]
115 (return)
[ It was the Roman policy to send the recruits raised in the provinces to some distant country, for fear of their desertion or revolt.
115 (return)
[ It was the Roman policy to send the recruits raised in the provinces to some distant country, for fear of their desertion or revolt.
Tacitus
Tacitus here seems to affirm this as universally the case, not having heard that, at the winter solstice, there is a night of equal duration.
]
58 (return)
[ Tacitus, after having given the report of the Britons as he had heard it, probably from Agricola, now goes on to state his own views on the subject. He represents that, as the far north is level, there is nothing, when the sun is in the distant horizon, to throw up a shadow towards the sky: that the light, indeed, is intercepted from the surface of the earth itself, and so there is darkness upon it; but that the sky above is still clear and bright from its rays. And hence he supposes that the brightness of the upper regions neutralizes the darkness on the earth, forming a degree of light equivalent to the evening twilight or the morning dawn, or, indeed, rendering it next to impossible to decide when the evening closes and the morning begins. Compare the following account, taken from a "Description of a Visit to Shetland," in vol. viii. of Chambers' Miscellany:—"Being now in the 60th degree of north latitude, daylight could scarcely be said to have left us during the night, and at 2 o'clock in the morning, albeit the mist still hung about us, we could see as clearly as we can do in London, at about any hour in a November day. "]
59 (return)
[ Mr. Pennant has a pleasing remark concerning the soil and climate of our island, well agreeing with that of Tacitus:—"The climate of Great Britain is above all others productive of the greatest variety and abundance of wholesome vegetables, which, to crown our happiness, are almost equally diffused through all its parts: this general fertility is owing to those clouded skies, which foreigners mistakenly urge as a reproach on our country: but let us cheerfully endure a temporary gloom, which clothes not only our meadows, but our hills, with the richest verdure. "—Brit. Zool. 4to. i. 15. ]
60 (return)
[ Strabo (iv. 138) testifies the same. Cicero, on the other hand, asserts, that not a single grain of silver is found on this island. (Ep. ad Attic, iv. 16. ) If we have recourse to modern authorities, we find Camden mentioning gold and silver mines in Cumberland, silver in Flintshire, and gold in Scotland. Dr. Borlase (Hist. of Cornwall, p. 214) relates, that so late as the year 1753, several pieces of gold were found in what the miners call stream tin; and silver is now got in considerable quantity from several of our lead ores. A curious paper, concerning the Gold Mines of Scotland, is given by Mr. Pennant in Append. (No. x. ) to his second part of a "Tour in Scotland in 1772," and a much more general account of the mines and ores of Great Britain in early times, in his "Tour in Wales of 1773," pp. 51-66. ]
61 (return)
[ Camden mentions pearls being found in the counties of Caernarvon and Cumberland, and in the British sea. Mr. Pennant, in his "Tour in Scotland in 1769," takes notice of a considerable pearl fishery out of the fresh-water mussel, in the vicinity of Perth, from whence 10,000l. worth of pearls were sent to London from 1761 to 1764. It was, however, almost exhausted when he visited the country. See also the fourth volume of Mr. Pennant's Br. Zool. (Class vi. No. 18), where he gives a much more ample account of the British pearls. Origen, in his Comment. on Matthew, pp. 210, 211, gives a description of the British pearl, which, he says, was next in value to the Indian;—"Its surface is of a gold color, but it is cloudy, and less transparent than the Indian. " Pliny speaks of the British unions as follows:—"It is certain that small and discolored ones are produced in Britain; since the deified Julius has given us to understand that the breastplate which he dedicated to Venus Genitrix, and placed in her temple, was made of British pearls. "—ix. 35. ]
62 (return)
[ Caesar's two expeditions into Britain were in the years of Rome 699 and 700. He himself gives an account of them, and they are also mentioned by Strabo and Dio. ]
63 (return)
[ It was the wise policy of Augustus not to extend any further the limits of the empire; and with regard to Britain, in particular, he thought the conquest and preservation of it would be attended with more expense than it could repay. (Strabo, ii. 79, and iv. 138. ) Tiberius, who always professed an entire deference for the maxims and injunctions of Augustus, in this instance, probably, was convinced of their propriety. ]
64 (return)
[ Caligula. ]
65 (return)
[ Claudius invaded Britain in the year of Rome 796, A. D. 43. ]
66 (return)
[ In the parish of Dinder, near Hereford, are yet remaining the vestiges of a Roman encampment, called Oyster-hill, as is supposed from this Ostorius. Camden's Britain, by Gibson, p. 580. ]
67 (return)
[ That of Camalodunum, now Colchester, or Maldon. ]
68 (return)
[ The Mona of Tacitus is the Isle of Anglesey, that of Caesar is the Isle of Man, called by Pliny Monapia. ]
69 (return)
[ The avarice of Catus Decidianus the procurator is mentioned as the cause by which the Britons were forced into this war, by Tacitus, Annal. xiv. 32. ]
70 (return)
[ Julius Classicianus, who succeeded Decidianus, was at variance with the governor, but was no less oppressive to the province. ]
71 (return)
[ By the slaughter of Varus. ]
72 (return)
[ The Rhine and Danube. ]
73 (return)
[ Boadicea, whose name is variously written Boudicea, Bonduca, Voadicea, &c. , was queen of the Iceni, or people of Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, and Huntingdonshire. A particular account of this revolt is given in the Annals, xiv. 31, and seq. ]
74 (return)
[ Of Camalodunum. ]
75 (return)
[ This was in A. D. 61. According to Tac. Hist. i. 6, Petronius Turpilianus was put to death by Galba, A. D. 68. ]
76 (return)
[ The date of his arrival is uncertain. ]
77 (return)
[ He was sent to Britain by Vespasian, A. D. 69. ]
78 (return)
[ The Brigantes inhabited Yorkshire, Lancashire, Westmoreland, Cumberland, and Durham. ]
79 (return)
[ The date of his arrival in Britain is uncertain. This Frontinus is the author of the work on "Stratagems," and, at the time of his appointment to the lieutenancy of Britain, he was curator aquarum at Rome. This, probably, it was that induced him to write his other work on the aqueducts of Rome. ]
