No More Learning

Thesis. Antithesis.
cause, which of itself origi uier imposes upon understand nates a series of phenomena ing the difficulty of seeking which proceeds according to the origin of events ever higher natural laws, -- consequently and higher in the series of transcendental freedom, with causes, inasmuch as causality out which even in the course of is always conditioned thereby ; nature the succession of phe whileit compensates this labour nomena on the side of causes by the guarantee of a unity
is never complete.
[ complete and in conformity with law. The latter, on the contrary, holds out to the un-
| derstanding the promise of a point of rest in the chain of causes, by conducting it to an unconditioned causality, which professes to have the power of spontaneous origination, but which, in its own utter blind ness, deprives it of the guidance of rules, by which alone a completely connected experi ence is possible.
? Obskrvitions ok mi Third Antinomy.
I. II.
On the Thesis. On the Antithesis
The transcendental idea of The assertor of the nll-suf
freedom is far from constitut ficiency of nature in regard tc
ing the entire content of the causality (transcendental Phy-
psychological conception so siocracy), in opposition to the termed, which is for the most doctrine of freedom, would de
part empirical. It merely pre fend his view of the question
sents us with the conception of somewhat in the
following of action, as the manner. He would say, in an
spontaneity
proper ground for imputing swer to the sophistical argu freedom to the cause of a ments of the opposite party certain class of objects. Jt If you do not accept mathe however, the true stumbling- matical first, in relation to stone to philosophy, which time, you have no need to seek meets with unconquerable dif- dynnmitnl fi'st, regard to
? ? is, a
in
a
:
? OB8EKTATION8 ON THH TIIIRD AKTINOUT. 281
Thetis. Antithesis.
ficulties in the way of its ad causality. Who compelled yon mitting this kind of uncondi to imagine an absolutely pri
tioned causality. That ele ment in the question of the freedom of the will, which has for so long a time placed
mal condition of the world, and therewith an absolute be ginning of the gradually pro
mena -- and, as some founda perplexity, is properly only tion for this fancy of yours, transcendental, and concerns to set bounds to unlimited
speculative
reason in such
the question, whether there
must be held to exist a fa
culty of spontaneous origi
nation of a series of successive unity of experience renders things or states. How such a I such a supposition quite neces faculty is possible, is not a I sary --there is no difficulty in necessary inquiry ; for in the believing also, that the changes case of natural causality it- in the conditions of these sub self, we are obliged to content stances have always existed ; ourselves with the a priori and, consequently, that a first knowledge that such a causa beginning, mathematical or lity must be presupposed, al dynamical, is by no means re
though we are quite incapable quired. The possibility of of comprehending how the such an infinite derivation, being of one thing is possible without any initial member through the being of another, from which all the others but must for this information result, is certainly quite in look entirely to experience. comprehensible. But if you Now we have demonstrated are rash enough to deny the this necessity of a free first enigmatical secrets of nature beginning of a series of phse- for this reason, you will nomena, only in so far as it i find yourselves obliged to is required for the compre- ' deny also the existence of hension of an origin of the many fundamental properties world, all following states of natural objects (such as being regarded as a succession fundamental forces), which according to laws of nature you can just as little compre alone. But, as there has thus hend ; and even the possi been proved the existence of bility of so simple a concep
a faculty which can of itself tion as that of change must originate a series in tims -- al- present to y? u insuperable dif-
gressing successions of pheno-
nature? Inasmuch as the substancss in the world have always existed--at least the
? ? ? ? 282 TRANBCENDENTAL DIALECTIC.
Then*. Antithetic.
though ire are unable to ex Acuities. For if experience plain how it can exist --we did not teach you that it w<<s feel ourselves authorised to ad real, you never could conceive mit, even in the midst of the a priori the possibility of this natural course of events, a be ceaseless sequence of being and ginning, as regards causality, non-being.
of different successions of phe But if the existence of a nomena, and at the same time transcendental faculty of free to attribute to all substances dom is granted --a faculty of n faculty of free action. But
we ought in this case not to
allow ourselves to fall into
a common misunderstanding,
and to suppose that, because
a successive series in the
world can only have a compara
tively first beginning --another
state or condition of things exists an object which cannot always preceding -- an abso be presented in any possible lutely first beginning of a series perception. But, to attribute in the course of nature is im to substances in the world it possible. For we are not self such a faculty, is quite speaking here of an absolutely inadmissible ; for, in this case, first beginning in relation to the connection of phsenomena time, but as regards causality reciprocally determining and alone. When, for example, I, determined according to gene- completely of my own free I ral laws, which is termed na will, and independently of the ture, and along with it the necessarily determinative in criteria of empirical truth, fluence of natural causes, rise which enable us to distinguish from my chair, there com experience from mere visionary mences with this event, includ dreaming, would almost en ing its material consequences tirely disappear. In proxi in infinitum, an absolutely new mity with such a law less fa series ; although, in relation to culty of freedom, a system of time, this event is merely the nature is hardly cogitable ; continuation of a preceding for the laws of the latter would series. For this resolution be continually subject to the and act of mine do not form intrusive influences of the
part of the succession of effects 1 former, and the gf ' course
originating changes in the world--this faculty must at least exist out of and apart from the world ; although it is certainly a bold assump tion, that, over and above the complete content of all pos sible intuitions, there still
? ? ? ? OBSERVATIONS ON THE THIRD ANTINOMY. 283
Thesis. Antithesis.
in nature, and are not mere phenomena,whichwould other- continuations of it; on the wise proceed regularly and uni- contrary, the determining formly, would become there-
causes of nature cease to ope- rate in reference to this event, which certainly succeeds the acts of nature, but does not proceed from them. For these reasons, the action of a free agent must be termed, in re gard to causality, if not in re lation to time, an absolutely primal beginning of a series of phenomena.
