. From 27 March, 1947 to 15 August, 1947, he was the
Governor-General and Viceroy of the whole of India. After the
partition of India, he became the Governor-General of free India
minus Pakistan. He continued in that position up to June, 1948.
When Lord Mountbatten reached India towards the end of
March 1947, the situation was very critical. The Muslim League
was carrying on its wear and tear campaign all over the country,
particularly in the Punjab, Sind and North-Western Frontier Pro-
vince. The Khizar Hayat Tiwana's ministry was forced to resign
in March and there were riots not only at Lahore but also at
Rawalpindi and its neighbourhood. It is rightly stated that the
Muslims turned upon the Sikhs in Rawalpindi and in a welter of
ferocity, murdered more than 2,000. Even before the announce-
ment of 3 June plan, there were serious disturbances in the Pun-
jab. When the Muslims rioted in Multan, British authority com-
pletely disappeared there. The non-Muslims were completely at
the mercy of the unsocial elements who were instigated and har-
boured by the Muslim League. There were fires in various parts
of Lahore even before 3 June, 1947. Soon after the arrival of Lord
Mountbatten in India, the Muslim League celebrated the Pakistan
Day. The working of the Interim Government was hopelessly un-
## p. 973 (#1017) ###########################################
LORD MOUNTBATTEN
973
satisfactory. On account of the attitude of the Muslim League
members in the Central Government, the work of the Government
was practically at a stand-still. No wonder, Lord Mountbatten
came to the inevitable conclusion that the partition of the country
was the only solution. On the whole, the 3 June plan was accept-
ed by all the political parties and the Indian Independence Act
fixed 15 August, 1947, as the date for making India free and on
that date both India and Pakistan became actually independent.
Credit must go to Lord Mountbatten for the lightning speed with
which he expedited the work of the partitioning of India. Address-
ing the constitution Assembly just before mid-night on 14 August,
1947, Prime Minister Nehru observed: “Long years ago we made
a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem
our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At
the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will
awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but
rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when
an age ends, when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utte-
rance. It is fitting that at this solemn moment we take the pledge
of dedication to the service of India and her people and to still
larger cause of humanity. ” Lord Mountbatten was requested to
continue as the Governor-General of India.
After the declaration of India's independence, the state of Jam-
mu and Kashmir was attacked by the tribal raiders. Prime Mini-
ster Mehr Chand Mahajan protested against the attack and appea-
led both to Pakistan and the British Prime Minister to stop them
but to no avail. Ultimately, the state acceded to India and In-
dian forces were flown to Kashmir to protect the people and drive
out the raiders. India also took the matter to the Security Council
of the United Nations and ultimately a cease-fire was ordered bet-
ween the two countries.
The division of India on communal lines presented insurmoun-
table difficulties. The Boundary Force of 50,000 Indian troops
under the command of Major-General Reese proved inadequate
to maintain law and order in the Punjab after the announcement
of the Radcliffe Boundary Award on 17 August, 1947. The South
Indian troops who could be trusted in that atmosphere were not
readily available. The result was that the Muslims in West Pak-
istan attacked the Hindus and Sikhs and the latter attacked them
in turn in East Punjab. Each tried to exterminate the other.
According to one estimate, “In the nine months between August
1947 and the spring of the following year, between fourteen and
sixteen million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims were forced to leave
their homes and flee to safety from blood crazed mobs. In that
## p. 974 (#1018) ###########################################
974
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
same period, over 600,000 of them were killed. . . . Another
view is that “up to the middle of 1948 about 51/2 million non-
Muslims were brought across the border from West Punjab and
other provinces of Western Pakistan. About the same number of
Muslims moved into Pakistan from East Punjab (including the East
Punjab States), Delhi, the United Provinces, Ajmer-Merwara,
Alwar, Bharatpur, Gwalior and Indore. During the same period
about 114 million non-Muslims crossed the border from East Pakis-
tan into West Bengal. These figures do not of course take into
account about 4,000,000 non-Muslims who later migrated to India
from Sind. ”
When all this was happening convoys were waylaid and refugee
trains were held up and their passengers were slaughtered. Mr.
Justice G. D. Khosla has calculated that about 5 lakhs of people
lost their lives. As East Punjab could not accommodate all the in-
coming refugees, many of them came to Delhi. They occupied
not only streets but also mosques. There was the danger of com-
munal trouble in Delhi and Mahatma Gandhi came to Delhi from
Bengal in October 1947 to reconcile the people. In January 1948
Mahatma Gandhi insisted that India must pay to Pakistan her
agreed assets of Rs. 55 crores which had been withheld owing to
the war in Kashmir and peace must be restored in Delhi and the
Muslim mosques must be evacuated by the Hindus. It was on 18
January, 1948 that Mahatma Gandhi gave up his fast when the
money was paid to Pakistan and the mosques were evacuated by
the Hindus in Delhi. Mahatmaji's action was not liked by some
fanatics among the Hindus and 12 days after (30 January), the
Mahatma was murdered while he was going to his prayer meeting.
The action of the Hindus and Sikhs in turning out the Muslims
from the Punjab and Delhi has been criticised but it must not be
forgotten that the circumstances were such that no human-being
could have acted differently. It is appropriate to quote in this
connection the following passage from V. P. Menon: “The uprooted
millions (from West Punjab) were in a terrible mental state. They
had been driven from their homes under conditions of indescribable
horrors and misery. Not many had the time to plan their evacua-
tion; most had to move out at the shortest possible notice. They
had been subjected to terrible indignities. They had witnessed
their near and dear ones hacked to pieces before their eyes and
their houses ransacked, looted and set on fire by their own neigh-
bours. They had no choice but to seek safety in flight, filled with
wrath at what they had seen, and full of anguish for numberless
missing kinsmen who were still stranded in Pakistan and for their
womenfolk who had been abducted. . . . . . The holocaust in West-
## p. 975 (#1019) ###########################################
LORD MOUNTBATTEN
975
ern Pakistan had its repercussions in East Punjab. The streams
of fleeing refugees with their tales of woe and suffering made a
profound impression on the people. In vain were appeals made
to them to remember that retaliation was no remedy. The spirit
of revenge was abroad, working up communal bitterness to a fren-
zied pitch, till all restraint was thrown to the winds. . . . . .
To under-
stand the attitude of this ‘over-blamed people, one must appreciate
the fact that the Sikhs had been driven out of their homes, contrary
to all their hopes and expectations; that they had been deprived
of their lands and property, their shrines and holy places; that
their losses in men and property had been comparatively greater
than those of any other community affected by the communal up-
heaval; that nearly 40 per cent of the entire Sikh community had
been reduced to penury and had become refugees with the neces-
sity of having to start life afresh. ”
The problem of the rehabilitation of the refugees was a very
difficult one but the same was tackled sympathetically and efficient-
ly. Lands left by the Muslims in India were allotted to the refugees
from West Pakistan. They were granted loans to start their lives
afresh. A machinery was set up to evaluate the properties left by
the refugees in Pakistan and the Government gave the claim-holders
either cash or immovable property in India. Rehabilitation grants
were given to others. The existing cities were expanded and
Model Towns were attached to the old towns. Satellite towns such
as Faridabad were set up to rehabilitate the refugees. The refugees
also showed remarkable courage and facilitated the task of the
Government by self-help.