80 (return)
[ This seems to relate to his having been curtailed in his military operations by the parsimony of Vespasian, who refused him permission to attack other people than the Silures. See c. 11. ]
81 (return)
[ Where these people inhabited is mentioned in p. 355, note 5. ]
82 (return)
[ This was in the year of Rome 831, of Christ 78. ]
83 (return)
[ Inhabitants of North Wales, exclusive of the Isle of Anglesey. ]
84 (return)
[ I. e. Some were for immediate action, others for delay. Instead of et quibus, we read with Dr. Smith's edition (London, 1850), ut quibus. ]
85 (return)
[ Vexilla is here used for vexillarii. "Under the Empire the name of Vexillarii was given to a distinct body of soldiers supposed to have been composed of veterans, who were released from the military oath and regular service, but kept embodied under a separate flag (vexillum), to render assistance to the army if required, guard the frontier, and garrison recently conquered provinces; a certain number of these supernumeraries being attached to each legion. (Tac. Hist. ii. 83, 100; Ann. i. 36. )"—Rich, Comp. to Dict. and Lex. s. v. Vexillum. ]
86 (return)
[ A pass into the vale of Clwyd, in the parish of Llanarmon, is still called Bwlch Agrikle, probably from having been occupied by Agricola, in his road to Mona. —Mr. Pennant. ]
87 (return)
[ From this circumstance it would appear that these auxiliaries were Batavians, whose skill in this practice is related by Tacitus, Hist. iv. 12. ]
88 (return)
[ It was customary for the Roman generals to decorate with sprigs of laurel the letters in which they sent home the news of any remarkable success. Thus Pliny, xv. 30: "The laurel, the principal messenger of joy and victory among the Romans, is affixed to letters, and to the spears and javelins of the soldiers. " The laurus of the ancients was probably the baytree, and not what we now call laurel. ]
89 (return)
[ Ascire, al. accire, "To receive into regular service. " The reference is to the transfer of soldiers from the supernumeraries to the legions. So Walch, followed by Dronke, Both, and Walther. The next clause implies, that he took care to receive into the service none but the best men (optimum quemque), who, he was confident, would prove faithful (fidelissimum). ]
90 (return)
[ In like manner Suetonius says of Julius Caesar, "He neither noticed nor punished every crime; but while he strictly inquired into and rigorously punished desertion and mutiny, he connived at other delinquencies. "—Life of Julius Caesar, s. 67. ]
91 (return)
[ Many commentators propose reading "exaction," instead of "augmentation. " But the latter may be suffered to remain, especially as Suetonius informs us that "Vespasian, not contented with renewing some taxes remitted under Galba, added new and heavy ones: and augmented the tributes paid by the provinces, even doubling some. "—Life of Vesp. s. 19. ]
92 (return)
[ In the year of Rome 832. A. D. 79. ]
93 (return)
[ Many vestiges of these or other Roman camps yet remain in different parts of Great Britain. Two principal ones, in the county of Annandale, in Scotland, called Burnswork and Middleby, are described at large by Gordon in his Itiner. Septentrion, pp. 16, 18. ]
94 (return)
[ The year of Rome 833, A. D. 80. ]
95 (return)
[ Now the Firth of Tay. ]
96 (return)
[ The principal of these was at Ardoch, seated so as to command the entrance into two valleys, Strathallan and Strathearn. A description and plan of its remains, still in good preservation, are given by Mr. Pennant in his Tour in Scotland in 1772, part ii. p. 101. ]
97 (return)
[ The year of Rome 834, A. D. 81. ]
98 (return)
[ The Firths of Clyde and Forth. ]
99 (return)
[ The neck of land between these opposite arms of the sea is only about thirty miles over. About fifty-five years after Agricola had left the island, Lollius Urbicus, governor of Britain under Antoninus Pius, erected a vast wall or rampart, extending from Old Kirkpatrick on the Clyde, to Caeridden, two miles west of Abercorn, on the Forth, a space of nearly thirty-seven miles, defended by twelve or thirteen forts. These are supposed to have been on the site of those of Agricola. This wall is usually called Graham's dike; and some parts of it are now subsisting. ]
100 (return)
[ The year of Rome 835, A. D. 82. ]
101 (return)
[ Crossing the Firth of Clyde, or Dumbarton Bay, and turning to the western coast of Argyleshire, or the Isles of Arran and Bute. ]
102 (return)
[ The Bay of Biscay. ]
103 (return)
[ The Mediterranean. ]
104 (return)
[ The year of Rome 836, A. D. 83. ]
105 (return)
[ The eastern parts of Scotland, north of the Firth of Forth, where now are the counties of Fife, Kinross, Perth, Angus, &c. ]
106 (return)
[ This legion, which had been weakened by many engagements, was afterwards recruited, and then called Gemina. Its station at this affair is supposed by Gordon to have been Lochore in Fifeshire. Mr. Pennant rather imagines the place of the attack to have been Comerie in Perthshire. ]
107 (return)
[ For an account of these people see Manners of the Germans, c. 32. ]
108 (return)
[ Mr. Pennant had a present made him in Skye, of a brass sword and a denarius found in that island. Might they not have been lost by some of these people in one of their landings? ]
109 (return)
[ The Rhine. ]
110 (return)
[ This extraordinary expedition, according to Dio, set out from the western side of the island. They therefore must have coasted all that part of Scotland, must have passed the intricate navigation through the Hebrides, and the dangerous strait of Pentland Firth, and, after coming round to the eastern side, must have been driven to the mouth of the Baltic Sea, Here they lost their ships; and, in their attempt to proceed homeward by land, were seized as pirates, part by the Suevi, and the rest by the Frisii. ]
111 (return)
[ The year of Rome 837, A. D. 84. ]
112 (return)
[ The scene of this celebrated engagement is by Gordon (Itin. Septent. ) supposed to be in Strathern, near a place now called the Kirk of Comerie, where are the remains of two Roman camps. Mr. Pennant, however, in his Tour in 1772, part ii. p. 96, gives reasons which appear well founded for dissenting from Gordon's opinion. ]
113 (return)
[ The more usual spelling of this name is Galgacus; but the other is preferred as of better authority. ]
114 (return)
[ "Peace given to the world" is a very frequent inscription on the Roman medals.