The justification of this need of reason to rest upon a free act as the first beginning of the series of natural causes, is evident from the fact, that all philosophers of antiquity
curean school) felt themselves
by confused and disconnected,
? when constructing t theory of the motions of the universe, to accept a prime
mover, that freely acting cause, which spontaneously and prior to all other causes evolved this series of states.
obliged,
felt the need of mere nature,
They always
going beyond
for the purpose of making
first beginning comprehensi- ble.
? ? a
is, a
? 284 TRANSCENDENTAL DIALECTIC.
ANTINOMY OF PURE REASON.
FOUBTH CONFLICT OF TH<< TBAN8CENDENTAL IDEA*.
Thesis.
There exists either in, or in An absolutely necessary being
connection with the world-- does not exist, either in the
either as n part of or as the cause of -- an absolutely ne cessary being.
Pboof.
The world of sense, as the
world, or outof --as its cause.
Pboof.
Grant that either the world
itself necessary, or that there
contained in necessa-y
sum-total of all phenomena, existence. Two cases are pos
contains series of changes. sible. First, there must either For, without such series, the he in the series of cosmical mental representation of the changes beginning, which series of time itself, as the con unconditionally necessary, and dition of the possibility of the therefore uncaused --which sensuous world, could not be at variance with the dynamical presented to us. * But every law of the determination of all change stands under its con phsenomena in time; or se dition, which precedes condly, the series itself with time and renders neces out beginning, and, although sary. Now the existence of contingent and conditioned
ditioned, which alone ab self-oontradictory. For the solutely necessary. fol existence of an aggregate can lows that something that not be necessary, no single absolutely necessary must exist, part of possesses necessary
given conditions presuppose
complete series of conditions absolutely necessary and un up to the absolutely uncon conditioned as whole --which
existence.
quence. But this necessary Grant on the other hand,
that an absolutely necessary Objectively, time, as the formal cause eiists out of and apart condition of the possibility of change, from the world. This cause,
precedes; ill changes but tubjectiv tly, as the highest member in the and in consciousness, the representa
tion oftime, like every other, given series of the causes of cosmical
aolely occasion of perception. changes, must originate or be-
*
change exists as its conse
Antithesis.
? all its parts, nevertheless
? ? by
is
It is
it
;
if
is aain is
is
it a
a if
is
it a
it
is
iu isis
a
it,
a it
it
is
? roumn antinomy, 385
Thesis. | Antithesis.
tiling itself belongs to the gin* the existence of the latter sensuous world. For suppose and their series. In this caso it to exist out of and apart must also begin to act, and from the series of cosmical its causality would therefore changes would receive from belong to time, and conse
beginning, and yet this ne quently to the sura-total of cessary cause would not itself phsenomena, that to the belong to the world of sense. world. follows that the
cause cannot be out of the world which contradictory to the hypothesis. Therefore, neither in the world, nor out
But this impossible. For, as
the beginning of series in
time determined only that
which precedes time, the
supreme condition of the be of (but in causal connec ginning of series of changes tion with it), does there ex must exist in the time which
? this series itself did not exist
for beginning supposes time
preceding, in which the thing
ist aBy absolutely necessary being.
that begins to be was not
existence. The causality of being regarded as beginning series
the necessary cause of changes, and consequently the cause self, must for these reasons he- long to time--and to phseno-
mena, time being possible only as the form of phenomena.
therefore, contained in the
world, something that abso
lutelynecessary-- whether be the whole cosmical series iUelf, or only a part of it.
of conditions as its effect (infil). 1'he second passive --the causality in the cause itself beginning to 01<<- rate (Jit). reason here from he first to the second.
It may be doubted whether there any passage to be found in the Latin Classics where infil em ployed in any other than neuter sense, as in Plautus, " Infil me per- contarier. " The second significa tion of iryin (anfangen) we shoul4 rather term aeuier. -- 7K
Consequently,
cogitated as separated from the world of sense, --the sum- total of all phenomena. There
cannot be
The word begin taken in two senses. The first active --the cause
? ? is it
a in ;
in by
is,
a
it,
a
is
a f
it
it
it
it
f* is
it
I is
It
I
is
is
is
is,
a
is
is
a
a in
it
;
? 286 TRANSCENDENTAL DIALECTIC. Observations on the Fourth Antinomt.
II.
On the Antithesis.