Lord Mountbatten did a lot of useful work in connection with
the Indian States even before the partition of India. He called
on 25 July, 1947 a conference to discuss the question of the acces-
sion of the Indian States to either India or Pakistan because after
the passing of the Indian Independence Act, British Paramountcy
was going to end and there were to be no treaties between the
Indian States and the Dominions of India and Pakistan. The Con-
ference was attended by more than a hundred princes and the
representatives of the States. Lord Mountbatten tried to impress
upon them the urgency of the matter and the necessity of the States
joining one Dominion or the other before 15 August, 1947. The
efforts of Lord Mountbatten and V. P. Menon were successful and
the result was that most of the states acceded to one Dominion or
the other before 15 August. V. P. Menon facilitated the task of
Lord Mountbatten by drafting an Instrument of Accession which
was acceptable to most of the States as it required them to hand
over to the Central Government only a few subjects. Stand-still
## p. 976 (#1020) ###########################################
976
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
Agreements were to be entered into with those states which were
not able to join one Dominion or the other. It can be said without
exaggeration that the personality of Lord Mountbatten helped to
save the situation which otherwise would have arisen on account
of the ambitions of certain rulers to become independent. Whether
by persuasion or by pressure, most of the Indian rulers were made
to join the Dominion of India. This was the greatest service done
by Lord Mountbatten to India which we must never forget. Even
before 15 August, Lord Mountbatten tried to persuade the Maha-
raja of Jammu & Kashmir to join one Dominion or the other but
his efforts failed. In the case of Hyderabad, Lord Mountbatten
made very serious efforts to persuade the Nizam to accede to India
on very favourable terms. Those efforts he continued up to June,
1948 when he actually left India. He was of the view that the
Nizam had lost a golden opportunity to come to terms with India
and he was doomed.
Lord Mountbatten was so popular in India that a public meet-
ing was held at Delhi to bid him farewell. The sitting of Lord
Mountbatten and Lady Mountbatten along with all the Indian
leaders created a scene which even the Gods could envy. There
was an atmosphere of warmth everywhere. When he actually left,
there was the general feeling that the man who was leaving the
country was their own man. One must not forget to mention
Lady Mountbatten who competed with her husband through her
goodness and nobility. She loved the people of this country and
they loved her in turn. She continued to visit India from time to
time even after June, 1948 and when the sad news of her death
came in 1960, there was genuine sorrow in many hearts in this
country.
RAJAGOPALACHARIAR (1948-50)
Lord Mountbatten was succeeded by Shri C. Rajagopalachariar
who was the Governor-General of India from June, 1948 to January,
1950. He was born in 1879 and started his legal practice after
passing from the Law College, Madras. He gave up a splendid
career at the Bar to fight for the freedom of this country when he
came under the influence of Mahatma Gandhi in 1919. When
Mahatmaji was in prison, Rajagopalachariar edited Young India
with great success. In 1921 and 1922, he became the General Secre-
tary of the Indian National Congress and later on a member of the
All-India Congress Committee. He had his differences with the Con-
gress more than once and in spite of that he was appointed the first
Governor-General of Free India. When the Congress Ministries
## p. 977 (#1021) ###########################################
PRESS LAWS ENQUIRY COMMITTEE
977
were formed in 1937, he was the Chief Minister of Madras. Prime
Minister Jawaharlal Nehru tried to get him elected as the Presi-
dent of India but he failed as the people wanted Dr. Rajendra
Prasad. In 1959, he founded the Swatantra Party in opposition
to the Congress. Although he is about 90, he takes active interest
in the politics of the country. He is a man of great strength of
character.
It was during his regime as the Governor-General of India that
police action was taken against the Nizam of Hyderabad. Kasim
Razvi and his followers were defeated and Hyderabad became a
part of the Indian Union. During this period, the Constituent
Assembly passed the new Constitution of India which came into
force on 26 January, 1950. The relations between India and
Pakistan were unsatisfactory and there was a lot of tension on
account of the problem of Kashmir and evacuee property.
In 1948 was created the Press Trust of India Limited. This
organisation took over the supply of news to and from India. This
was done on the basis of an agreement with the Reuters. The
agreement enabled the Indian press to get complete control over
its internal news supply. The Press Trust of India is a non-profit
making concern and its membership is open to all newspapers of
India. It has now become independent of the Reuters.
The Government of India set up a Press Laws Enquiry Com-
mittee under the Chairmanship of Shri Ganganath Jha. The Com-
mittee was required to examine all the existing press laws of India
and make its recommendations regarding the direction in which
those should be modified. The Central Legislature nominated
some members to the Committee. Three editors were also recom-
mended by the Indian Newspapers Editors' Conference. The Com-
mittee recommended that an explanation should be added to Sec-
tion 153-A of the Indian Penal Code to the effect that it did not
amount to an offence under that Section to advocate a change in
the social and economic order provided that advocacy did not in-
volve violence. The Committee recommended the repeal of the
Foreign Relations Act, 1932, the Indian States (Protection) Act,
1934 and the Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act, 1931. How-
ever, it was suggested that certain provisions of the Indian Press
(Emergency Powers) Act, 1931 which did not find a place in the
ordinary law of the country, should be incorporated into that law
at suitable places. Section 124-A of the Indian Penal Code should
be amended in such a way as to apply only to those acts which
either incite disorder or are intended or tend to incite disorder.
Section 144 of the Code of Criminal Procedure should not apply to
the press and separate provision should be made for dealing with
## p. 978 (#1022) ###########################################
978
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
the press in urgent cases of apprehended danger. Necessary provi-
sion should be made in the law to empower courts to order the clos-
ing down of a press for a special period in case of repeated viola-
tion of law.
In 1948, the Government of India appointed a University Com-
mission under the Chairmanship of Sir S. Radhakrishnan. The
terms of reference of the Commission were to consider and make
recommendations on the aims and objects of University education
and research in India, the changes considered necessary and desir-
able in the constitution, control, functions and jurisdiction of uni-
versities in India and their relations with the Government of India
and the Provincial Governments, the finances of the universities,
the courses of study in the universities and their duration, the stand-
ards of admission to university courses of study with special refer-
ence to the desirability of an independent university entrance exa-
mination and the avoidance of unfair demonstrations which militate
against the fundamental rights, the medium of instruction in the
universities, the provision for advanced study in Indian culture,
history, literature, languages, philosophy and finance, the mainten-
ance of the highest standards of teaching and examinations in the
universities and the colleges under their control, the organisation
of advanced research in all branches of knowledge in the universi-
ties and institutions of higher research in a well-coordinated fashion
avoiding waste of efforts and resources, religious instruction in the
universities, the qualifications, conditions of service, salaries, privi-
leges and functions of teachers and the encouragement of original
research by teachers, the discipline of students, hostels and the
organisation of tutorial work and any other matter which was
germane and essential to a complete and comprehensive enquiry
into all aspects of university education and advanced research in
India.