]
115 (return)
[ It was the Roman policy to send the recruits raised in the provinces to some distant country, for fear of their desertion or revolt. ]
116 (return)
[ How much this was the fate of the Romans themselves, when, in the decline of the empire, they were obliged to pay tribute to the surrounding barbarians, is shown in lively colors by Salvian:—"We call that a gift which is a purchase, and a purchase of a condition the most hard and miserable. For all captives, when they are once redeemed, enjoy their liberty: we are continually paying a ransom, yet are never free. "—De Gubern. Dei, vi. ]
118 (return)
[ The expedition of Claudius into Britain was in the year of Rome 796, from which to the period of this engagement only forty-two years were elapsed. The number fifty therefore is given oratorically rather than accurately. ]
119 (return)
[ The Latin word used here, covinarius, signifies the driver of a covinus, or chariot, the axle of which was bent into the form of a scythe. The British manner of fighting from chariots is particularly described by Caesar, who gives them the name of esseda:—"The following is the manner of fighting from essedae: They first drive round with them to all parts of the line, throwing their javelins, and generally disordering the ranks by the very alarm occasioned by the horses, and the rattling of the wheels: then, as soon as they have insinuated themselves between the troops of horse, they leap from their chariots and fight on foot. The drivers then withdraw a little from the battle, in order that, if their friends are overpowered by numbers, they may have a secure retreat to the chariots. Thus they act with the celerity of horse, and the stability of foot; and by daily use and exercise they acquire the power of holding up their horses at full speed down a steep declivity, of stopping them suddenly, and turning in a short compass; and they accustom themselves to run upon the pole, and stand on the cross-tree, and from thence with great agility to recover their place in the chariot. "—Bell. Gall. iv. 33. ]
120 (return)
[ These targets, called cetrae, in the Latin, were made of leather. The broad sword and target were till very lately the peculiar arms of the Highlanders. ]
121 (return)
[ Several inscriptions have been found in Britain commemorating the Tungrian cohorts. ]
122 (return)
[ The great conciseness of Tacitus has rendered the description of this battle somewhat obscure. The following, however, seems to have been the general course of occurrences in it:—The foot on both sides began the engagement. The first line of the Britons which was formed on the plain being broken, the Roman auxiliaries advanced up the hill after them. In the meantime the Roman horse in the wings, unable to withstand the shock of the chariots, gave way, and were pursued by the British chariots and horse, which then fell in among the Roman infantry, These, who at first had relaxed their files to prevent their being out-fronted, now closed, in order better to resist the enemy, who by this means were unable to penetrate them. The chariots and horse, therefore, became entangled amidst the inequalities of the ground, and the thick ranks of the Romans; and, no longer able to wheel and career as upon the open plain, gave not the least appearance of an equestrian skirmish: but, keeping their footing with difficulty on the declivity, were pushed off, and scattered in disorder over the field. ]
123 (return)
[ People of Fifeshire. ]
124 (return)
[ Where this was does not appear. Brotier calls it Sandwich, making it the same as Rutupium: others Plymouth or Portsmouth. It is clear, however, this cannot be the case, from the subsequent words. —White. ]
125 (return)
[ This circumnavigation was in a contrary direction to that of the Usipian deserters, the fleet setting out from the Firth of Tay on the eastern coast, and sailing round the northern, western, and southern coasts, till it arrived at the port of Sandwich in Kent. After staying here some time to refit, it went to its former station, in the Firth of Forth, or Tay. ]
126 (return)
[ It was in this same year that Domitian made his pompous expedition into Germany, from whence he returned without ever seeing the enemy. ]
127 (return)
[ Caligula in like manner got a number of tall men with their hair dyed red to give credit to a pretended victory over the Germans. ]
128 (return)
[ Thus Pliny, in his Panegyric on Trajan, xlviii. , represents Domitian as "ever affecting darkness and secrecy, and never emerging from his solitude but in order to make a solitude. "]
129 (return)
[ Not the triumph itself, which, after the year of Rome 740 was no longer granted to private persons, but reserved for the imperial family. This new piece of adulation was invented by Agrippa in order to gratify Augustus. The "triumphal ornaments" which were still bestowed, were a peculiar garment, statue, and other insignia which had distinguished the person of the triumphing general. ]
130 (return)
[ Of Dover. ]
131 (return)
[ Domitian, it seems, was afraid that Agricola might refuse to obey the recall he forwarded to him, and even maintain his post by force. He therefore despatched one of his confidential freedmen with an autograph letter, wherein he was informed Syria was given to him as his province. This, however, was a mere ruse: and hence it was not to be delivered as Agricola had already set out on his return. In compliance with these instructions, the freedman returned at once to Domitian, when he found Agricola on his passage to Rome According to Dion (liii. ), the emperor's lieutenants were required to leave their province immediately upon the arrival of their successor, and return to Rome within three months. —White. ]
132 (return)
[ Agricola's successor in Britain appears to have been Sallustius Lucullus, who, as Suetonius informs us, was put to death by Domitian because he, permitted certain lances of a new construction to be palled Lucullean. —Life of Domitian, s. 10. ]
133 (return)
[ Of this worst kind of enemies, who praise a man in order to render him obnoxious, the emperor Julian, who had himself suffered greatly by them, speaks feelingly in his 12th epistle to Basilius;—"For we live together not in that state of dissimulation, which, I imagine, you have hitherto experienced: in which those who praise you, hate you with a more confirmed aversion than your most inveterate enemies. "]
134 (return)
[ These calamitous events are recorded by Suetonius in his Life of Domitian. ]
135 (return)
[ The Rhine and Danube. ]
136 (return)
[ The two senior consulars cast lots for the government of Asia and Africa. ]
137 (return)
