No More Learning

It was the same the next day, and all the following days for
several weeks. As soon as the pin was taken from its case, the
good woman ran to her cabbages; always beginning over again
to calculate how many there were of big ones, of little ones, of
smooth ones and frizzled ones.
At first Dénès seemed charmed with this liberty; but little
by little he became less eager. He had taught Téphany all his
songs.
He had told her all his plans. Now he was obliged to
seek something to tell her, and to get it ready beforehand as
a minister does his sermon. Sometimes, even, giving his carting
and wheeling as excuse, he did not come at all; and Téphany
had her trouble for nothing. She saw that her lover's affection
had cooled, and became more sad than before.
One day when she had waited in vain for the young man,
she took her pitcher and went to the fountain, her heart heavy
with grief.
As she reached it, she saw the same old woman who had
given her the magic pin. She was standing near the spring;
and seeing Téphany, she began with a little laugh like a grass-
hopper's note:-
"Ah! Ah! The pretty girl is happier, isn't she, now that
she can converse with her lover at any hour of the day? "


## p. 13702 (#528) ##########################################

13702
EMILE SOUVESTRE
"Alas! for that I must be with him," answered Téphany
sadly, "and familiarity has rendered my company less pleasing to
him. Ah! aunt, since you gave me the means of seeing him
every day, you should have given me at the same time enough
wit to keep him. "
"Is that what my daughter would like? " asked the old wo-
man. "Then here is a feather plucked from the wing of a wise
angel. When she places it in her hair, nothing can stop her;
for she will have as much wit and cunning as Master Jean him-
self" [mischievous elf].
Téphany, red with joy, seized the feather; and the next day,
before Dénès's visit, she stuck it in her blue hair-band. At the
same instant it seemed to her that the sun was rising in her
mind. She knew all that the kloeirs take ten years to learn,
and many things that the wisest do not know at all; for with the
learning of men, she had too the cunning of women. So Dénès
was astonished at all she said to him. She spoke in verse like
the bazvalanes [matchmakers], knew more songs than the beggars
of Scaër, and repeated the local stories told at all the lime-kilns
and mills of the country.
The young man returned the next day, and the following
days; and Téphany always found something new to tell him.
Dénès had never seen a man or a woman with so much wit;
but after enjoying it, he grew frightened. Téphany had not
been able to keep from wearing her feather for others than him.
Her songs and malicious speeches were repeated everywhere, and
every one said:-
"She has a bad heart. Whoever marries her will be led by
the bridle.
>>
--
The young man from Plover repeated this prediction to him-
self; and as he had always thought he would rather hold the
bridle than wear it, he began to find it more difficult to laugh
at Téphany's pleasantries.
One day when he was going to a dance in a new barn, the
young girl exercised all her wit to keep him away; but Dénès,
who did not wish to be influenced, would not listen to her, and
repulsed her prayers.
"Ah! I see very well why you are so anxious about the new
barn," said Téphany, vexed. "You will meet Azilicz of Penenru
there! "
Azilicz was the prettiest girl in the canton; and according to
all her good friends, the most coquettish. Penenru was near