After touring the whole of the country, interviewing people and
receiving and considering memoranda from various quarters, the
Commission made its recommendations in 1949. It recommended
the establishment of rural universities with Shantiniketan and
Jamia Millia as their model. It criticised the allocation of small
funds for education. It stressed the necessity of increasing consi-
derably the grant of scholarships and stipends so that the poor
students may not suffer. No college was to be allowed to admit
more than 1,000 students. Where the mother tongue was the same
as the federal language, the federal language was to be the medium
of instruction. If the mother tongue and the federal language
were identical, the students were required to take up any other
Indian, classical or modern language. There was to be no hasty
## p. 979 (#1023) ###########################################
DR. RAJENDRA PRASAD
979
replacement of English as a medium of instruction for high acade-
mic standards. Co-education could be adopted in the secondary
stage and in the college stage. A lot of emphasis was laid on im-
proving the standards of the teaching profession. There were to
be four classes of teachers, viz. , Professors, readers, lecturers and
instructors. The promotion from one category to another was
to be solely on the basis of merit.
DR. RAJENDRA PRASAD (1950-62)
The Constitution of Free India came into force on 26 January,
1950. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected the first President of
India. In 1957, he was re-elected President and he occupied that
office with rare distinction. He was a brilliant scholar. His nobi-
lity, devotion to duty and sincerity were unequalled. He was suc-
ceeded by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan as President in 1962. He was a
remarkable personality in many ways. He was a great Sanskrit
Scholar and he was very near Prime Minister Nehru. Before be-
coming President, he had been the Indian Ambassador in the Soviet
Union and the Vice-President of India. When he retired in 1967,
Dr. Zakir Husain was elected the President. He had hardly com-
pleted two years when he died in May, 1969. Pandit Jawaharlal
Nehru was the Prime Minister of India from 1947 to 1964. He
was succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri as Prime Minister and the lat.
ter continued to occupy that position up to January, 1966. After his
death at Tashkent, Mrs. Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister
of India and she is holding that position up to now.
Indian Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel and Dr.
Rajendra Prasad deserve credit for the manner in which they dealt
with the situation which faced them when India became free.
Before leaving India, British bureaucracy had deliberately made the
administrative machinery unworkable and it was a big problem to
make it work smoothly for the good of the country. Sardar Patel
who was in charge of Home portfolio, played an important part in
this connection. The creation of the Indian Administrative Service
facilitated the task. The old officials also adjusted themselves to
the new environments.
The problem of law and order was a formidable one. As a mat-
ter of fact, it completely broke down at one stage. Disturbances
were of such a serious nature and on such a large scale that law
and order completely broke down and for some time help had to be
taken from the army to restore normal conditions. The difficul-
ties of the Government to maintain law and order in the country
can be appreciated only if we keep in mind the fact that there were
## p. 980 (#1024) ###########################################
980
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
lakhs of refugees in the country who had come to India from Pakis-
tan after losing not only the lives of their kiths and kins but also
after losing all they had in the form of property and were demand-
ing revenge against all those who were responsible for their fate.
Although the problems of the refugees was a very big one, the
same was satisfactorily solved within a few years. The rich got
properties in lieu of the properties left by them in Pakistan and the
poor got help from the Government in many ways to rehabilitate
themselves. A minister of Cabinet rank was put in charge of the
Ministry of Rehabilitation and he was assisted by the Custodian
General of India, Deputy Custodian General of India, Custodians
of Evacuee Property, Claims Officers and a host of other officials
such as Chief Settlement Commissioner, etc.
FIVE YEAR PLANS
Under the dynamic personality of Prime Minister Jawaharlal
Nehru, the Planning Commission was set up in 1950. The First
Five Year Plan was launched in 1951 and it placed special empha-
sis on agricultural production in order to free India irom depen-
dence on overseas supplies. The First Five Year Plan was a great
Production increased by 25% during the five years period.
It was during this period that the great power and irrigation pro-
jects of the Damodar Valley scheme and the Hirakud Dam were
undertaken. Along with these, three new steel plants were started,
sponsored respectively by Great Britain, the United States and the
Soviet Union. The Durgapur Steel Plant was put up with the
assistance of a consortium of British firms. The Bhilai Steel Plant
in Madhya Pradesh was set up with the technical and financial co-
operation of the Soviet Government. The Plant was to produce
Steel ingots and finished products like rails, railway sleepers bars
etc. The Rourkela Plant was set up in collaboration with the
German firms in 1955 and completed in 1961. The Sindri Fertil-
izers and Chemicals in Bihar was started in 1947, with help from
the United States and Great Britain and completed in 1950 That
factory was the biggest of its kind in the East, producing over
300,000 tons of ammonium sulphate annually. The Chittaranjan
Locomotive Factory had already been set up and it made India
self-sufficient in the matter of steam locomotives. The Bhakra-
Nangal Project utilized the waters of the Sutlej in the Punjab for
irrigation facilities and generating power. The American Govern-
ment gave a lot of help in this matter.
success.
The Second Five Year Plan was launched in 1956. In this the
emphasis was on large scale industrialisation. The aim was to in-
## p. 981 (#1025) ###########################################
FIVE YEAR PLANS
981
crease the national income by 25%. The expenditure on the
Second Five Year Plan was double of that of the first Five Year
Plan. Some four thousand millions of pounds were spent in the
public Sector and about two thousand million pounds in the Private
Sector. As all this money was not available in the country, money
had to be borrowed from foreign countries, particularly from the
United States. The Plan was completed with some trimmings and
shortfalls. The Third Five Year Plan was launched in 1962. It
called for an outlay of about eight thousand million pounds out of
which nearly five thousand millions were spent in the Public Sector.
A lot of money for this plan had to be borrowed from foreign coun-
tries. The Government also resorted to deficit financing to find
money for the completion of the Plan. A lot of time has been spent
in the preparation of the Fourth Five Year Plan. There are some
who demand that the next Five Year Plan must be in accordance
with the resources available in the country itself and we must not
depend upon foreign help for the implementation for the next Five
Year Plan. The other view is that we must do what we have been
doing in the past regardless of the resources available in the coun-
try itself. It is contended that all developing countries have to
follow such a policy.
In this connection, it must be mentioned that India has not got
the maximum for the money invested in agriculture and industry.
While India owes more than Rs. Five thousand crores to foreign
countries, the progress made is not adequate. A good bit of money
has been wasted in the Public Sector on account of corruption and
inefficiency. Instead of earning dividends, the Public Sector Under-
takings are showing losses to the tune of crores of rupees every year.
Production in various fields has not kept pace with the growth of
population in the country. Prices have been continuously rising
and with the exception of the rich, the condition of the man in the
street is becoming intolerable. Freedom has not brought what the
common man hoped and prayed for. Hartals and agitations have
become the order of the day.
AGRARIAN LEGISLATION
Under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, an attempt was made
to improve the lot of the peasants. In most of the States, legisla-
tion was passed which abolished Zamindari and gave land to the
tiller. The result was that millions of persons who had been mere-
ly tenants, became the owners of the lands cultivated by them. This
certainly improved their lot. A ceiling was also fixed by the Gov-
ernment beyond which no landlord was allowed to possess land
## p. 982 (#1026) ###########################################
982
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
and the surplus land was distributed among those who were land-
less. There was a lot of opposition to these reforms and even the
Constitution had to be amended to carry out these reforms.
The State Trading Corporation of India was set up in 1955 pri-
marily to handle trade with the iron curtain countries. This com-
pany was given monopoly of trade in cement. The cost of import-
ed cement was higher than that of the cement produced in India
and hence a few years later, the import of cement was discontinued
and the State Trading Corporation continued to hold the internal
trade.