[ Suetonius relates that Civica Cerealis was put to death in his proconsulate of Asia, on the charge of meditating a revolt. (Life of Domitian, s. 10. )]
138 (return)
[ Obliging persons to return thanks for an injury was a refinement in tyranny frequently practised by the worst of the Roman emperors. Thus Seneca informs us, that "Caligula was thanked by those whose children had been put to death, and whose property had been confiscated. " (De Tranquil, xiv. ) And again;—"The reply of a person who had grown old in his attendance on kings, when he was asked how he had attained a thing so uncommon in courts as old age? is well known. It was, said he, by receiving injuries, and returning thanks. "—De Ira, ii. 33. ]
139 (return)
[ From a passage in Dio, lxxviii. p. 899, this sum appears to have been decies sestertium, about 9,000l. sterling. ]
140 (return)
[ Thus Seneca: "Little souls rendered insolent by prosperity have this worst property, that they hate those whom they have injured. "—De Ira, ii. 33. ]
141 (return)
[ Several who suffered under Nero and Domitian erred, though nobly, in this respect. ]
142 (return)
[ A Greek epigram still extant of Antiphilus, a Byzantine, to the memory of a certain Agricola, is supposed by the learned to refer to the great man who is the subject of this work. It is in the Anthologia, lib. i. tit. 37. ]
143 (return)
[ Dio absolutely affirms it; but from the manner in which Tacitus, who had better means of information, speaks of it, the story was probably false. ]
144 (return)
[ It appears that the custom of making the emperor co-heir with the children of the testator was not by any means uncommon. It was done in order to secure the remainder to the family. Thus Prasutagus, king of the Iceni in Britain, made Nero co-heir with his two daughters. Thus when Lucius Vetus was put to death by Nero, his friends urged him to leave part of his property to the emperor, that his grandsons might enjoy the rest. (Ann. xvi. 11. ) Suetonius (viii. 17) mentions that Domitian used to seize the estates of persons the most unknown to him, if any one could be found to assert that the deceased had expressed an intention to make the emperor his heir. —White. ]
145 (return)
[ Caligula. This was A. D. 40, when he was sole consul. ]
146 (return)
[ According to this account, the birth of Agricola was on June 13th, in the year of Rome 793, A. D. 40; and his death on August 23d, in the year of Rome 846 A. D. 93: for this appears by the Fasti Consulares to have been the year of the consulate of Collega and Priscus. He was therefore only in his fifty-fourth year when he died; so that the copyists must probably have written by mistake LVI. instead of LIV. ]
147 (return)
[ From this representation, Dio appears to have been mistaken in asserting that Agricola passed the latter part of his life in dishonor and penury. ]
148 (return)
[ Juvenal breaks out in a noble strain of indignation against this savage cruelty, which distinguished the latter part of Domitian's reign:
Atque utinam his potius nugis tota illa dedisset
Tempora saevitiae: claras quibus abstulit Urbi
Illustresque animas impune, et vindice nullo.
Sed periit, postquam cerdonibus esse timendus
Coeperat: hoc nocuit Lamiarum, caede madenti. —Sat. iv. 150.
"What folly this! but oh! that all the rest
Of his dire reign had thus been spent in jest!
And all that time such trifles had employ'd
In which so many nobles he destroy'd!
He safe, they unrevenged, to the disgrace
Of the surviving, tame, patrician race!
But when he dreadful to the rabble grew,
Him, who so many lords had slain, they slew. "—DUKE. ]
149 (return)
[ This happened in the year of Rome 848. ]
150 (return)
[ Carus and Massa, who were proverbially infamous as informers, are represented by Juvenal as dreading a still more dangerous villain, Heliodorus.
—Quem Massa timet, quem munere palpat
Carus. —Sat. i. 35.
"Whom Massa dreads, whom Carus soothes with bribes. "
Carus is also mentioned with deserved infamy by Pliny and Martial. He was a mimic by profession. ]
151 (return)
[ Of this odious instrument of tyranny, Pliny the younger thus speaks: "The conversation turned upon Catullus Messalinus, whose loss of sight added the evils of blindness to a cruel disposition. He was irreverent, unblushing, unpitying, Like a weapon, of itself blind and unconscious, he was frequently hurled by Domitian against every man of worth. " (iv. 22. ) Juvenal launches the thunder of invective against him in the following lines:—
Et cum mortifero prudens Vejento Catullo,
Qui numquam visae flagrabat amore puellae,
Grande, et conspicuum nostro quoque tempore monstrum,
Caecus adulator, dirusque a ponte satelles,
Dignus Aricinos qui mendicaret ad axes,
Blandaque devexae jactaret basia rhedae. —Sat. iv. 113.
"Cunning Vejento next, and by his side
Bloody Catullus leaning on his guide:
Decrepit, yet a furious lover he,
And deeply smit with charms he could not see.
A monster, that ev'n this worst age outvies,
Conspicuous and above the common size.
A blind base flatterer; from some bridge or gate,
Raised to a murd'ring minister of state.
Deserving still to beg upon the road,
And bless each passing wagon and its load. "—DUKE. ]
152 (return)
[ This was a famous villa of Domitian's, near the site of the ancient Alba, about twelve miles from Rome. The place is now called Albano, and vast ruins of its magnificent edifices still remain. ]
153 (return)
[ Tacitus, in his History, mentions this Massa Baebius as a person most destructive to all men of worth, and constantly engaged on the side of villains. From a letter of Pliny's to Tacitus, it appears that Herennius Senecio and himself were joined as counsel for the province of Boetica in a prosecution of Massa Baebius; and that Massa after his condemnation petitioned the consuls for liberty to prosecute Senecio for treason. ]
154 (return)
[ By "our own hands," Tacitus means one of our own body, a senator. As Publicius Certus had seized upon Helvidius and led him to prison, Tacitus imputes the crime to the whole senatorian order. To the same purpose Pliny observes: "Amidst the numerous villanies of numerous persons, nothing appeared more atrocious than that in the senate-house one senator should lay hands on another, a praetorian on a consular man, a judge on a criminal. "—B. ix. ep. 13. ]
155 (return)
[ Helvidius Priscus, a friend of Pliny the younger, who did not suffer his death to remain unrevenged. See the Epistle above referred to. ]
156 (return)