## p. 13703 (#529) ##########################################

ÉMILE SOUVESTRE
13703
Plover; so the pretty girl and Dénès had become acquainted from
living in the same neighborhood.
"Yes, Azilicz will be there," said Dénès, who liked to make
his sweetheart jealous; "and to see her is worth going a long
way. "
"Go then where your heart leads you," said the young girl,
wounded.
And she went back to the house, refusing to hear anything
more.
But she sat down on the hearth, overcome with sadness; and
after thinking a long time, she exclaimed as she threw down the
wonderful feather which had been given her:—
"What good does wit do young girls, since the men are drawn
by beauty as flies by the sun? Ah! what I needed, old aunt,
was not to be the most learned, but the most beautiful. "
"Be then also the most beautiful," answered a voice suddenly.
Téphany turned, astonished, and saw near the door the old
woman with the thorn staff, who said to her:-
-
"Take this necklace; and as long as you wear it around your
neck, you will seem among other women like the queen of the
fields among other wild flowers. "
Téphany could not repress a cry of joy. She hastened to
put on the necklace, ran to her little mirror, and stood there
delighted. Never was girl so pink and so white,-so charming
to look at.
Wishing to judge at once of the effect she produced upon
Dénès, she dressed in her best; put on her woolen stockings and,
her buckled shoes, and took the road toward the new barn.
But behold, when she reached the cross-road, she met a young
lord, who at sight of her made his coachman stop.
"By my life! " he cried with admiration, "I did not know
there was such a beautiful creature in the country; and if it were
to cost me my soul, she must bear my name. "
But Téphany answered him:-
«Go on, sir.
Go on your way. I am only a poor peasant
used to winnowing, and milking, and mowing. "
"And I will make you a great lady! " answered the lord, tak-
ing her hand and trying to lead her to his carriage.
The young girl hung back.
"I do not wish to marry any one but Dénès, the laborer from
Plover," she said resolutely.


## p. 13704 (#530) ##########################################

13704
ÉMILE SOUVESTRE
He wished to insist; but when he saw her approaching the
ditch in order to escape into the wheat-field, he ordered his serv-
ants to seize her and put her by force in the carriage, which
started again on a gallop.
At the end of an hour they reached the castle, which was
built of cut stones and covered with slate, as the houses of the
nobility are. The young lord sent out for a priest to marry
them; and since, while they were waiting, Téphany refused to
listen to him and tried to escape, he had her shut up in a great
room closed by three bolted doors, and ordered his servants to
guard her. But with her pin Téphany sent them all to the gar-
den to count cabbages; with her feather she discovered a fourth
door hidden in the wood-work; and she escaped. Then, fervently
recommending herself to God, she fled through the underbrush
like a hare which has heard the hounds.
She went as long as she could, until night began to fall.
Then she saw the belfry of a convent, and knocked at the little
grated door to ask for shelter; but on seeing her the porter shook
her head.
"Go on, go on," she said: "there is no place here for such
pretty girls running on the roads alone at this hour. "
And closing the gate, she went away without listening to any-
thing more.
Forced to go on, Téphany stopped at the door of a farm-
house where several women were chatting with some young fel-
lows, and made the same request as at the convent.
The mistress of the house hesitated to answer; but all the
young men, amazed at Téphany's beauty, exclaimed at once, offer-
ing to take her to their fathers' houses, and each one trying to
promise her more than the others. From promises they came
to quarrels, and from quarrels to blows; so that the frightened
women began to scold Téphany, telling her it was a great shame
to come and trouble the men with her beauty. The poor girl,
beside herself, tried to escape; but the young men pursued her.
Then she remembered her necklace; and tearing it from her
neck, she threw it around that of a sow which was browsing in
the spearwort. At the same instant the charm vanished from
her, and all the young men began to chase the frightened beast.
Téphany went on in spite of fatigue; and finally reached her
aunt's farm, very weary, and still more sad. Her wishes had suc-
ceeded so ill thus far that it was several days before she made