To demonstrate the exist
ence of a necessary being, I us, in our attempt to rise through cannot be permitted in this the scries of phsenomena to the place to employ any other existence of an absolutely ne than the cosmological argu cessary supreme cause, must ment, which ascends from the not originate from our inabi conditioned in phsenomena to lity to establish the truth of the unconditioned in concep our mere conceptions of the tion --the unconditioned being necessary existence of a thing. considered the necessary con That is to say, our objec dition of the absolute totality tions must not be ontological, of the series. The proof, but must be directed against from the mere idea of a su the causal connection with a preme being, belongs to ano series of phsenomena of a con ther principle of reason, and dition which is itself uncon requires separate discussion. ditioned. In one word, they
I.
On the Thesis.
The pure cosmological proof must be cosmological, and re demonstrates the existence of late to empirical laws. We a necessary being, but nt the must show that the regress in same time leaves it quite un the series of causes (in the settled, -whether this being is
the world itself, or quite dis
tinct from it. To establish
the truth of the latter view,
principles are requisite, which
are not cosmological, and do
not proceed in the series of
phsenomena. We should re --does not justify us in ac
cepting a first cause, that prime originator of the cos
mical series.
The reader will observein this
to introduce into our
quire
proof conceptions
of contin
ing, and also a principle which
gent beings -- regarded merely as objects of the understand
antinomy very remarkable enables us to connect these, contrast. Theverysamegrounda
by means of mere conceptions, of proof which established with a necessary being. But the thesis the existence of su
The difficulties which meet
? world of sense) cannot con clude with an empirically un conditioned condition, and that the
cosmological argument from the contingency of the cosmical state --a contingency alleged to arise from change
? ? a
in
is,
a
a
? OBSEBVAtlOttS OS I1IE fOUMH AUTlNOMf. 287
Thesis. Antithesis.
the proper place for all such preme being, demonstrated in arguments is a transcendent the antithesis --and with equal philosophy, which has unhap strictness --the non-existence pily not yet heen established. of such a being. We found,
But, if we begin our proof first, that a necessary being cosmologically, by laying at exists, because the whole time the foundation of it the series past contains the series of all of phenomena, and the regress conditions, and with there in it according to empirical fore, the unconditioned (the laws of causality, we are not at necessary) secondly, that iiberty to break off from this there does not exist any neces mode of demonstration and to sary being, for the same reason, pass over to something which that the whole time past con is not itself a member of the tains the series of all condi series. The condition must tions -- which are themselves be taken in exactly the same therefore, in the
? aggregate, signification as the relation of conditioned. The cause of the conditioned to its condi this seeming incongruity as
tion in the series has been follows. We attend, iu the taken, for the series must con first argument, solely to the duct us in an unbroken re absolute totality of the series gress to this supreme condi of conditions, the one of which tion. But if this relation is determines the other in time, sensuous, and belongs to the and thus arrive at
necessary possible empirical employment unconditioned. In the second, of the understanding, the su we consider, on the contrary,
preme condition or cause must the contingency of everything close the regressive series ac that determined in the series cording to the laws of sensi time -- for every event bility, and consequently must preceded time, in which belong to the series of time. the condition itself must be It follows that this necessary determined as conditioned --
existence must be regarded as the highest member of the cosmical series.
and thus everything that unconditioned or absolutely necessary disappears. In both, the mode of proof quite in
Certaiu philosophers have,
nevertheless, allowed them accordance with the common selves the liberty of making procedure of human reason, such a sail us (jitrafiatit ilf which often falls into discord aXX* From the changes with itself, from considering
? ? is
a
is
is
[
of
by a
;
is
is
it,
? 288 f ttA>>8CE>>DE>>tAL DIALECTIC
Thesis. Antithetu.
in the world they have con an object from two different cluded their empirical contin points of view. Herr von gency, that their depend Mairan regarded the contro ence on empirically-determined versy between two celebrated causes, and they thus admitted astronomers, which arose from an ascending series of empi similar difficulty as to thf rical conditions and in this choice of proper stand-point, they are quite right. But as as phenomenon of sufficient they could not find in this importance to warrant sepa series any primal begiuning rate treatise on the subject. or any highest member, they The one concluded the moon passed suddenly from the em revolves on its own axis, be pirical conception of contin cause constantly presents gency to the pure category, the same side to the earth which--presents us with the other declared that the series not sensuous, but intel moon does not revolve on iti
? lectual -- whose completeness
does certainly rest upon the
existence of an absolutely ne
cessary cause. Nay, more, this intellectual series not tied to
any sensuous conditions and sidered.
therefore free from the con dition of time, which requires
spontaneously to begin its causality in time. -- But such
inad missible, as will be made plain
procedure perfectly
from what follows.
In the pure sense of the
categories, that contingent, the contradictory opposite of which possible. Now we cannot reason from empirical
to intellectual. The opposite of that which
contingency
chsnged -- the opposite of its state -- actual at (mother time, and therefore possible. Consequently, is not the
own axis, for the same reason. B. th conclusions were per fectly correct, according to the point of view from which the motions of the moot were con
? ? is is it
is
is is
is,
;
is a! a
it is
is
;
it
:
a
:
a a
a
? OBSBBVATIONS ON THE FOURTH ANTIWOMT.