[ There is in this place some defect in the manuscripts, which critics have endeavored to supply in different manners. Brotier seems to prefer, though he does not adopt in the text, "nos Mauricum Rusticumque divisimus," "we parted Mauricus and Rusticus," by the death of one and the banishment of the other. The prosecution and crime of Rusticus (Arulenus) is mentioned at the beginning of this piece, c. 2. Mauricus was his brother. ]
157 (return)
[ Herennius Senecio. See c. 2. ]
158 (return)
[ Thus Pliny, in his Panegyr. on Trajan, xlviii. : "Domitian was terrible even to behold; pride in his brow, anger in his eyes, a feminine paleness in the rest of his body, in his face shamelessness suffused in a glowing red. " Seneca, in Epist. xi. remarks, that "some are never more to be dreaded than when they blush; as if they had effused all their modesty. Sylla was always most furious when the blood had mounted into his cheeks. "]
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58 (return)
[ Tacitus, after having given the report of the Britons as he had heard it, probably from Agricola, now goes on to state his own views on the subject. He represents that, as the far north is level, there is nothing, when the sun is in the distant horizon, to throw up a shadow towards the sky: that the light, indeed, is intercepted from the surface of the earth itself, and so there is darkness upon it; but that the sky above is still clear and bright from its rays. And hence he supposes that the brightness of the upper regions neutralizes the darkness on the earth, forming a degree of light equivalent to the evening twilight or the morning dawn, or, indeed, rendering it next to impossible to decide when the evening closes and the morning begins. Compare the following account, taken from a "Description of a Visit to Shetland," in vol. viii. of Chambers' Miscellany:—"Being now in the 60th degree of north latitude, daylight could scarcely be said to have left us during the night, and at 2 o'clock in the morning, albeit the mist still hung about us, we could see as clearly as we can do in London, at about any hour in a November day. "]
59 (return)
[ Mr. Pennant has a pleasing remark concerning the soil and climate of our island, well agreeing with that of Tacitus:—"The climate of Great Britain is above all others productive of the greatest variety and abundance of wholesome vegetables, which, to crown our happiness, are almost equally diffused through all its parts: this general fertility is owing to those clouded skies, which foreigners mistakenly urge as a reproach on our country: but let us cheerfully endure a temporary gloom, which clothes not only our meadows, but our hills, with the richest verdure. "—Brit. Zool. 4to. i. 15. ]
60 (return)
[ Strabo (iv. 138) testifies the same. Cicero, on the other hand, asserts, that not a single grain of silver is found on this island. (Ep. ad Attic, iv. 16. ) If we have recourse to modern authorities, we find Camden mentioning gold and silver mines in Cumberland, silver in Flintshire, and gold in Scotland. Dr. Borlase (Hist. of Cornwall, p. 214) relates, that so late as the year 1753, several pieces of gold were found in what the miners call stream tin; and silver is now got in considerable quantity from several of our lead ores. A curious paper, concerning the Gold Mines of Scotland, is given by Mr. Pennant in Append. (No. x. ) to his second part of a "Tour in Scotland in 1772," and a much more general account of the mines and ores of Great Britain in early times, in his "Tour in Wales of 1773," pp. 51-66. ]
61 (return)
[ Camden mentions pearls being found in the counties of Caernarvon and Cumberland, and in the British sea. Mr. Pennant, in his "Tour in Scotland in 1769," takes notice of a considerable pearl fishery out of the fresh-water mussel, in the vicinity of Perth, from whence 10,000l. worth of pearls were sent to London from 1761 to 1764. It was, however, almost exhausted when he visited the country. See also the fourth volume of Mr. Pennant's Br. Zool. (Class vi. No. 18), where he gives a much more ample account of the British pearls. Origen, in his Comment. on Matthew, pp. 210, 211, gives a description of the British pearl, which, he says, was next in value to the Indian;—"Its surface is of a gold color, but it is cloudy, and less transparent than the Indian. " Pliny speaks of the British unions as follows:—"It is certain that small and discolored ones are produced in Britain; since the deified Julius has given us to understand that the breastplate which he dedicated to Venus Genitrix, and placed in her temple, was made of British pearls. "—ix. 35. ]
62 (return)
[ Caesar's two expeditions into Britain were in the years of Rome 699 and 700. He himself gives an account of them, and they are also mentioned by Strabo and Dio. ]
63 (return)
[ It was the wise policy of Augustus not to extend any further the limits of the empire; and with regard to Britain, in particular, he thought the conquest and preservation of it would be attended with more expense than it could repay. (Strabo, ii. 79, and iv. 138. ) Tiberius, who always professed an entire deference for the maxims and injunctions of Augustus, in this instance, probably, was convinced of their propriety. ]
64 (return)
[ Caligula. ]
65 (return)
[ Claudius invaded Britain in the year of Rome 796, A. D. 43. ]
66 (return)
[ In the parish of Dinder, near Hereford, are yet remaining the vestiges of a Roman encampment, called Oyster-hill, as is supposed from this Ostorius. Camden's Britain, by Gibson, p. 580. ]
67 (return)
[ That of Camalodunum, now Colchester, or Maldon. ]
68 (return)
[ The Mona of Tacitus is the Isle of Anglesey, that of Caesar is the Isle of Man, called by Pliny Monapia. ]
69 (return)
[ The avarice of Catus Decidianus the procurator is mentioned as the cause by which the Britons were forced into this war, by Tacitus, Annal. xiv. 32. ]
70 (return)
[ Julius Classicianus, who succeeded Decidianus, was at variance with the governor, but was no less oppressive to the province. ]
71 (return)
[ By the slaughter of Varus. ]
72 (return)
[ The Rhine and Danube. ]
73 (return)
[ Boadicea, whose name is variously written Boudicea, Bonduca, Voadicea, &c. , was queen of the Iceni, or people of Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, and Huntingdonshire. A particular account of this revolt is given in the Annals, xiv. 31, and seq. ]
74 (return)
[ Of Camalodunum. ]
75 (return)
[ This was in A. D. 61. According to Tac. Hist. i. 6, Petronius Turpilianus was put to death by Galba, A. D. 68. ]
76 (return)
[ The date of his arrival is uncertain. ]
77 (return)
[ He was sent to Britain by Vespasian, A. D. 69. ]
78 (return)
[ The Brigantes inhabited Yorkshire, Lancashire, Westmoreland, Cumberland, and Durham. ]
79 (return)