## p. 13705 (#531) ##########################################

ÉMILE SOUVESTRE
13705
another. However, Dénès came more and more irregularly. He
had undertaken to cultivate a warren, and worked there from
morning to night. When the young girl expressed regret at not
seeing him, he always answered that his work was their only
resource, and that one must have dowries and inheritances to
spend time chatting.
Then Téphany began to complain and to wish.
"God pardon me! " she said to herself; "but what I should
have asked was not liberty to see Dénès every day, for he is tired
of it; nor wit, for he is afraid of it; nor beauty, for it causes
trouble and distrust: but instead, money, with which one is mas-
ter of oneself and others. Ah! if I dared make one more request
of the old aunt, I should be wiser. "
"Be satisfied," said the voice of the old beggar, whom Téphany
could not see. "If you look in your right pocket you will find a
little box. Rub your eyes with the ointment it contains, and you
will have in yourself a treasure. "
The young girl quickly sought in her pocket, found the box,
opened it, and was rubbing her eyes as directed when Barbaïk
Bourhis entered.
She, who for some time had been losing whole days in spite
of herself at counting cabbages, seeing all the farm work behind-
hand, only wanted an occasion to vent her ill-temper on some
one. Finding her niece seated and idle, she clasped her hands.
"So that is the way you work when I am out! " she ex-
claimed. "Ah! I am
"Ah! I am no longer surprised to find ruin in the
house! Aren't you ashamed thus to steal the bread of a rela-
tive ? »
Téphany wanted to excuse herself, but Barbaïk's anger was
like milk heated over a brush fire: as soon as it boils, it bub-
bles up and goes over. From reproaches she passed to threats,
and from threats to a blow. Téphany, who had borne the rest
patiently enough, could not help weeping; but judge her sur-
prise when she saw that each of her tears was a beautiful pearl,
round and shining.
Mother Bourhis, who also perceived this, cried out with admi-
ration and began to gather them.
Dénès, who entered at this moment, was not less amazed.
"Pearls! genuine pearls! " he cried, taking them.
"It's a fortune! " said Barbaïk, who went on gathering them.
"Ah! what fairy has bestowed this gift? "


## p. 13706 (#532) ##########################################

13706
ÉMILE SOUVESTRE
"No one must know about it, Dénès; I will share with you,
but with no one else. Keep on, my girl, keep on. You will
profit too. "
He thought only of
She held her apron, and Dénès his hat.
the pearls, and forgot they were tears.
Téphany, choking, tried to escape; but her aunt stopped her,
reproaching her with wanting to wrong them, and repeating what-
ever would make her weep more. The young girl sought to
control herself, and wiped her eyes.
"It's over already! " cried Barbaïk. "Ah! Blessed Mary! If
I had such a gift, I would not want to stop any more than the big
spring on the green road. Can't we beat her a little to see? "
"No," interrupted Dénès: "we must not tire her too much at
first. I will go at once to town and find out how much each
pearl is worth. "
Barbaïk and he went out together, guessing the value in ad-
vance, and settling the division, in which Téphany was forgotten.
She pressed her clasped hands against her heart with a sigh,
and raised her eyes to heaven; but they fell upon the old beg-
gar, who, leaning upon her staff in the darkest corner of the
hearth, was looking at her with a mocking air. The young girl
trembled; and seizing the pin, the feather, and the box of oint-
ment-
—
"Take them back, take them all back," she cried wildly.
"Misfortune to those who are not content with what God gave!
He had endowed me according to his wisdom, which I foolishly
questioned Carry liberty, wit, beauty, and riches to others. I
am not, and I do not want to be, anything but the simple girl
I was, loving and serving as well as I could. "
"Very well, Téphany," answered the old woman. "The trial
is over: let it profit you. The Trinity sent me to give you this
lesson. I am your guardian angel: now that you understand the
truth you will live tranquilly, for God has promised peace to
well-intentioned hearts. "
With these words the beggar changed into an angel gleaming
with light, dispersing the perfume of incense and violets through
the house, then vanishing like a flash.
Téphany forgave Dénès for wanting to sell her tears. Be-
come less exacting, she accepted such happiness as one may have
upon earth; and she married the young man from Plover, who
was always a good husband and a courageous worker.