289
Thesis. eontradicfDry opposite of the
,
Antithesis.
former state.
is necessary that in the same 1 time in which the preceding state existed, its opposite could have existed in its place ; but such u cognition is not given
us in the mere phenomenon of change. A body that was in motion=^/, comes into a state of rest= non-A. Now it can not be concluded from the
lowed the state of motion; con sequently, that was also pos sible. But motion at one time, and rest at another time, arc not contradictorily opposed to each other.
follows front what has been said, thatthe suc
cession of opposite determina
tions, that
demonstrate the fact of con
tingency as represented the conceptions of the pure under
standing and that cannot,
To be that, it |
? fact that a state opposite to the state A follows that the contradictory opposite of possible and that A there fore
contingent. To prove this, we should require to know
that the state
have existed in the very same time in which the motion took place. Now we know nothing more than that the state of rest was actual in the time that fol
of rest could
change, does not
therefore,
fact of the existence of ne
cessary being.
Change proves
conduct us to the
? ? ;; is,
it
a in
it,
It
it
is
A is
? SM TRAK8CEKDENTAI.
Thesis.
merely empirical contingency, that is to say, that the new state could not have existed without a cause, which belongs to the preceding time. This cause --even although it is re garded as absolutely necessary --must be presented to us in time, and must belong to the scries of phenomena.
DIALECTIC. Antithesis.
? ANTINOMY OF PURE REASON. Section Thibd.
Of the Interest of Reason in these Self-contradictions.
We have thus completely before us the dialectical procedure of the cosmological ideas. No possible experience can present us with an object adequate to them in extent. Nay, more, reason itself eannot cogitate them as according with the general laws of experience. And yet they are not arbitrary fictions of thought. On the contrary, reason, in its uninterrupted pro gress in the empirical synthesis, is necessarily conducted to tliem, when it endeavours to free from all conditions and to comprehend in its unconditioned totality, that which can only be determined conditionally in accordance with the laws of ex
perience. These dialectical propositions are so many attempts to solve four natural and unavoidable problems of reason. --There are neither more, nor can there be less, than this number, because there are no other series of synthetical hy potheses, limiting & priori the empirical synthesis.
The brilliant claims of reason striving to extend its do minion beyond the limits of experience, have been represented above only in dry formule, which contain merely the ground* of its pretensions. They have, besides, in conformity with the character of a transcendental philosophy, been freed from every empirical element ; although the full splendour of the promises they hold out, and the anticipations they excite, mani fests itself only when in connection with empirical cognitions.
In ' he application of tlicm, however, and in the advancing eu
? ? ? OF TUV. INTEHEST OK REABON IK THE ANTINOMIES.
291
largement of the employment of reason, while struggling to rise from the region of experience And to soar to those sub lime ideas, philosophy discovers a value and a dignity, which, if it could but mak* good its assertions, would raise it far above all other departments of human knowledge -- professing, as it does, to present a sure foundation for our highest hopes and the ultimate aims of all the exertions of reason. The questions : whether the world has a beginning and a limit to its extension in space ; whether there exists anywhere, or per haps, in my own thinking Self an indivisible and indestructible unity--or whether nothing but what is divisible and transitory exists ; whether I am a free agent, or, like other beings, am bound in the chains of nature and fate ; whether, finally, there is a supreme cause of the world, or all our thought and spe culation must end with nature and the order of external things --are questions, for the solution of which the mathematician would willingly exchange his whole science ; for in it there is no satisfaction for the highest aspirations and most ardent desires of humanity. Nay, it may even be said that the true value of mathematics --that pride of human reason -- con sists in this : that she guides reason to the knowledge of nature --in her greater, as well as in her less manifestations -- in her beautiful order and regularity, -- guides her, moreover, to an insight into the wonderful unity of the moving forces in the operations of nature, far beyond the expectations of a
experience ; and that she thus encourages philosophy to extend the province of reason beyond all experience, and at the same time provides it with the most
excellent materials for supporting its investigations, in so far as their nature admits, by adequate and accordant intui
tions. --
? but perhaps fortunately for the practical interests of humanity -- reasin, in the midst of her highest anticipations, finds herself hemmed in by a press of opposite and contradictory conclusions, from which neither
her honour nor her safety wUl permit her to draw back. Nor nan she regard these conflicting trains of reasoning with in difference as mere passages at arms, still less can she command peace ; for in the subject of the conflict she has a deep inte rest. There is no other course left open to her, than to reflect with herself upon the origin of this disunion in reason --
V2
Unfortunately for speculation
? ? ? 292
TBAJTSCENDEKTAL DIALECTIC.
whether it may not arise from a mere misunderstanding. Aftet such an inquiry, arrogant claims would have to be given up on both sides ; but the sovereignty of reason over understanding and sense would be based upon a sure foundation.
We shall at present defer this radical inquiry, and in the meantime consider for a little --what side in the controversy we should most willingly take, if we were obliged to become partisans at nll. As, in this case, we leave out of sight alto gether the logical criterion of truth, and merely consult our own interest in reference to the question, these considerations, although inadequate to settle the question of right in either party, will enable us to comprehend, how those who have taken part in the struggle, adopt the one view rather than the other
? --no special insight into the subject, however, having influenced their choice. They will, at the same time, explain to us many
other things by the way--for example, the fiery zeal on the one side and the cold maintenance of their cause on the other ; why the one party has met with the warmest approbations, and the other has always been repulsed by irrecoucilenble preju dices.