[ The date of his arrival in Britain is uncertain. This Frontinus is the author of the work on "Stratagems," and, at the time of his appointment to the lieutenancy of Britain, he was curator aquarum at Rome. This, probably, it was that induced him to write his other work on the aqueducts of Rome. ]
80 (return)
[ This seems to relate to his having been curtailed in his military operations by the parsimony of Vespasian, who refused him permission to attack other people than the Silures. See c. 11. ]
81 (return)
[ Where these people inhabited is mentioned in p. 355, note 5. ]
82 (return)
[ This was in the year of Rome 831, of Christ 78. ]
83 (return)
[ Inhabitants of North Wales, exclusive of the Isle of Anglesey. ]
84 (return)
[ I. e. Some were for immediate action, others for delay. Instead of et quibus, we read with Dr. Smith's edition (London, 1850), ut quibus. ]
85 (return)
[ Vexilla is here used for vexillarii. "Under the Empire the name of Vexillarii was given to a distinct body of soldiers supposed to have been composed of veterans, who were released from the military oath and regular service, but kept embodied under a separate flag (vexillum), to render assistance to the army if required, guard the frontier, and garrison recently conquered provinces; a certain number of these supernumeraries being attached to each legion. (Tac. Hist. ii. 83, 100; Ann. i. 36. )"—Rich, Comp. to Dict. and Lex. s. v. Vexillum. ]
86 (return)
[ A pass into the vale of Clwyd, in the parish of Llanarmon, is still called Bwlch Agrikle, probably from having been occupied by Agricola, in his road to Mona. —Mr. Pennant. ]
87 (return)
[ From this circumstance it would appear that these auxiliaries were Batavians, whose skill in this practice is related by Tacitus, Hist. iv. 12. ]
88 (return)
[ It was customary for the Roman generals to decorate with sprigs of laurel the letters in which they sent home the news of any remarkable success. Thus Pliny, xv. 30: "The laurel, the principal messenger of joy and victory among the Romans, is affixed to letters, and to the spears and javelins of the soldiers. " The laurus of the ancients was probably the baytree, and not what we now call laurel. ]
89 (return)
[ Ascire, al. accire, "To receive into regular service. " The reference is to the transfer of soldiers from the supernumeraries to the legions. So Walch, followed by Dronke, Both, and Walther. The next clause implies, that he took care to receive into the service none but the best men (optimum quemque), who, he was confident, would prove faithful (fidelissimum). ]
90 (return)
[ In like manner Suetonius says of Julius Caesar, "He neither noticed nor punished every crime; but while he strictly inquired into and rigorously punished desertion and mutiny, he connived at other delinquencies. "—Life of Julius Caesar, s. 67. ]
91 (return)
[ Many commentators propose reading "exaction," instead of "augmentation. " But the latter may be suffered to remain, especially as Suetonius informs us that "Vespasian, not contented with renewing some taxes remitted under Galba, added new and heavy ones: and augmented the tributes paid by the provinces, even doubling some. "—Life of Vesp. s. 19. ]
92 (return)
[ In the year of Rome 832. A. D. 79. ]
93 (return)
[ Many vestiges of these or other Roman camps yet remain in different parts of Great Britain. Two principal ones, in the county of Annandale, in Scotland, called Burnswork and Middleby, are described at large by Gordon in his Itiner. Septentrion, pp. 16, 18. ]
94 (return)
[ The year of Rome 833, A. D. 80. ]
95 (return)
[ Now the Firth of Tay. ]
96 (return)
[ The principal of these was at Ardoch, seated so as to command the entrance into two valleys, Strathallan and Strathearn. A description and plan of its remains, still in good preservation, are given by Mr. Pennant in his Tour in Scotland in 1772, part ii. p. 101. ]
97 (return)
[ The year of Rome 834, A. D. 81. ]
98 (return)
[ The Firths of Clyde and Forth. ]
99 (return)
[ The neck of land between these opposite arms of the sea is only about thirty miles over. About fifty-five years after Agricola had left the island, Lollius Urbicus, governor of Britain under Antoninus Pius, erected a vast wall or rampart, extending from Old Kirkpatrick on the Clyde, to Caeridden, two miles west of Abercorn, on the Forth, a space of nearly thirty-seven miles, defended by twelve or thirteen forts. These are supposed to have been on the site of those of Agricola. This wall is usually called Graham's dike; and some parts of it are now subsisting. ]
100 (return)
[ The year of Rome 835, A. D. 82. ]
101 (return)
[ Crossing the Firth of Clyde, or Dumbarton Bay, and turning to the western coast of Argyleshire, or the Isles of Arran and Bute. ]
102 (return)
[ The Bay of Biscay. ]
103 (return)
[ The Mediterranean. ]
104 (return)
[ The year of Rome 836, A. D. 83. ]
105 (return)
[ The eastern parts of Scotland, north of the Firth of Forth, where now are the counties of Fife, Kinross, Perth, Angus, &c. ]
106 (return)
[ This legion, which had been weakened by many engagements, was afterwards recruited, and then called Gemina. Its station at this affair is supposed by Gordon to have been Lochore in Fifeshire. Mr. Pennant rather imagines the place of the attack to have been Comerie in Perthshire. ]
107 (return)
[ For an account of these people see Manners of the Germans, c. 32. ]
108 (return)
[ Mr. Pennant had a present made him in Skye, of a brass sword and a denarius found in that island. Might they not have been lost by some of these people in one of their landings? ]
109 (return)
[ The Rhine. ]
110 (return)
[ This extraordinary expedition, according to Dio, set out from the western side of the island. They therefore must have coasted all that part of Scotland, must have passed the intricate navigation through the Hebrides, and the dangerous strait of Pentland Firth, and, after coming round to the eastern side, must have been driven to the mouth of the Baltic Sea, Here they lost their ships; and, in their attempt to proceed homeward by land, were seized as pirates, part by the Suevi, and the rest by the Frisii. ]
111 (return)
[ The year of Rome 837, A. D. 84. ]
112 (return)
[ The scene of this celebrated engagement is by Gordon (Itin. Septent. ) supposed to be in Strathern, near a place now called the Kirk of Comerie, where are the remains of two Roman camps. Mr. Pennant, however, in his Tour in 1772, part ii. p. 96, gives reasons which appear well founded for dissenting from Gordon's opinion. ]
113 (return)
[ The more usual spelling of this name is Galgacus; but the other is preferred as of better authority. ]
114 (return)
[ "Peace given to the world" is a very frequent inscription on the Roman medals.