## p. 13706 (#533) ##########################################



## p. 13706 (#534) ##########################################


HERBERT SPENCER.
D. Grosch


## p. 13706 (#535) ##########################################

!
:
***
1
1. L
! . . PULIT
+


## p. 13706 (#536) ##########################################



## p. 13707 (#537) ##########################################

13707
-
HERBERT SPENCER
(1820-)
BY F. HOWARD COLLINS
T
HE author of 'A System of Synthetic Philosophy,' 'Education,'
'Essays: Scientific, Political and Speculative,' 'The Study
of Sociology,' and many other articles in periodicals and
newspapers, was born at Derby on the 27th of April, 1820. His
father, William George Spencer, was a schoolmaster in the town, and
published a work entitled 'Inventional Geometry):
a series of ques-
tions, problems, and explanations, intended to familiarize the pupil
with geometrical conceptions, to exercise his inventive faculty, and
to prepare him for Euclid and the higher mathematics. » Though
this work received but little notice when first issued, it is now, after
many years, coming into use among those teachers who desire to
give a more rational course of study to their younger scholars prior
to commencing Euclid; to which this little work forms a most excel-
lent introduction, as may be gathered from Mr. Herbert Spencer's own
words:-
"To its great efficiency, both as a means of providing interest in
geometry, and as a mental discipline, I can give personal testimony.
I have seen it create in a class of boys so much enthusiasm that they
looked forward to their geometry lesson as a chief event in the week.
And girls, initiated in the system by my father, have frequently
begged of him for problems to solve during the holidays. "
Another work of his, 'Lucid Shorthand,' was completed in MS. in
1843, but has only recently been published by his son, who also con-
tributes a preface.
Herbert Spencer's surroundings were in fact early differentiated
from "the daily round-the common task" of most boys. The con-
versation which came to his ears was more permeated with the
rational interpretation of surrounding phenomena - why and how did
such-and-such a thing happen - than is usual now; and still more so
at the time of which we write. Herbert Spencer's innate love of nat-
ural science, and his marvelous faculty of observation, so wonderfully
displayed in all his writings, were without doubt largely nourished
and increased by his father's love for nature, and especially ento-
mology; a science to which the son devoted much of his leisure,—


## p. 13708 (#538) ##########################################

13708
HERBERT SPENCER
collecting, describing, and drawing most of the insects about his home.
Soon after the age of thirteen, he spent some time under the roof
of his uncle, the Rev. Thomas Spencer, chairman of the Bath Union,
and author of many pamphlets dealing principally with the meth-
ods for ameliorating the condition of the poorer people in his and
other parishes. The mathematical training which he received here
enabled him on his return home to become assistant teacher in his
father's school; but finding the occupation uncongenial, and the rail-
way mania being then at its height, Spencer at the age of seventeen
joined the profession of railway engineering, and during the next
eight years surveyed different parts of the country for the construc-
tion of lines. One of these - the Birmingham to Gloucester - may
be mentioned, as it is interesting from containing one of the steepest
inclines in England. During this period he contributed papers on
technical subjects to the engineering journals; and described new
methods and instruments shortening in a great degree many of the
laborious calculations entailed by railway-surveying, locomotive-engine
testing, bridge-making, and so forth. The original drawings made
by Mr. Spencer to explain and accompany these inventions, are very
remarkable from their extreme neatness and accuracy. They appear
indeed, to those who have had the opportunity of seeing them, to be
the result of engraving on copper.
At the age of twenty-two, the opening to the path of his future
life may be dimly discerned in some letters which he wrote to the
Nonconformist (newspaper) on 'The Proper Sphere of Government,'
and which were subsequently published as a pamphlet. From this
time the literary bent of his nature developed and came into greater
prominence; for, giving up railway engineering, he went to London,
and from writing articles and leaders in the Economist,—the most
important weekly newspaper in England dealing with finance and the
matters included under the old term "political economy," - became
in 1848 its sub-editor, which office he held for five years. This
appointment may be looked upon as one of much value to the future
philosopher: it gave a certain amount of leisure, while the occupation
it entailed drew his mind more and more to those problems of Soci-
ology with which his reputation will ever be associated, while at the
same time it kept him in touch with some of the best intellects of
the time, and many lifelong friendships were then formed.
It may be of interest here to mention how some of Mr. Spencer's
real leisure has been passed. A severe winter at Birmingham, when
surveying for the railway, led him to practice skating, and this to
designing a peculiar form of skate bringing the foot nearer to the
ice than usual, and enabling the "outside edge" to be swung with
much greater facility, even by those having weak ankles. Fishing