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
The Government of India has spent a lot of money on the com-
munity development programme. This programme was launched
on 2 October, 1952. The aim of the programme is that each vil-
lage should have a plan of all-round development. There should
be an increase in the agricultural production. Village crafts should
be recognised. Not only health education should be given to the
people but they should be provided with minimum health services.
Provisions should be made for educational facilities for children and
adults. Recreational facilities should be provided. Housing and
family living conditions should be improved. The community deve-
lopment programme has not been able to achieve much. It has
failed to "evoke popular initiative. ” The view of Dr. D. R. Gadgil
who at present is the Vice-President of the Planning Commission,
is that the community development programme has not borne the
desired results because “characteristically, it originated with a
foreign expert and was sponsored and worked through top-level
bureaucrats. "
SOCIAL LEGISLATION
The necessity of social legislation was felt at the very beginning.
Prime Minister Nehru was in favour of passing the Hindu Code
Bill which was a comprehensive measure intended to reform various
aspects of Hindu Law. However, there was a lot of opposition
and consequently the Government decided to resort to piecemeal
legislation. In 1955 was passed the Hindu Marriage Act and in
1956 were passed the Hindu Succession Act, the Hindu Minority
and Guardianship Act and the Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance
Act. The new legislation has put women on an equal footing with
men in the matter of succession to and holding of property. The
## p. 983 (#1027) ###########################################
FOREIGN SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA
983
Hindu Marriage Act gives monogamy a legal basis and provides for
divorce with alimony and maintenance.
FOREIGN SETTLEMENTS
When Great Britain gave India independence in August, 1947,
there were many foreign settlements in the country but one by one
all of them have been liquidated. The French settlement of Chan-
darnagar was transferred to India on 2 May, 1950. The transfer
was ratified and became legal two years later and Chandarnagar
was included in West Bengal after a Bill was passed by the Indian
Parliament in 1954. In the same year, the other French settle-
ments of Pondicherry, Karikal, Mahe and Yanam were transferred
to India by the French. The transfer was formally completed on
18 August, 1962 when instruments of ratification were exchanged
between India and France.
In 1954, volunteers from India occupied the villages of Dadra
and Nagar Havelli which formed part of the Portuguese posses-
sions in India. Dadra and Nagar Havelli became a part of the
Indian Union on 11 August, 1961.
from Bengal to feed troops overseas. It should not have forgotten
that Burma which could send rice to Bengal, was in the hands of
the Japanese and there was no way to fill up the gap created by
the Government even if without thinking. The people contended
that both in times of peace and war it was the duty of the Govern-
ment to see that the people had enough to eat and they put all
the blame on Lord Linlithgow for his failure. It could not be said
in his defence that he had no time or energy to look to this aspect
of the matter as his mind was otherwise busy with the war-effort.
India under Wavell had a stable government. The Congress
leaders were in jails. The Muslim League was carrying on its
propaganda in favour of Pakistan without any opposition from any
quarter. It was towards the end of his regime that the Muslim
League became a menace which was difficult to control. It was
during his regime that the Indian army steadily moved forward
into Burma and ultimately captured it. The war was also won
in his time.
As soon as the war ended, the Congress leaders were released
from their jails and they were invited to the Simla Conference
alongwith other leaders. In a very sincere spirit, Lord Wavell
tried to resolve the constitutional deadlock. He tried to prevail
upon the Congress and the Muslim League to join his Executive
Council and help him in the administration of the country. How-
ever, the Simla Conference failed on account of the attitude adopt-
ed by Mr. Jinnah. He was not prepared to allow the Congress to
nominate a Muslim from their quota and the Congress would not
give up its claim to di so. Critics point out that the Congress was
not acting wisely. It is contended that the Congress made a mis-
take in 1939 when it advised the Congress Ministries to resign. If
the Congress Ministries had not resigned, they could have fought
with the British Government from a position of strength. As the
Congress decided to go into exile, its enemies took advantage of it
and during the period between 1939 and 1942, they added to their
strength. They got all the help from the British Government in
this matter. It is contended that the Congress again made a mis-
take in 1942 when it did not accept the Cripps proposals and lost
an opportunity to come to power. This again gave a chance to the
Muslim League to be in the good books of the Government and
## p. 969 (#1013) ###########################################
I. N. A. TRIAL
969
also carry on uninterrupted its propaganda for Pakistan. If the
Congress Ministries had been in office between 1942 and 1945, the
Muslim League would not have got a free hand to do whatever it
pleased. The Congress leaders would have been there to check it.
However, it may be said in defence of the Congress that all these
are the “ifs” of history and nothing can be said with certainty as
to what would have happened if the Congress Ministries had not
resigned or had taken up office again in 1942. Experience shows
that if the Muslim League and its leaders were determined to divide
the country and if there were Englishmen who were equally deter-
mined to help them, the Congress leaders would not have been able
to stop them. Anyway, the failure of the Simla Conference was
unfortunate. Mr. Jinnah got the impression that the things as
they were, the British Government was not prepared to displease
him and this fact he could always keep in his mind in future while
dealing with the British Government. The British Government
would not impose a solution on India which was not acceptable to
Mr. Jinnah.
Two important events took place at this time. The Conserva-
tive Government was replaced by the Labour Government in Eng-
land in July, 1945. The Japanese war also came to a sudden end
in August, 1945. The British Government decided to test the
strength of the Congress and the Muslim League by means of fresh
provincial and Central elections. These elections had been post-
poned throughout the war. The situation was such that the elec-
tions should have been held as soon as possible but the machinery
of the Government moved slowly and it took about six months to
accomplish the job. The electoral machinery proved itself to be
very slow moving. During this period, tension continued to mount.
At this time, the I. N. A. trials took place. The Indian National
Army consisted of those Indian soldiers who had surrendered after
the fall of Singapore and who were later on organized by Subhash
Chandra Bose into a fighting force to assist the Japanese. The
ultimate aim of the Indian National Army was to hoist the National
flag on the Red Fort in Delhi. When the British conquered
Burma, most of the I. N. A. soldiers lost their lives. A few of them
fell into British hands. They were brought to India and court-
martialled in the Red Fort at Delhi. The Congress and the people
of India refused to consider these soldiers as traitors and there was
a lot of resentment in the country. The most prominent Indian
lawyers, headed by Bhulabhai Desai, defended them. Even Jawa-
harlal Nehru put on his gown to defend them. They were found
guilty but the Government remitted their sentences.
When the elections were held, it was found that the Congress
## p. 970 (#1014) ###########################################
970
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
had won most of the Hindu seats and the Muslim League had won
most of the Muslim seats. It could be pointed out that the two Nation
Theory of Mr. Jinnah had been found to be true. The situation
was such that the Congress could block any solution by the British
Government which did not give India complete independence and
the Muslim League could block any solution acceptable to the
Congress which did not give Pakistan to the Muslims. At this
stage, a new development took place. The British ability to im-
pose a decision or even to maintain the status quo began to dwindle
rapidly. The old attitude "we will hold the ring until the two
parties come to an agreement” began to disappear. The British
had neither the physical force nor the will to power nor the moral
conviction to do so. The public opinion in England was not pre-
pared to make any sacrifices to maintain British supremacy in
India. Power was in the hands of the Labour party which believ-
ed that India should be made independent as soon as possible and
hence there was no point in making sacrifices when India was going
to be given independence as soon as possible. The public opinion
in England demanded that the army must be demobilised as soon as
possible. By the spring of 1946, most of the war military units had
disappeared. It is this fact which explains that the British Govern-
ment had no longer sufficient physical force at its disposal to im-
pose its will on the Muslim League. The result was that the British
Government decided to play the role of a peace-maker and nego-
tiator and under these circumstances the Muslim League which
believed in force was bound to have the upper hand in the race with
the Congress which believed in the policy of non-violence. This
explains as to why the Muslim League had its way in August, 1946,
when it resorted to violence in Calcutta and later on in Noakhali.