]
115 (return)
[ It was the Roman policy to send the recruits raised in the provinces to some distant country, for fear of their desertion or revolt. ]
116 (return)
[ How much this was the fate of the Romans themselves, when, in the decline of the empire, they were obliged to pay tribute to the surrounding barbarians, is shown in lively colors by Salvian:—"We call that a gift which is a purchase, and a purchase of a condition the most hard and miserable. For all captives, when they are once redeemed, enjoy their liberty: we are continually paying a ransom, yet are never free. "—De Gubern. Dei, vi. ]
118 (return)
[ The expedition of Claudius into Britain was in the year of Rome 796, from which to the period of this engagement only forty-two years were elapsed. The number fifty therefore is given oratorically rather than accurately. ]
119 (return)
[ The Latin word used here, covinarius, signifies the driver of a covinus, or chariot, the axle of which was bent into the form of a scythe. The British manner of fighting from chariots is particularly described by Caesar, who gives them the name of esseda:—"The following is the manner of fighting from essedae: They first drive round with them to all parts of the line, throwing their javelins, and generally disordering the ranks by the very alarm occasioned by the horses, and the rattling of the wheels: then, as soon as they have insinuated themselves between the troops of horse, they leap from their chariots and fight on foot. The drivers then withdraw a little from the battle, in order that, if their friends are overpowered by numbers, they may have a secure retreat to the chariots. Thus they act with the celerity of horse, and the stability of foot; and by daily use and exercise they acquire the power of holding up their horses at full speed down a steep declivity, of stopping them suddenly, and turning in a short compass; and they accustom themselves to run upon the pole, and stand on the cross-tree, and from thence with great agility to recover their place in the chariot. "—Bell. Gall. iv. 33. ]
120 (return)
[ These targets, called cetrae, in the Latin, were made of leather. The broad sword and target were till very lately the peculiar arms of the Highlanders. ]
121 (return)
[ Several inscriptions have been found in Britain commemorating the Tungrian cohorts. ]
122 (return)
[ The great conciseness of Tacitus has rendered the description of this battle somewhat obscure. The following, however, seems to have been the general course of occurrences in it:—The foot on both sides began the engagement. The first line of the Britons which was formed on the plain being broken, the Roman auxiliaries advanced up the hill after them. In the meantime the Roman horse in the wings, unable to withstand the shock of the chariots, gave way, and were pursued by the British chariots and horse, which then fell in among the Roman infantry, These, who at first had relaxed their files to prevent their being out-fronted, now closed, in order better to resist the enemy, who by this means were unable to penetrate them. The chariots and horse, therefore, became entangled amidst the inequalities of the ground, and the thick ranks of the Romans; and, no longer able to wheel and career as upon the open plain, gave not the least appearance of an equestrian skirmish: but, keeping their footing with difficulty on the declivity, were pushed off, and scattered in disorder over the field. ]
123 (return)
[ People of Fifeshire. ]
124 (return)
[ Where this was does not appear. Brotier calls it Sandwich, making it the same as Rutupium: others Plymouth or Portsmouth. It is clear, however, this cannot be the case, from the subsequent words. —White. ]
125 (return)
[ This circumnavigation was in a contrary direction to that of the Usipian deserters, the fleet setting out from the Firth of Tay on the eastern coast, and sailing round the northern, western, and southern coasts, till it arrived at the port of Sandwich in Kent. After staying here some time to refit, it went to its former station, in the Firth of Forth, or Tay. ]
126 (return)
[ It was in this same year that Domitian made his pompous expedition into Germany, from whence he returned without ever seeing the enemy. ]
127 (return)
[ Caligula in like manner got a number of tall men with their hair dyed red to give credit to a pretended victory over the Germans. ]
128 (return)
[ Thus Pliny, in his Panegyric on Trajan, xlviii. , represents Domitian as "ever affecting darkness and secrecy, and never emerging from his solitude but in order to make a solitude. "]
129 (return)
[ Not the triumph itself, which, after the year of Rome 740 was no longer granted to private persons, but reserved for the imperial family. This new piece of adulation was invented by Agrippa in order to gratify Augustus. The "triumphal ornaments" which were still bestowed, were a peculiar garment, statue, and other insignia which had distinguished the person of the triumphing general. ]
130 (return)
[ Of Dover. ]
131 (return)
[ Domitian, it seems, was afraid that Agricola might refuse to obey the recall he forwarded to him, and even maintain his post by force. He therefore despatched one of his confidential freedmen with an autograph letter, wherein he was informed Syria was given to him as his province. This, however, was a mere ruse: and hence it was not to be delivered as Agricola had already set out on his return. In compliance with these instructions, the freedman returned at once to Domitian, when he found Agricola on his passage to Rome According to Dion (liii. ), the emperor's lieutenants were required to leave their province immediately upon the arrival of their successor, and return to Rome within three months. —White. ]
132 (return)
[ Agricola's successor in Britain appears to have been Sallustius Lucullus, who, as Suetonius informs us, was put to death by Domitian because he, permitted certain lances of a new construction to be palled Lucullean. —Life of Domitian, s. 10. ]
133 (return)
[ Of this worst kind of enemies, who praise a man in order to render him obnoxious, the emperor Julian, who had himself suffered greatly by them, speaks feelingly in his 12th epistle to Basilius;—"For we live together not in that state of dissimulation, which, I imagine, you have hitherto experienced: in which those who praise you, hate you with a more confirmed aversion than your most inveterate enemies. "]
134 (return)
[ These calamitous events are recorded by Suetonius in his Life of Domitian. ]
135 (return)
[ The Rhine and Danube. ]
136 (return)
[ The two senior consulars cast lots for the government of Asia and Africa. ]
137 (return)
[ Suetonius relates that Civica Cerealis was put to death in his proconsulate of Asia, on the charge of meditating a revolt. (Life of Domitian, s. 10. )]
138 (return)