## p. 13709 (#539) ##########################################

HERBERT SPENCER
13709
was always a favorite amusement; and as he says now in conversa-
tion, some of his happiest times were spent in later years fly-fishing
for salmon on the west coast of Scotland, when in fact staying with
some very old friends in Argyllshire. Of the pastimes usually asso-
ciated with indoors, two may be mentioned,- billiards and music :
the latter, up to the present day, giving him exceeding pleasure
when well performed and of that school to which he is partial,-Bee-
thoven, or a simple ballad sung with real feeling, but never a mere
display of what has been aptly called "musical gymnastics"; mere
difficulties of execution, however well surmounted, never appealing to
him.
Two years after he obtained the appointment on the Economist
appeared his first volume, and one of importance, 'Social Statics: or
the Conditions Essential to Human Happiness Specified, and the First
of them Developed. ' This was out of print for many years, some of
its views not being in accord with the more mature ones of the
author; hence in 1892 he published an "abridged and revised » edi-
tion, together with The Man versus the State,'
a series of essays
to which allusion will be made as the time of their publication comes
to be dwelt with. The original edition of Social Statics' is note-
worthy as being the only work which Mr. Spencer wrote with his
own hand, all subsequent ones being dictated to a shorthand aman-
uensis.
―――――
The seed which has germinated into the pronounced individualism
of Herbert Spencer may be discerned here in its embryonic state:
"Liberty of action being the first essential to exercise of faculties,
and therefore the first essential to happiness; and the liberty of each,
limited by the like liberties of all, being the form which this first
essential assumes when applied to many instead of one, it follows
that this liberty of each, limited by the like liberties of all, is the
rule in conformity with which society must be organized. Freedom
being the prerequisite to normal life in the individual, equal freedom
becomes the prerequisite to normal life in society. And if this law
of equal freedom is the primary law of right relationship between
man and man, then no desire to get fulfilled a secondary law can war-
rant us in breaking it. "
Considering the state of knowledge in 1852, when special crea-
tion, as contrasted with evolution, was the firm and almost universal
belief, we are fully justified in alluding to a short essay which Mr.
Spencer wrote in this year as singularly noteworthy; for the "devel-
opment hypothesis," as the theory of evolution was then called, is
contrasted with special creation, and the latter shown to be logically
indefensible: -- "Which, then, is the most rational hypothesis? that
of special creations, which has neither a fact to support it nor is
-
-


## p. 13710 (#540) ##########################################

13710
HERBERT SPENCER
even definitely conceivable; or that of modification, which is not only
definitely conceivable, but is countenanced by the habitudes of every
existing organism ? »
Two years later a long essay on 'Manners and Fashion' was pub-
lished in the Westminster Review, showing how society develops on
its political, religious, and ceremonial sides; how the old forms which
society successively throws off have all been once vitally united with
it, have severally served as protective envelopes within which a
higher humanity was being evolved. "They are cast aside only
when they become hindrances - only when some inner and better
envelope has been formed; and they bequeath to us all that was in
them of good. The periodical abolitions of tyrannical laws have left
the administration of justice not only uninjured but purified. Dead
and buried creeds have not carried with them the essential morality
they contained, which still exists, uncontaminated by the sloughs of
superstition. And all that there is of justice, kindness, and beauty,
embodied in our cumbrous forms of etiquette, will live perennially
when the forms themselves have been forgotten.
"
The British Quarterly Review of the same year contained a long
and valuable article on 'The Genesis of Science,' from which the
conclusion is reached: "Not only that the sciences have a common.
root, but that science in general has a common root with language,
classification, reasoning, art; that through civilization these have
advanced together, acting and reacting upon each other just as the
separate sciences have done; and that thus the development of intel-
ligence in all its divisions and subdivisions has conformed to this
same law which we have shown that the sciences conform to. "
The year 1855 showed that the doctrine of evolution had taken
definite and systematic form in the author's mind, for the first edi-
tion of the Principles of Psychology' was published. As this sub-
sequently forms a part of the Synthetic Philosophy,' its consideration
may well be delayed until we come to deal with that as a whole.
Similarly the essay published in 1857, 'Progress: Its Law and Cause,'
as the ideas and illustrations in it are incorporated in First Prin-
ciples. '
<
The year 1860 will be remarkable for all time as the date when
Mr. Spencer issued his prospectus of 'A System of Philosophy,' an-
nouncing that he "proposes to issue in periodical parts a connected
series of works which he has for several years been preparing,"
and giving a detailed outline of them. He announced in all ten vol-
umes; and during the thirty-six years that have since elapsed, he has
accomplished, in spite of such ill health as would have deterred
most men from writing at all, the magnificent total of ten complete
volumes, — out of the eleven to which the system has expanded in