That also explains why the use of force by the Muslim League in
the month of March, 1947, in the Punjab and the North-Western
Frontier Province won the day and the Congress ultimately decid-
ed to concede Pakistan.
It is pointed out that Lord Wavell had all the qualities of a great
soldier. He was also possessed of great intellectual power and much
goodwill. He could achieve a lot by his initiative. However, he
was out of his element in the dialectical arguments of the current
polemical politics. He was no match for Mr. Jinnah in this field
and no wonder he was not able to play his part well under the
new circumstances.
It was in the month of March, 1946 that the Cabinet Mission
came to India with a determination to resolve the deadlock in the
country.
After a lot of efforts, the Mission was able to prepare an
ingenious plan. It was in two parts. The long term part provid-
## p. 971 (#1015) ###########################################
THE CABINET MISSION
971
ed for a Federal Union of two tiers. The first tier was to consist
of the British Indian provinces which the Indian States were to
join after negotiations. The second tier was to consist of individual
provinces which were to form subordinate Unions of their own.
The Centre was to have powers less than those given to it under
the Cripps proposals of 1942. It was to have control over Defence,
Foreign Affairs and Communications alone. It was hoped that by
giving more powers to the provinces and by creating Regional
Unions of Provinces where the Muslims were in majority and also
by keeping the Centre very weak, the fears of the Muslims would
be met and at the same time the unity of India would be preserved.
To begin with, the Muslim League accepted the Cabinet Mission
plan but the Congress rejected it. Later on, the Congress accepted
it and the Muslim League rejected. The Congress believed that
under the Cabinet Mission Plan the grouping of the Provinces was
not compulsory. The Congress was not prepared to allow Assam
and the North-Western Frontier Province to join their respective
groups. The Muslim League insisted that the grouping of the
Provinces was compulsory and Assam was bound to join Bengal
and the North-Western Frontier Province was bound to join Pun-
jab and Sind. Ultimately, the British Government decided in
favour of the Muslim League. A perusal of the resolution of the
Muslim League by which it accepted the Cabinet Mission Plan
shows that it considered the Plan to be merely a stepping stone to
the realisation of Pakistan in the long run. The Regional Unions
of the Muslim majority provinces could decide at any time to leave
the Indian Union and in that case Pakistan was to consist of the
whole of the Punjab, North-Western Frontier Province, Sind,
Baluchistan, Bengal and Assam. Such an eventuality was not ac-
ceptable to the Congress. The Congress was not in favour of
giving away the whole of Punjab, Bengal and Assam to the Mus-
lim League. Moreover, the Congress did not approve of a weak
Centre. Nothing could be accomplished under such a weak
Centre. Thus there were bound to be differences and misgivings.
When Lord Wavell did not invite the Muslim League to form
the Interim Government in spite of the rejection of the plan by the
Congress, the Muslim League passed a resolution on 29 July, 1946,
by which it withdrew its consent of the Cabinet Mission Plan and
fixed 16 August, 1946, as the Direct Action Day. That Day was
declared a public holiday in Bengal and Sind. What happened on
16 August, in Calcutta and on the subsequent three days is well-
known. There was a terrible loss of life and property in Calcutta.
The same story was repeated when the trouble spread to Noakhali.
There were repercussions in Bihar.
## p. 972 (#1016) ###########################################
972
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
On 2 September, 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru formed the Interim
Government. When the Muslim League found that Lord Wavell
had invited the Congress to form the Interim Government without
it, it decided to enter the Interim Government as it was not pre-
pared to allow power to pass into the hands of the Congress. Lord
Wavell also accommodated the Muslim League and it was allow-
ed to nominate five members to the Executive Council of the Vice-
roy. When the Constituent Assembly met on 9 December, 1946,
the Muslim League boycotted it.
The situation began to worsen in the country and ultimately
Prime Minister Attlee declared on 20 February, 1947 that the Bri-
tish Government would hand over power into the hands of the
Indians by a date not later than June, 1948. He also declared that
the British Government would send Lord Mountbatten to India to
carry out the new policy. It was under these circumstances that
Lord Wavell was recalled before his term of office expired.
LORD MOUNTBATTEN (1947-48)
Before his appointment as the Governor-General and Viceroy of
India, Lord Mountbatten had been the Supreme Allied Comman-
der in South-East Asia during World War II. He played an im-
portant part in the overthrow of the Japanese power in South-East
Asia. From 27 March, 1947 to 15 August, 1947, he was the
Governor-General and Viceroy of the whole of India. After the
partition of India, he became the Governor-General of free India
minus Pakistan. He continued in that position up to June, 1948.
When Lord Mountbatten reached India towards the end of
March 1947, the situation was very critical. The Muslim League
was carrying on its wear and tear campaign all over the country,
particularly in the Punjab, Sind and North-Western Frontier Pro-
vince. The Khizar Hayat Tiwana's ministry was forced to resign
in March and there were riots not only at Lahore but also at
Rawalpindi and its neighbourhood. It is rightly stated that the
Muslims turned upon the Sikhs in Rawalpindi and in a welter of
ferocity, murdered more than 2,000. Even before the announce-
ment of 3 June plan, there were serious disturbances in the Pun-
jab. When the Muslims rioted in Multan, British authority com-
pletely disappeared there. The non-Muslims were completely at
the mercy of the unsocial elements who were instigated and har-
boured by the Muslim League. There were fires in various parts
of Lahore even before 3 June, 1947. Soon after the arrival of Lord
Mountbatten in India, the Muslim League celebrated the Pakistan
Day. The working of the Interim Government was hopelessly un-
## p. 973 (#1017) ###########################################
LORD MOUNTBATTEN
973
satisfactory. On account of the attitude of the Muslim League
members in the Central Government, the work of the Government
was practically at a stand-still. No wonder, Lord Mountbatten
came to the inevitable conclusion that the partition of the country
was the only solution. On the whole, the 3 June plan was accept-
ed by all the political parties and the Indian Independence Act
fixed 15 August, 1947, as the date for making India free and on
that date both India and Pakistan became actually independent.
Credit must go to Lord Mountbatten for the lightning speed with
which he expedited the work of the partitioning of India. Address-
ing the constitution Assembly just before mid-night on 14 August,
1947, Prime Minister Nehru observed: “Long years ago we made
a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem
our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At
the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will
awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but
rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when
an age ends, when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utte-
rance. It is fitting that at this solemn moment we take the pledge
of dedication to the service of India and her people and to still
larger cause of humanity. ” Lord Mountbatten was requested to
continue as the Governor-General of India.