There is one thing, however, that determines the proper point of view, from which alone this preliminary inquiry can be instituted and carried on with the proper completeness, -- and that is the comparison of the principles, from which both sides -- thesis and antithesis, proceed. My readers would re mark in the propositions of the antithesis a complete uniformity in the mode of thought and a perfect unity of principle. Iti principle was that of pure empiricism, not only in the explica tion of the phsenomena in the world, but also in the solution of the transcendental ideas, even of that of the universe itself. The affirmations of the thesis on the contrary, were based, in addition to the empirical mode of explanation employed in the series of phenomena, on intellectual propositions ; and its principles were in so far not simple. I shall term the thesis, in view of its essential characteristic, the dogmatism of pure reason.
On the side of dogmatism, or of the thesis, therefore, hi the 'letermination of the cosmological ideas, we find :
I. A. practical interest, which must be very dear to ever; right-thinking man. That the world has a beginning, --that the nature of my thinking self is simple, and therefore in
? ? ? OF TI1E INTEREST OF RF. ASOX TTT THE ANTIKOMI1S. 293
destructible, --that I nm a free agent, and raised above the compulsion of nature and her laws, -- and, finally, that the entire order of things, which form the world, is dependent upon a Supreme--Being, from whom the whole receives unity and connection, these are so many foundation-stones of mo rality and religion. The antithesis deprives us of all these supports,-- or, at least, seems so to deprive us.
2. A speculative interest of reason manifests itself on tin? side. For, ifwe take the transcendental ideas and employ them in the manner which the thesis directs, we can exhibit completely & priori the entire chain of conditions, and under stand the derivation of the conditioned -- beginning from the unconditioned. This the antithesis does not do ; and for this reason does not meet with so welcome a reception. For it can give no answer to our questions respecting the conditions of its synthesis --except such as must be supplemented by another question, and so on to infinity. According to we must rice from given beginning to one still higher every part conducts us to still smaller one every event pre ceded by another event which its cause and the conditions of existence rest always upon other and still higher conditions, and find neither end nor basis in some self-subsistent thing as the primal being.
3. This side has also the advantage of popularity and this constitutes no small part of its claim to favour. The common understanding does not find the least difficulty in the idea of the unconditioned beginning of all synthesis --ac customed, as rather to follow out consequences, than to seek for proper basis for cognition. In the conception of an absolute first, moreover --the possibility of which does not inquire into-- highly gratified to find firmly-esta
blished point of departure for its attempts at theory while the restless and continuous ascent from the conditioned to the tondition, always with one foot in the air, can find no satisfaction.
On the side of the Antithesis, or Empiricism in the deter mination of the cosmological ideas
Wecannotdiscover any such practical interest arising from pure principles of reason, as morality and religion present. On ihe contrary, pure empiricism seems to empty them of all thcit power and influence. If there does not exist Supreme Being
? ? ? a
1.
:
it
;
a
is, it
is
it in
;
is ;
it,
a
it
a a
is
;
;
? 294 TRAN8CENDENTAI. DIAI. ECTIO.
distinct from the world, -- if the world is without beginning,
without a Creator,-- if our wills are not free, and the soul is divisible and subject to corruption just like matter, --the ideas and principles of morality lose all validity; and fall with the transcendental ideas which constituted their theoretical support.
2. But empiricism, in compensation, holds out to reason, in its speculative interests, certain important advantages, far ex ceeding any that the dogmatist can promise us. For, when employed by the empiricist, understanding is always upon its proper ground of investigation --the field of possible experi ence, the laws of which it can explore, and thus extend its cognition securely and with clear intelligence without being stopped by limits in any direction. Here can it and ought it to find and present to intuition its proper object --not only in itself, but in all its relations ; or, if it employ conceptions, upon this ground it can always present the corresponding images in clear and unmistakable intuitions. It is quite un necessary for it to renounce the guidance of nature, to attach itself to ideas, the objects of which it cannot know ; because, as mere intellectual entities, they cannot be presented in any intuition. On the contrary, it is not even permitted to aban don its proper occupation, under the pretence that it lias been brought to a conclusion, (for it never can be,) and to pass into the region of idealizing reason and transcendent conceptions,
where it is not required to observe and explore the laws of nature, but merely to think and to imagine -- secure from being contradicted by facts, because they have not been called as witnesses, but passed by, or perhaps subordinated to the so-called higher interests and considerations of pure reason.