## p. 13711 (#541) ##########################################

HERBERT SPENCER
13711
development, in addition to innumerable essays and letters on sub-
jects of interest in the domain of politics and economics in their
widest sense to sociology, in fact.
In the interim between the issue of this prospectus and the first
volume of the series, Mr. Spencer republished, with additions, four
essays in a small volume, entitled 'Education: Intellectual, Moral, and
Physical'; which has since become the most popular of his works,
and has been translated into French, German, Italian, Russian, Hun-
garian, Dutch, Danish, Spanish, Swedish, Greek, Bohemian, Japanese,
Chinese, and some others, too numerous to mention. It is of such
immense value to all those who desire to bring up children on
rational principles, that it merits an instructive quotation from each
of the chapters. The question asked in the first chapter, What knowl-
edge is of most worth? is answered in these words:
"Paraphrasing an Eastern fable, we may say that in the family of
knowledges, Science is the household drudge, who in obscurity hides
unrecognized perfections. To her has been committed all the work;
by her skill, intelligence, and devotion, have all conveniences and
gratifications been obtained: and while ceaselessly ministering to the
rest, she has been kept in the background, that her haughty sisters
may flaunt their fripperies in the eyes of the world. The parallel
holds yet further. For we are fast coming to the dénouement, when
the positions will be changed, and while these haughty sisters sink
into merited neglect, Science, proclaimed as highest alike in worth
and beauty, will reign supreme. "
Of intellectual education:
"While men dislike the things and places that suggest painful
recollections, and delight in those which call to mind bygone pleas-
ures, painful lessons will make knowledge repulsive, and pleasurable
lessons will make it attractive. The man to whom in boyhood,
information came in dreary tasks along with threats of punishment,
and who was never led into habits of independent inquiry, is un-
likely to be a student in after years; while those to whom it came
in natural forms, at the proper times, and who remember its facts as
not only interesting in themselves, but as a long series of gratify-
ing successes, are likely to continue through life that self-instruction
commenced in youth. "
In moral education:-
"Remember that the aim of your discipline should be to pro-
duce a self-governing being; not to produce a being governed by others.
Were your children fated to pass their lives as slaves, you could
not too much accustom them to slavery during their childhood; but
as they are by-and-by to be free men, with no one to control their
daily conduct, you cannot too much accustom them to self-control
while they are still under your eye. "
-