After the declaration of India's independence, the state of Jam-
mu and Kashmir was attacked by the tribal raiders. Prime Mini-
ster Mehr Chand Mahajan protested against the attack and appea-
led both to Pakistan and the British Prime Minister to stop them
but to no avail. Ultimately, the state acceded to India and In-
dian forces were flown to Kashmir to protect the people and drive
out the raiders. India also took the matter to the Security Council
of the United Nations and ultimately a cease-fire was ordered bet-
ween the two countries.
The division of India on communal lines presented insurmoun-
table difficulties. The Boundary Force of 50,000 Indian troops
under the command of Major-General Reese proved inadequate
to maintain law and order in the Punjab after the announcement
of the Radcliffe Boundary Award on 17 August, 1947. The South
Indian troops who could be trusted in that atmosphere were not
readily available. The result was that the Muslims in West Pak-
istan attacked the Hindus and Sikhs and the latter attacked them
in turn in East Punjab. Each tried to exterminate the other.
According to one estimate, “In the nine months between August
1947 and the spring of the following year, between fourteen and
sixteen million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims were forced to leave
their homes and flee to safety from blood crazed mobs. In that
## p. 974 (#1018) ###########################################
974
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
same period, over 600,000 of them were killed. . . . Another
view is that “up to the middle of 1948 about 51/2 million non-
Muslims were brought across the border from West Punjab and
other provinces of Western Pakistan. About the same number of
Muslims moved into Pakistan from East Punjab (including the East
Punjab States), Delhi, the United Provinces, Ajmer-Merwara,
Alwar, Bharatpur, Gwalior and Indore. During the same period
about 114 million non-Muslims crossed the border from East Pakis-
tan into West Bengal. These figures do not of course take into
account about 4,000,000 non-Muslims who later migrated to India
from Sind. ”
When all this was happening convoys were waylaid and refugee
trains were held up and their passengers were slaughtered. Mr.
Justice G. D. Khosla has calculated that about 5 lakhs of people
lost their lives. As East Punjab could not accommodate all the in-
coming refugees, many of them came to Delhi. They occupied
not only streets but also mosques. There was the danger of com-
munal trouble in Delhi and Mahatma Gandhi came to Delhi from
Bengal in October 1947 to reconcile the people. In January 1948
Mahatma Gandhi insisted that India must pay to Pakistan her
agreed assets of Rs. 55 crores which had been withheld owing to
the war in Kashmir and peace must be restored in Delhi and the
Muslim mosques must be evacuated by the Hindus. It was on 18
January, 1948 that Mahatma Gandhi gave up his fast when the
money was paid to Pakistan and the mosques were evacuated by
the Hindus in Delhi. Mahatmaji's action was not liked by some
fanatics among the Hindus and 12 days after (30 January), the
Mahatma was murdered while he was going to his prayer meeting.
The action of the Hindus and Sikhs in turning out the Muslims
from the Punjab and Delhi has been criticised but it must not be
forgotten that the circumstances were such that no human-being
could have acted differently. It is appropriate to quote in this
connection the following passage from V. P. Menon: “The uprooted
millions (from West Punjab) were in a terrible mental state. They
had been driven from their homes under conditions of indescribable
horrors and misery. Not many had the time to plan their evacua-
tion; most had to move out at the shortest possible notice. They
had been subjected to terrible indignities. They had witnessed
their near and dear ones hacked to pieces before their eyes and
their houses ransacked, looted and set on fire by their own neigh-
bours. They had no choice but to seek safety in flight, filled with
wrath at what they had seen, and full of anguish for numberless
missing kinsmen who were still stranded in Pakistan and for their
womenfolk who had been abducted. . . . . . The holocaust in West-
## p. 975 (#1019) ###########################################
LORD MOUNTBATTEN
975
ern Pakistan had its repercussions in East Punjab. The streams
of fleeing refugees with their tales of woe and suffering made a
profound impression on the people. In vain were appeals made
to them to remember that retaliation was no remedy. The spirit
of revenge was abroad, working up communal bitterness to a fren-
zied pitch, till all restraint was thrown to the winds. . . . . .
To under-
stand the attitude of this ‘over-blamed people, one must appreciate
the fact that the Sikhs had been driven out of their homes, contrary
to all their hopes and expectations; that they had been deprived
of their lands and property, their shrines and holy places; that
their losses in men and property had been comparatively greater
than those of any other community affected by the communal up-
heaval; that nearly 40 per cent of the entire Sikh community had
been reduced to penury and had become refugees with the neces-
sity of having to start life afresh. ”
The problem of the rehabilitation of the refugees was a very
difficult one but the same was tackled sympathetically and efficient-
ly. Lands left by the Muslims in India were allotted to the refugees
from West Pakistan. They were granted loans to start their lives
afresh. A machinery was set up to evaluate the properties left by
the refugees in Pakistan and the Government gave the claim-holders
either cash or immovable property in India. Rehabilitation grants
were given to others. The existing cities were expanded and
Model Towns were attached to the old towns. Satellite towns such
as Faridabad were set up to rehabilitate the refugees. The refugees
also showed remarkable courage and facilitated the task of the
Government by self-help.
Lord Mountbatten did a lot of useful work in connection with
the Indian States even before the partition of India. He called
on 25 July, 1947 a conference to discuss the question of the acces-
sion of the Indian States to either India or Pakistan because after
the passing of the Indian Independence Act, British Paramountcy
was going to end and there were to be no treaties between the
Indian States and the Dominions of India and Pakistan. The Con-
ference was attended by more than a hundred princes and the
representatives of the States. Lord Mountbatten tried to impress
upon them the urgency of the matter and the necessity of the States
joining one Dominion or the other before 15 August, 1947. The
efforts of Lord Mountbatten and V. P. Menon were successful and
the result was that most of the states acceded to one Dominion or
the other before 15 August. V. P. Menon facilitated the task of
Lord Mountbatten by drafting an Instrument of Accession which
was acceptable to most of the States as it required them to hand
over to the Central Government only a few subjects. Stand-still
## p. 976 (#1020) ###########################################
976
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
Agreements were to be entered into with those states which were
not able to join one Dominion or the other. It can be said without
exaggeration that the personality of Lord Mountbatten helped to
save the situation which otherwise would have arisen on account
of the ambitions of certain rulers to become independent. Whether
by persuasion or by pressure, most of the Indian rulers were made
to join the Dominion of India. This was the greatest service done
by Lord Mountbatten to India which we must never forget. Even
before 15 August, Lord Mountbatten tried to persuade the Maha-
raja of Jammu & Kashmir to join one Dominion or the other but
his efforts failed. In the case of Hyderabad, Lord Mountbatten
made very serious efforts to persuade the Nizam to accede to India
on very favourable terms. Those efforts he continued up to June,
1948 when he actually left India. He was of the view that the
Nizam had lost a golden opportunity to come to terms with India
and he was doomed.
Lord Mountbatten was so popular in India that a public meet-
ing was held at Delhi to bid him farewell. The sitting of Lord
Mountbatten and Lady Mountbatten along with all the Indian
leaders created a scene which even the Gods could envy. There
was an atmosphere of warmth everywhere. When he actually left,
there was the general feeling that the man who was leaving the
country was their own man. One must not forget to mention
Lady Mountbatten who competed with her husband through her
goodness and nobility. She loved the people of this country and
they loved her in turn. She continued to visit India from time to
time even after June, 1948 and when the sad news of her death
came in 1960, there was genuine sorrow in many hearts in this
country.