Hence the empiricist will never allow himself to nccept any epoch of nature for the first -- the absolutely primal state ; he will not believe that there can be limits to his out-look into her wide domains, nor pass from the objects of nature, which he can satisfactorily explain by means of observation and mathematical thought --which he can determine synthetically in intuition, to those which neither sense nor imaginatiou can ever present in concreto; he will not concede the existence of a faculty in nature, operating independently of the laws oi nature -- a concession which would introduce uncertainty iut<< the procedure of the understanding, which is puiJcd hvnecet
consequently
? ? ? ? Or THE INTEREST OF BEA. SON IN THE ANTINOMIES. 295
snry laws to the observation of phenomena ; nor, finally, will he permit himself to seek a cause beyond nature, inasmuch as v/e know nothing but and from alone receive an objective basis for all our conceptions and instruction in the unvarying laves of things.
In truth, the empirical philosopher had no other purpose in the establishment of his antithesis, than to check the pre sumption of reason which mistakes its true destination, which ooasts of its insight and its knowledge, just where all insight and knowledge cease to exist, and regards that which valid only in relation to practical interest, as an advancement of the speculative interests of the mind (in order, when con venient for itself, to break the thread of our physical investi- gations, and, under pretence of extending our cognition, con nect them with transcendental ideas, means of which we really know ouly that we know nothing,) -- say. the em piricist rested satisfied with this benefit, the principle ad vanced him would be maxim recommending moderation in the pretensions of reason and modesty in its affirmations, and at the same time would direct us to the right mode of extend ing the province of the understanding, the help of the only true teacher, experience. In obedience to this advice, intel lectual hypotheses and faith would not be called in aid of our practical interests nor should we introduce them under the pompous titles of science and insight. For specula tive cognition cannot find an objective basis any other where than in experience and, when we overstep its limits, our synthesis, which requires ever new cognitions independent of experience, has no substratum of intuition upon which to
--
? build. -- But
empiricism, in relation to ideas, becomes itself dogmatic, and boldly denies that which above the sphere of its phenomenal cognition, falls itself into the
as often happens
error of intemperance --an error which here all the mors reprehensible, as thereby the practical interest of reason re ceives an irreparable injury.
And this constitutes the opposition between Epicureanism* and Platonism.
? It however, still matter of doubt whether Epicurus ever pro- pounded these principles as directions for the objectite em ploy men ol the understanding. If, indeed, they were nothing more than maxim) for
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Both Epicuri g find Plato assert more in their systems than they know. The former encourages and advances science -- although to the prejudice of the practical ; the latter presents us with excellent principles for the investigation of the prac tical, but, in relation to everything regarding which we can attain to speculative cognition, permits reason to append idealistic explanations of natural pbenomena, to the great injury of physical investigation.
3. In regard to the third motive for the preliminary choice
of a party in this war of assertions, it seems very extraordi
nary that empiricism should be utterly unpopular. We should be inclined to believe, that the common understanding would receive it with pleasure --promising as it does, to satisfy it without passing the bounds of experience and its connected order ; while transcendental dogmatism obliges it to rise to conceptions, which far surpass the intelligence and ability of the most practised thinkers. But in this, in truth, is to be found its real motive. For the common
? understanding thus finds itself in a situation, where not even the most learned can have the advantage of it. If it understands little or nothing about these transcendental conceptions, no one can boast of understanding any more ; and although it may not express itself in so scholastically correct a manner as
others, it can busy itself with reasoning and arguments with
out end, wandering among mere ideas, about which one can
always be very eloquent, because we know nothing about them ; while, in the observation and investigation of nature, it would be forced to remain dumb and to confess its utter igno-
the speculative exerciae of reason, he gives evidence therein of a more genuine philosophic spirit than any of the philosophers of antiquity. That, in the explanation of phenomena, we must proceed as if the field of in quiry had neither limits in space nor commencement in time ; that we must be satisfied with the teaching of experience in reference to the mate rial of which the world is composed ; that we must not look for any other mode of the origination of events than that which is determined by the unalterable laws of nature ; and finally, that we snust not employ the hypothesis of a cause distinct from the world to account for a phenome non or for the world itself -- are principles for the extension of specula tive philosophy, and the discovery of the true sources of the principles of morals, which, however little conformed to in the present day, are un doubtedly correct. At the same time, any on* desirous of ignoring, in mere speculation, these dogmatical propositions, need not for that reasos be accused of denying them.
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ranee. Thus indolence and vanity form of themselves strong recommendations of these principles. Besides, although it is
a hard thing for a philosopher to assume a principle, of which he can give to himself nc reasonable account, and still more
to employ conceptions, the objective reality of which cannot be established, nothing is rqore usual with the common under standing. It wants something, which will allow it to go to work with confidence. The difficulty of even comprehending a supposition, does not disquiet because-- not knowing what comprehending means-- never even thinks of the suppo sition may be adopting as principle and regards as known, that with which has become familiar from constant use. And, at last, all speculative interests disappear before the prac tical interests which holds dear and fancies that un derstands and knows what its necessities and hopes incite
to assume or to believe. Thus the empiricism of transcen- dentally idealizing reason robbed of all popularity and,
however prejudicial may be to the highest practical prin ciples, there no fear that will ever pass the limits of the schools, or acquire any favour or influence society or with the multitude.