## p. 13712 (#542) ##########################################

HERBERT SPENCER
13712
In physical education:
"Perhaps nothing will so much hasten the time when body and
mind will both be adequately cared for, as a diffusion of the belief that
the preservation of health is a duty. Few seem conscious that there
is such a thing as physical morality: men's habitual words and acts
imply the idea that they are at liberty to treat their bodies as they
please. Disorders entailed by disobedience to nature's dictates they
regard simply as grievances, not as the effects of a conduct more
or less flagitious. Though the evil consequences inflicted on their
dependents, and on future generations, are often as great as those
caused by crime, yet they do not think themselves in any degree
criminal.
The fact is, that all breaches of the laws of health
are physical sins. When this is generally seen, then, and perhaps not
till then, will the physical training of the young receive the attention
it deserves. "
On June 5th, 1862, was issued the first installment of the Phi-
losophy: the first part of 'First Principles' dealing with 'The Un-
knowable,' and showing that the only possible reconciliation of
Science and Religion lies in the belief of an Absolute, transcending
not only human knowledge but human conception, indeed :-
"The consciousness of an inscrutable Power manifested to us
through all phenomena has been growing ever clearer; and must
eventually be freed from its imperfections. The certainty that on the
one hand such a Power exists, while on the other hand its nature
transcends intuition and is beyond imagination, is the certainty
towards which intelligence has from the first been progressing. To
this conclusion Science inevitably arrives as it reaches its confines;
while to this conclusion Religion is irresistibly driven by criticism.
And satisfying as it does the most rigorous logic, at the same time
that it gives the religious sentiment the widest possible sphere of
action, it is the conclusion we are bound to accept without reserve
or qualification. "
-:
The second part, entitled 'The Knowable,' deals with the body of
knowledge constituting what is usually termed Philosophy or Meta-
physics; treats of Space, Time, Matter, Motion, and Force, consid-
ered in themselves and in their relation to each other; and expounds
those highest generalizations now being disclosed by Science, which
are severally true not of one class of phenomena, but of all classes
of phenomena, and which are thus the keys to all classes of phe-
nomena. From the study of these components of all phenomena the
author passes to the law of their composition, "the law of the con-
tinuous redistribution of matter and motion. " This, having to cover
all phenomena,—whether of inorganic nature, of life, of mind, of soci-
ety, or of morals,- is necessarily defined in very abstract terms:-
"Evolution is an integration of matter and concomitant dissipation


## p. 13713 (#543) ##########################################

HERBERT SPENCER
13713
of motion; during which the matter passes from an indefinite, inco-
herent homogeneity, to a definite, coherent heterogeneity; and during
which the retained motion undergoes a parallel transformation. "
This extremely generalized conception, forming as it does the
centre around which the whole of this philosophy revolves, will, to the
ordinary reader, prove difficult of comprehension without reading the
volume from which it is taken, when a more clear understanding of
its implications will arise. The remaining chapters then show that
the redistribution of matter and motion must everywhere take place
in those ways, and produce those traits, which celestial bodies, organ-
isms, minds, and societies alike display:-
:-
"Thus we
are led to the conclusion that the entire process of
things as displayed in the aggregate of the visible Universe, is
analogous to the entire process of things as displayed in the smallest
aggregates.
"Motion as well as matter being fixed in quantity, it would seem
that, the change in the distribution of matter which motion effects
coming to a limit in whichever direction it is carried, the indestruct-
ible motion thereupon necessitates a reverse distribution. Apparently,
the universally coexistent forces of attraction and repulsion — which,
as we have seen, necessitate rhythm in the totality of its changes -
produce now an immeasurable period during which the attractive
forces predominating cause universal concentration, and then an im-
measurable period during which the repulsive forces predominating
cause universal diffusion; alternate eras of Evolution and Dissolution.
And thus there is suggested the conception of a past during which
there have been successive Evolutions analogous to that which is
going on; and a future during which successive other such Evolutions
may go on-ever the same in principle but never the same in con-
crete result. "
None of Mr. Spencer's works exhibit more clearly the philosophic
grasp of the author in dealing with such stupendous problems, or his
knowledge of the principles of such a science as astronomy; in fact,
from none can a better idea be formed of his truly encyclopædic
knowledge. On every page are many and apt illustrations taken
from some one of each of the sciences, and showing how thorough is
the mastery of the principles of each one.
After this work Mr. Spencer writes:-"In logical order should
here come the application of these First Principles to Inorganic
Nature. But this great division it is proposed to pass over: partly
because, even without it, the scheme is too extensive; and partly
because the interpretation of Organic Nature after the proposed
method is of more immediate importance. The second work of the
series will therefore be 'The Principles of Biology. "-This, although
XXIII-858