RAJAGOPALACHARIAR (1948-50)
Lord Mountbatten was succeeded by Shri C. Rajagopalachariar
who was the Governor-General of India from June, 1948 to January,
1950. He was born in 1879 and started his legal practice after
passing from the Law College, Madras. He gave up a splendid
career at the Bar to fight for the freedom of this country when he
came under the influence of Mahatma Gandhi in 1919. When
Mahatmaji was in prison, Rajagopalachariar edited Young India
with great success. In 1921 and 1922, he became the General Secre-
tary of the Indian National Congress and later on a member of the
All-India Congress Committee. He had his differences with the Con-
gress more than once and in spite of that he was appointed the first
Governor-General of Free India. When the Congress Ministries
## p. 977 (#1021) ###########################################
PRESS LAWS ENQUIRY COMMITTEE
977
were formed in 1937, he was the Chief Minister of Madras. Prime
Minister Jawaharlal Nehru tried to get him elected as the Presi-
dent of India but he failed as the people wanted Dr. Rajendra
Prasad. In 1959, he founded the Swatantra Party in opposition
to the Congress. Although he is about 90, he takes active interest
in the politics of the country. He is a man of great strength of
character.
It was during his regime as the Governor-General of India that
police action was taken against the Nizam of Hyderabad. Kasim
Razvi and his followers were defeated and Hyderabad became a
part of the Indian Union. During this period, the Constituent
Assembly passed the new Constitution of India which came into
force on 26 January, 1950. The relations between India and
Pakistan were unsatisfactory and there was a lot of tension on
account of the problem of Kashmir and evacuee property.
In 1948 was created the Press Trust of India Limited. This
organisation took over the supply of news to and from India. This
was done on the basis of an agreement with the Reuters. The
agreement enabled the Indian press to get complete control over
its internal news supply. The Press Trust of India is a non-profit
making concern and its membership is open to all newspapers of
India. It has now become independent of the Reuters.
The Government of India set up a Press Laws Enquiry Com-
mittee under the Chairmanship of Shri Ganganath Jha. The Com-
mittee was required to examine all the existing press laws of India
and make its recommendations regarding the direction in which
those should be modified. The Central Legislature nominated
some members to the Committee. Three editors were also recom-
mended by the Indian Newspapers Editors' Conference. The Com-
mittee recommended that an explanation should be added to Sec-
tion 153-A of the Indian Penal Code to the effect that it did not
amount to an offence under that Section to advocate a change in
the social and economic order provided that advocacy did not in-
volve violence. The Committee recommended the repeal of the
Foreign Relations Act, 1932, the Indian States (Protection) Act,
1934 and the Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act, 1931. How-
ever, it was suggested that certain provisions of the Indian Press
(Emergency Powers) Act, 1931 which did not find a place in the
ordinary law of the country, should be incorporated into that law
at suitable places. Section 124-A of the Indian Penal Code should
be amended in such a way as to apply only to those acts which
either incite disorder or are intended or tend to incite disorder.
Section 144 of the Code of Criminal Procedure should not apply to
the press and separate provision should be made for dealing with
## p. 978 (#1022) ###########################################
978
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
the press in urgent cases of apprehended danger. Necessary provi-
sion should be made in the law to empower courts to order the clos-
ing down of a press for a special period in case of repeated viola-
tion of law.
In 1948, the Government of India appointed a University Com-
mission under the Chairmanship of Sir S. Radhakrishnan. The
terms of reference of the Commission were to consider and make
recommendations on the aims and objects of University education
and research in India, the changes considered necessary and desir-
able in the constitution, control, functions and jurisdiction of uni-
versities in India and their relations with the Government of India
and the Provincial Governments, the finances of the universities,
the courses of study in the universities and their duration, the stand-
ards of admission to university courses of study with special refer-
ence to the desirability of an independent university entrance exa-
mination and the avoidance of unfair demonstrations which militate
against the fundamental rights, the medium of instruction in the
universities, the provision for advanced study in Indian culture,
history, literature, languages, philosophy and finance, the mainten-
ance of the highest standards of teaching and examinations in the
universities and the colleges under their control, the organisation
of advanced research in all branches of knowledge in the universi-
ties and institutions of higher research in a well-coordinated fashion
avoiding waste of efforts and resources, religious instruction in the
universities, the qualifications, conditions of service, salaries, privi-
leges and functions of teachers and the encouragement of original
research by teachers, the discipline of students, hostels and the
organisation of tutorial work and any other matter which was
germane and essential to a complete and comprehensive enquiry
into all aspects of university education and advanced research in
India.
After touring the whole of the country, interviewing people and
receiving and considering memoranda from various quarters, the
Commission made its recommendations in 1949. It recommended
the establishment of rural universities with Shantiniketan and
Jamia Millia as their model. It criticised the allocation of small
funds for education. It stressed the necessity of increasing consi-
derably the grant of scholarships and stipends so that the poor
students may not suffer. No college was to be allowed to admit
more than 1,000 students. Where the mother tongue was the same
as the federal language, the federal language was to be the medium
of instruction. If the mother tongue and the federal language
were identical, the students were required to take up any other
Indian, classical or modern language. There was to be no hasty
## p. 979 (#1023) ###########################################
DR. RAJENDRA PRASAD
979
replacement of English as a medium of instruction for high acade-
mic standards. Co-education could be adopted in the secondary
stage and in the college stage. A lot of emphasis was laid on im-
proving the standards of the teaching profession. There were to
be four classes of teachers, viz. , Professors, readers, lecturers and
instructors. The promotion from one category to another was
to be solely on the basis of merit.
DR. RAJENDRA PRASAD (1950-62)
The Constitution of Free India came into force on 26 January,
1950. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected the first President of
India. In 1957, he was re-elected President and he occupied that
office with rare distinction. He was a brilliant scholar. His nobi-
lity, devotion to duty and sincerity were unequalled. He was suc-
ceeded by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan as President in 1962. He was a
remarkable personality in many ways. He was a great Sanskrit
Scholar and he was very near Prime Minister Nehru. Before be-
coming President, he had been the Indian Ambassador in the Soviet
Union and the Vice-President of India. When he retired in 1967,
Dr. Zakir Husain was elected the President. He had hardly com-
pleted two years when he died in May, 1969. Pandit Jawaharlal
Nehru was the Prime Minister of India from 1947 to 1964. He
was succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri as Prime Minister and the lat.
ter continued to occupy that position up to January, 1966. After his
death at Tashkent, Mrs. Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister
of India and she is holding that position up to now.
Indian Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel and Dr.
Rajendra Prasad deserve credit for the manner in which they dealt
with the situation which faced them when India became free.
Before leaving India, British bureaucracy had deliberately made the
administrative machinery unworkable and it was a big problem to
make it work smoothly for the good of the country. Sardar Patel
who was in charge of Home portfolio, played an important part in
this connection. The creation of the Indian Administrative Service
facilitated the task. The old officials also adjusted themselves to
the new environments.