Human reason nature architectonic. That to say, regards all cognitions as parts of possible system, and
hence accepts only such principles, as at least do not incapaci
tate cognition to which we may have attained from being
placed along with others in general system. But the pro positions of the antithesis are of character which renders the completion of an edifice of cognitions impossible. Accord ing to these, beyond one state or epoch of the world there always to be found one more ancient in every part always other parts themselves divisible preceding every event ano ther, the origin of which must itself be sought still higher and everything in existence conditioned, and still not dependent on an unconditioned and primal existence. As, therefore, the antithesis will not concede the existence of a first begin ning which might be available as foundation, complete edifice of cognition, in the presence of such hypotheses, utterly impossible. Thus the architectonic interest of reason, which requires unity--not empirical, but a priori and ra tional, forms natural recommendation for the assertions of the thesis in our antinomy.
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But if any one could free himself entirely from all con siderations of interest, and weigh without partiality the asser tions of reason, attending only to tbeir conteut, irrespective of the consequences which follow from them ; such a person, on the supposition that he knew no other way out of the confusion than to settle the truth of one or other of the conflicting doctrines, would lire in a state of continual hesi tation. To-day, he would feel convinced that the humau will is free ; to-morrow, considering the indissoluble chain of nature, he would look on freedom as a mere illusion, and declare nature to be all-in-all. But, if he were called to action, the play of the merely speculative reason would dis appear like the shapes of a dream, and practical interest would dictate his choice of principles. But, as it well befits a reflective and inquiring being to devote certain periods of time to the examination of its own reason -- to divest itself of all partiality, and frankly to communicate its observations for the judgment and opinion of others ; so no one can be blamed for, much less prevented from placing both parties ou their trial, with permission to defend themselves, free from
intimidation, before a sworn jury of equal condition with themselves -- the condition of weak and fallible men.
ANTINOMY OF PURE REASON. Section Foubtn.
Of the necessity imposed upon Pure Reason of presenting n Solution of its Transcendental Problems.
To avow an ability to solve all problems and to answer all questions, would be a profession certain to convict any phi losopher of extravagant boasting and self-conceit, and at once to destroy the confidence that might otherwise have been reposed in him. There are, however, sciences so constituted, that every question arising within their sphere, must neces sarily be capable of receiving an answer from the knowledge already possessed, for the answer must be received from the same sources whence the question arose. In such sciences it is not allowable to excuse ourselves on the plea of necessary and unavoidable ignorance ; a solution is absolutely requisite. The rule of right and wrona must help us to the knowledg*
? ? ? ? Ot THiNSCElTDENTAL PROBIJiitS.
ot what is right or wroug in all possible caset ; otherwise, the idea of obligation or duty would be utterly null, for we cannot have any obligation to that, which we cannot know. On the other hand, in our investigations of the phenomena of nature, much must remain uncertain, and many questions continue insoluble ; because what we know of nature is far from being sufficient to explain all the phenomena that are presented to our observation. Now the question is : Whether there is in transcendental philosophy any question, relating to an object presented to pure reason, which is un
answerable by this reason ; and whether we must regard the subject of the question as quite uncertain --so far as our knowledge extends, and must give it a place among those
subjects, of which we have just so much conception a* is sufficient to enable us to raise a question --faculty or materials failing us, however, when we attempt an answer.
Now 1 maintain, that among all speculative cognition, the peculiarity of transcendental philosophy that there
no question, relating to an object presented to pure reason, which insoluble this reason and that the profession
of unavoidable ignorance --the problem being alleged to be
the reach of our faculties --cannot free us from th<<
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obligation to present complete and satisfactory answer. For the very conception, which enables us to raise the question,
must give us the power of answering object, as in the case of right and wrong, covered out of the conception.
But, in transcendental philosophy,
logical questions, to which we can demand a satisfactory answer in relation to the constitution of their object; and the
philosopher not permitted to avail himself of the pretext of necessary ignorance and impenetrable obscurity. These questions relate solely to the cosmological ideas. For the object, must be given in experience, and the question relates to the adequateness of the object to an idea. If the object
transcendental, and therefore itself unknown the question, for example, whether the object --the something, the phsenomenon of which ^internal --in ourselves^ thought --that to say, the soul, in itself simple being or whether there cause of all things, which absolutely ne cessaiy,-- in such cases we arc seeking for our idea an object.
inasmuch as the not to be dis
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of which we may confess, that it is unknown to us, though we must not on that account assert that it is impossible. * The cosmological ideas alone possess the peculiarity, that wc can presuppose the object of then and the empirical synthesis
requisite for the conception of that object to be given; and the question, which arises from these ideas, relates merely to the progress of this synthesis, in so far as it must contain absolute totality, -- which, however, is not empirical, as it cannot be given in any experience. Now, as the question here is solely in regard to a thing as the object of a possible experience, and not as a thing in itself, the answer to the transcendental cosmological question need not be sought out of the idea, for the question does not regard an object in itself. The question in relation to a possible experience, is not, what ran be given in an experience in concreto, --but, what is contained in the idea, to which the empirical syn thesis must approximate. The question must therefore be capable of solution from the idea alone. For the idea is a creation of reason itself, which therefore cannot disclaim the obligation to answer or refer us to the unknown object.