[ Obliging persons to return thanks for an injury was a refinement in tyranny frequently practised by the worst of the Roman emperors. Thus Seneca informs us, that "Caligula was thanked by those whose children had been put to death, and whose property had been confiscated. " (De Tranquil, xiv. ) And again;—"The reply of a person who had grown old in his attendance on kings, when he was asked how he had attained a thing so uncommon in courts as old age? is well known. It was, said he, by receiving injuries, and returning thanks. "—De Ira, ii. 33. ]
139 (return)
[ From a passage in Dio, lxxviii. p. 899, this sum appears to have been decies sestertium, about 9,000l. sterling. ]
140 (return)
[ Thus Seneca: "Little souls rendered insolent by prosperity have this worst property, that they hate those whom they have injured. "—De Ira, ii. 33. ]
141 (return)
[ Several who suffered under Nero and Domitian erred, though nobly, in this respect. ]
142 (return)
[ A Greek epigram still extant of Antiphilus, a Byzantine, to the memory of a certain Agricola, is supposed by the learned to refer to the great man who is the subject of this work. It is in the Anthologia, lib. i. tit. 37. ]
143 (return)
[ Dio absolutely affirms it; but from the manner in which Tacitus, who had better means of information, speaks of it, the story was probably false. ]
144 (return)
[ It appears that the custom of making the emperor co-heir with the children of the testator was not by any means uncommon. It was done in order to secure the remainder to the family. Thus Prasutagus, king of the Iceni in Britain, made Nero co-heir with his two daughters. Thus when Lucius Vetus was put to death by Nero, his friends urged him to leave part of his property to the emperor, that his grandsons might enjoy the rest. (Ann. xvi. 11. ) Suetonius (viii. 17) mentions that Domitian used to seize the estates of persons the most unknown to him, if any one could be found to assert that the deceased had expressed an intention to make the emperor his heir. —White. ]
145 (return)
[ Caligula. This was A. D. 40, when he was sole consul. ]
146 (return)
[ According to this account, the birth of Agricola was on June 13th, in the year of Rome 793, A. D. 40; and his death on August 23d, in the year of Rome 846 A. D. 93: for this appears by the Fasti Consulares to have been the year of the consulate of Collega and Priscus. He was therefore only in his fifty-fourth year when he died; so that the copyists must probably have written by mistake LVI. instead of LIV. ]
147 (return)
[ From this representation, Dio appears to have been mistaken in asserting that Agricola passed the latter part of his life in dishonor and penury. ]
148 (return)
[ Juvenal breaks out in a noble strain of indignation against this savage cruelty, which distinguished the latter part of Domitian's reign:
Atque utinam his potius nugis tota illa dedisset
Tempora saevitiae: claras quibus abstulit Urbi
Illustresque animas impune, et vindice nullo.
Sed periit, postquam cerdonibus esse timendus
Coeperat: hoc nocuit Lamiarum, caede madenti. —Sat. iv. 150.
"What folly this! but oh! that all the rest
Of his dire reign had thus been spent in jest!
And all that time such trifles had employ'd
In which so many nobles he destroy'd!
He safe, they unrevenged, to the disgrace
Of the surviving, tame, patrician race!
But when he dreadful to the rabble grew,
Him, who so many lords had slain, they slew. "—DUKE. ]
149 (return)
[ This happened in the year of Rome 848. ]
150 (return)
[ Carus and Massa, who were proverbially infamous as informers, are represented by Juvenal as dreading a still more dangerous villain, Heliodorus.
—Quem Massa timet, quem munere palpat
Carus. —Sat. i. 35.
"Whom Massa dreads, whom Carus soothes with bribes. "
Carus is also mentioned with deserved infamy by Pliny and Martial. He was a mimic by profession. ]
151 (return)
[ Of this odious instrument of tyranny, Pliny the younger thus speaks: "The conversation turned upon Catullus Messalinus, whose loss of sight added the evils of blindness to a cruel disposition. He was irreverent, unblushing, unpitying, Like a weapon, of itself blind and unconscious, he was frequently hurled by Domitian against every man of worth. " (iv. 22. ) Juvenal launches the thunder of invective against him in the following lines:—
Et cum mortifero prudens Vejento Catullo,
Qui numquam visae flagrabat amore puellae,
Grande, et conspicuum nostro quoque tempore monstrum,
Caecus adulator, dirusque a ponte satelles,
Dignus Aricinos qui mendicaret ad axes,
Blandaque devexae jactaret basia rhedae. —Sat. iv. 113.
"Cunning Vejento next, and by his side
Bloody Catullus leaning on his guide:
Decrepit, yet a furious lover he,
And deeply smit with charms he could not see.
A monster, that ev'n this worst age outvies,
Conspicuous and above the common size.
A blind base flatterer; from some bridge or gate,
Raised to a murd'ring minister of state.
Deserving still to beg upon the road,
And bless each passing wagon and its load. "—DUKE. ]
152 (return)
[ This was a famous villa of Domitian's, near the site of the ancient Alba, about twelve miles from Rome. The place is now called Albano, and vast ruins of its magnificent edifices still remain. ]
153 (return)
[ Tacitus, in his History, mentions this Massa Baebius as a person most destructive to all men of worth, and constantly engaged on the side of villains. From a letter of Pliny's to Tacitus, it appears that Herennius Senecio and himself were joined as counsel for the province of Boetica in a prosecution of Massa Baebius; and that Massa after his condemnation petitioned the consuls for liberty to prosecute Senecio for treason. ]
154 (return)
[ By "our own hands," Tacitus means one of our own body, a senator. As Publicius Certus had seized upon Helvidius and led him to prison, Tacitus imputes the crime to the whole senatorian order. To the same purpose Pliny observes: "Amidst the numerous villanies of numerous persons, nothing appeared more atrocious than that in the senate-house one senator should lay hands on another, a praetorian on a consular man, a judge on a criminal. "—B. ix. ep. 13. ]
155 (return)
[ Helvidius Priscus, a friend of Pliny the younger, who did not suffer his death to remain unrevenged. See the Epistle above referred to. ]
156 (return)
[ There is in this place some defect in the manuscripts, which critics have endeavored to supply in different manners. Brotier seems to prefer, though he does not adopt in the text, "nos Mauricum Rusticumque divisimus," "we parted Mauricus and Rusticus," by the death of one and the banishment of the other. The prosecution and crime of Rusticus (Arulenus) is mentioned at the beginning of this piece, c. 2. Mauricus was his brother. ]
157 (return)
[ Herennius Senecio. See c. 2. ]
158 (return)
[ Thus Pliny, in his Panegyr. on Trajan, xlviii. : "Domitian was terrible even to behold; pride in his brow, anger in his eyes, a feminine paleness in the rest of his body, in his face shamelessness suffused in a glowing red. " Seneca, in Epist. xi. remarks, that "some are never more to be dreaded than when they blush; as if they had effused all their modesty. Sylla was always most furious when the blood had mounted into his cheeks. "]
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