The problem of law and order was a formidable one. As a mat-
ter of fact, it completely broke down at one stage. Disturbances
were of such a serious nature and on such a large scale that law
and order completely broke down and for some time help had to be
taken from the army to restore normal conditions. The difficul-
ties of the Government to maintain law and order in the country
can be appreciated only if we keep in mind the fact that there were
## p. 980 (#1024) ###########################################
980
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
lakhs of refugees in the country who had come to India from Pakis-
tan after losing not only the lives of their kiths and kins but also
after losing all they had in the form of property and were demand-
ing revenge against all those who were responsible for their fate.
Although the problems of the refugees was a very big one, the
same was satisfactorily solved within a few years. The rich got
properties in lieu of the properties left by them in Pakistan and the
poor got help from the Government in many ways to rehabilitate
themselves. A minister of Cabinet rank was put in charge of the
Ministry of Rehabilitation and he was assisted by the Custodian
General of India, Deputy Custodian General of India, Custodians
of Evacuee Property, Claims Officers and a host of other officials
such as Chief Settlement Commissioner, etc.
FIVE YEAR PLANS
Under the dynamic personality of Prime Minister Jawaharlal
Nehru, the Planning Commission was set up in 1950. The First
Five Year Plan was launched in 1951 and it placed special empha-
sis on agricultural production in order to free India irom depen-
dence on overseas supplies. The First Five Year Plan was a great
Production increased by 25% during the five years period.
It was during this period that the great power and irrigation pro-
jects of the Damodar Valley scheme and the Hirakud Dam were
undertaken. Along with these, three new steel plants were started,
sponsored respectively by Great Britain, the United States and the
Soviet Union. The Durgapur Steel Plant was put up with the
assistance of a consortium of British firms. The Bhilai Steel Plant
in Madhya Pradesh was set up with the technical and financial co-
operation of the Soviet Government. The Plant was to produce
Steel ingots and finished products like rails, railway sleepers bars
etc. The Rourkela Plant was set up in collaboration with the
German firms in 1955 and completed in 1961. The Sindri Fertil-
izers and Chemicals in Bihar was started in 1947, with help from
the United States and Great Britain and completed in 1950 That
factory was the biggest of its kind in the East, producing over
300,000 tons of ammonium sulphate annually. The Chittaranjan
Locomotive Factory had already been set up and it made India
self-sufficient in the matter of steam locomotives. The Bhakra-
Nangal Project utilized the waters of the Sutlej in the Punjab for
irrigation facilities and generating power. The American Govern-
ment gave a lot of help in this matter.
success.
The Second Five Year Plan was launched in 1956. In this the
emphasis was on large scale industrialisation. The aim was to in-
## p. 981 (#1025) ###########################################
FIVE YEAR PLANS
981
crease the national income by 25%. The expenditure on the
Second Five Year Plan was double of that of the first Five Year
Plan. Some four thousand millions of pounds were spent in the
public Sector and about two thousand million pounds in the Private
Sector. As all this money was not available in the country, money
had to be borrowed from foreign countries, particularly from the
United States. The Plan was completed with some trimmings and
shortfalls. The Third Five Year Plan was launched in 1962. It
called for an outlay of about eight thousand million pounds out of
which nearly five thousand millions were spent in the Public Sector.
A lot of money for this plan had to be borrowed from foreign coun-
tries. The Government also resorted to deficit financing to find
money for the completion of the Plan. A lot of time has been spent
in the preparation of the Fourth Five Year Plan. There are some
who demand that the next Five Year Plan must be in accordance
with the resources available in the country itself and we must not
depend upon foreign help for the implementation for the next Five
Year Plan. The other view is that we must do what we have been
doing in the past regardless of the resources available in the coun-
try itself. It is contended that all developing countries have to
follow such a policy.
In this connection, it must be mentioned that India has not got
the maximum for the money invested in agriculture and industry.
While India owes more than Rs. Five thousand crores to foreign
countries, the progress made is not adequate. A good bit of money
has been wasted in the Public Sector on account of corruption and
inefficiency. Instead of earning dividends, the Public Sector Under-
takings are showing losses to the tune of crores of rupees every year.
Production in various fields has not kept pace with the growth of
population in the country. Prices have been continuously rising
and with the exception of the rich, the condition of the man in the
street is becoming intolerable. Freedom has not brought what the
common man hoped and prayed for. Hartals and agitations have
become the order of the day.
AGRARIAN LEGISLATION
Under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, an attempt was made
to improve the lot of the peasants. In most of the States, legisla-
tion was passed which abolished Zamindari and gave land to the
tiller. The result was that millions of persons who had been mere-
ly tenants, became the owners of the lands cultivated by them. This
certainly improved their lot. A ceiling was also fixed by the Gov-
ernment beyond which no landlord was allowed to possess land
## p. 982 (#1026) ###########################################
982
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
and the surplus land was distributed among those who were land-
less. There was a lot of opposition to these reforms and even the
Constitution had to be amended to carry out these reforms.
The State Trading Corporation of India was set up in 1955 pri-
marily to handle trade with the iron curtain countries. This com-
pany was given monopoly of trade in cement. The cost of import-
ed cement was higher than that of the cement produced in India
and hence a few years later, the import of cement was discontinued
and the State Trading Corporation continued to hold the internal
trade.
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
The Government of India has spent a lot of money on the com-
munity development programme. This programme was launched
on 2 October, 1952. The aim of the programme is that each vil-
lage should have a plan of all-round development. There should
be an increase in the agricultural production. Village crafts should
be recognised. Not only health education should be given to the
people but they should be provided with minimum health services.
Provisions should be made for educational facilities for children and
adults. Recreational facilities should be provided. Housing and
family living conditions should be improved. The community deve-
lopment programme has not been able to achieve much. It has
failed to "evoke popular initiative. ” The view of Dr. D. R. Gadgil
who at present is the Vice-President of the Planning Commission,
is that the community development programme has not borne the
desired results because “characteristically, it originated with a
foreign expert and was sponsored and worked through top-level
bureaucrats. "
SOCIAL LEGISLATION
The necessity of social legislation was felt at the very beginning.
Prime Minister Nehru was in favour of passing the Hindu Code
Bill which was a comprehensive measure intended to reform various
aspects of Hindu Law. However, there was a lot of opposition
and consequently the Government decided to resort to piecemeal
legislation. In 1955 was passed the Hindu Marriage Act and in
1956 were passed the Hindu Succession Act, the Hindu Minority
and Guardianship Act and the Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance
Act. The new legislation has put women on an equal footing with
men in the matter of succession to and holding of property. The
## p. 983 (#1027) ###########################################
FOREIGN SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA
983
Hindu Marriage Act gives monogamy a legal basis and provides for
divorce with alimony and maintenance.
FOREIGN SETTLEMENTS
When Great Britain gave India independence in August, 1947,
there were many foreign settlements in the country but one by one
all of them have been liquidated. The French settlement of Chan-
darnagar was transferred to India on 2 May, 1950. The transfer
was ratified and became legal two years later and Chandarnagar
was included in West Bengal after a Bill was passed by the Indian
Parliament in 1954. In the same year, the other French settle-
ments of Pondicherry, Karikal, Mahe and Yanam were transferred
to India by the French. The transfer was formally completed on
18 August, 1962 when instruments of ratification were exchanged
between India and France.
In 1954, volunteers from India occupied the villages of Dadra
and Nagar Havelli which formed part of the Portuguese posses-
sions in India. Dadra and Nagar Havelli became a part of the
Indian Union on 11 August, 1961.