It is not so extraordinary as it at first sight appears, that a science should demand and expect satisfactory answers to all the questions that may arise within its own sphere (questiones domestical), although, up to a certain time, these answers may not have been discovered. There are, in ad dition to transcendental philosophy, only two pure sciences of reason ; the one with a speculative, the other with a prac tical content --pure mathematics and pure ethics. Has any
? The question, what is the constitution of a transcendental object, is unanswerable -- we are unable to say what it it ; but we can perceive that the question itself it nothing ; becauss it does not relate to any object that can be presented to us. For this reason, we must consider all the questioni raised in transcendental psychology as answerable, and as really answered ; for they relate to the transcendental subject of all internal phenomena, which is not itself phenomenon, and consequently rot given as an object, in which, moreover, none of the categories --and it is to them that the question is properly directed -- find any conditions of its application. Here, therefore, is a case where no answer is the only proper answer. For a question regarding the constitution of a something,
pletely beyond the sf here of objects and experience, is perfectly nul! and void.
? which cannot be cogitated by any determined predicate--being com
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oue ever heard it alleged that, from our complete and ne cessary ignorance of the conditions, it is uncertain what exact relation the diameter of a circle bears to the circle in rational or irrational numbers ? By the former the sum cannot be given exactly, by the latter only approximately ; and therefore we decide, that the impossibility of a solution of the question is evident. Lambert presented us with a demonstration of this. In the general principles of morals there can be nothing uncertain, for the propositions are either utterly without meaning, or must originate solely in our rational conceptions. On the other hand, there must be in physical science an infinite number of conjectures, which can never become certainties ; because the phsenomena of
nature are not given as objects dependent on our conceptions. The key to the solution of such questions cannot therefore be found in our conceptions or in pure thought, but must lie without us, and for that reason is in many cases not to be discovered ; and consequently a satisfactory explanation can not be expected. The quest'ons of transcendental analytic, which relate to the deduction of our pure cognition, are not to be regarded as of the same kind as those mentioned above ; for we are not at present treating of the certainty of judg ments in relation to the origin of our conceptions, but only of that certainty in relation to objects.
We cannot, therefore, escape the responsibility of at least a critical solution of the questions of reason, by complaints of the limited nature of our faculties, and the seemingly hum ble confession that it is beyond the power of our reason to decide, whether the world has existed from all eternity or had a beginning. --whether it is infinitely extended, or enclosed within certain limits, -- whether anything in the world is simple, or whether everything must be capable of infinite divisibility, -- whether freedom can originate phsenomena, or whether everything is absolutely dependent on the laws and order of nature -- and, finally, whether there exists a being that is com pletely unconditioned and necessary, or whether the existence of everything is conditioned and consequently dependent on something external to itself, and therefore in its own nature
contingent. For all these questions relate to an object, which can be given no where else than in thought. This object is the absolutely unconditioned totality of the synthesis of pha>
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nomena. If the conceptions in our minds do not assist us to some certain result in regard to these problems, we must not defend ourselves on the plea that the object itself remains nidden from and unknown to us. For no such thing or object can be given -- it is not to be found out of the idea in our minds. We must seek the cause of our failure in our idea itself, which is an insoluble problem, and in regard to which we obstinately assume that there exists a real object corre sponding and adequate to it. A clear explanation of the dialectic which lies in our conception, will very soon enable us to come to a satisfactory decision in regard to such a question.
The pretext, that we are unable to arrive at certainty in regard to these problems, may be met with this question, which requires at least a plain answer : From what source do the ideas originate, the solution of which involves you in such difficulties ? Are you seeking for an explanation of certain phenomena ; and do you expect these ideas to give you the principles or the rules of this explanation ? Let it be granted, that all nature was laid open before you ; that nothing was hid from your senses and your consciousness. Still, you could not cognize ta eoncreto the object of your ideas in any
For what is demanded, is, not only this full and complete intuition, but also a complete synthesis and the consciousness of its absolute totality; and this is not possible by meansof any empirical cognition. It follows that your question --your idea is by no means necessary for the explanation of any phsenomenon ; and the idea cannot have been in anysense given by the object itself. For such an object cau never be pre sented to us, because it cannot be given by any possible expe rience. Whatever perceptions you may attain to, you are still surrounded by conditions --in space, or in time, and you can not discover anything unconditioned ; nor can you decide whether this unconditioned is to be placed in an absolute beginning of the synthesis, or in an absolute totality of the series without beginning. A whole, in the empirical signifi cation of the term, is always merely comparative. The absolute whole of quantity (the universe), of division, of derivation, of the condition of existence, with the question -- whether it is to be produced by a finite or infinite synthesis, no possible experience can instruct us concerning. You will not, foi
? experience.
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example, be able to explain the phenomena of a body in ths
least degree better, whether you believe it to consist of simple,
or of composite parts ; for a simple phenomenon -- and just as little an infinite series of composition--can never be presented to your perception. Phenomena require and admit of ex planation, only in so far as the conditions of that explanation are given in perception ; but the sum-total of that which is given in phsenomena, considered as an absolute whole, is itself a perception --and we cannot therefore seek for exp1a>> nations of this whole beyond itself, in other perceptions. Tin explanation of this whole is the proper object of the trans cendental problems of pure reason.