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first published in 1864, is still a classic, and without rival for giv-
ing the broad generalizations which hold true of all living beings;
whether they be of that simple unorganized form which the Amoeba
displays, the organized representatives of the vegetable kingdom with
its ferns, palms, and stately forest trees, or such animals as the
earthworm, the butterfly, the lion, or man. Charles Darwin's 'Origin
of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of
Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life,' dealing with organic evo-
lution alone, was published a few years previously-but after, of
course, the enunciation of the general principle of Evolution by Mr.
Spencer; and the results are incorporated in these two large vol-
umes, and form a strong buttress to the truth of the philosophy.
How exceedingly near Mr. Spencer was to discovering the principle
of Natural Selection - or as he has since named it, 'Survival of the
Fittest may be seen by readers of the first edition of 'Social Stat-
ics'; for it contains a paragraph from which a skillful dialectician
could easily prove that this was really in the author's mind when
it was written! That such was the case, however, Mr. Spencer has
denied. After expounding the laws holding good of all living beings,
the volume goes on to speak hopefully of human population in the
future. "Pressure of population and its accompanying evils will dis-
appear; and it will leave a state of things requiring from each indi-
vidual no more than a normal and pleasurable activity. Cessation in
the decrease of fertility implies cessation in the development of the
nervous system; and this implies a nervous system that has become
equal to all that is demanded of it—has not to do more than is nat-
ural to it. But that exercise of faculties which does not exceed what
is natural constitutes gratification. In the end, therefore, the ob-
tainment of subsistence, and discharge of all the parental and social
duties, will require just that kind and that amount of action needful
to health and happiness. "
-
In 1868 commenced the issue in parts of the 'Principles of Psy-
chology,' a very much amplified edition of the work first published in
1855, and so revised as to form a consistent and systematic part of
the philosophy, the lapse of time between the two editions enabling
the hypothesis to take a much higher development. In this learned
treatise we see all the phenomena of mind—the emotions, the feel-
ings, and the will-evolved from the simplest constituents, and prob-
lems of the most abstract kind, and of exceeding difficulty in logic
and metaphysics, dealt with from the evolution standpoint and fully
developed; it concludes with a brief outline of the special psychol-
ogy of man considered as the unit of which societies are composed.
With these volumes "a final remark worth making is, that the æs-
thetic activities in general may be expected to play an increasing


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part in human life as evolution advances. Greater economization of
energy, resulting from superiority of organization, will have in the
future, effects like those it has had in the past. The order of activi-
ties to which the aesthetic belong, having been already initiated by this
economization, will hereafter be extended by it: the economization
being achieved both directly through the improvement of the human
structure itself, and indirectly through the improvement of all appli-
ances, mechanical, social, and other. A growing surplus of energy
will bring a growing proportion of the aesthetic activities and gratifi-
cations; and while the forms of art will be such as yield pleasurable
exercise to the simpler faculties, they will in a greater degree than
now appeal to the higher emotions. "
In June 1874, the first part of the Principles of Sociology' was
published; and the whole of Vol. i. , the largest of the series, com-
pleted by 1876. The first division, the 'Data of Sociology,' is entirely
taken up with a description of the interpretation likely to be given
by the primitive man- the savage, or the uncivilized- of the various
phenomena which occur at every moment around him:
"Changes in the sky and on the earth, occurring hourly, daily,
and at shorter or longer intervals, go on in ways about which the
savage knows nothing,-unexpected appearances and disappearances,
transmutations, metamorphoses. While seeming to show that arbitra-
riness characterizes all actions, these foster the notion of a duality
in the things which become visible and vanish, or which transform
themselves; and this notion is confirmed by experiences of shadows,
reflections, and echoes.
-
"The impressions thus produced by converse with external nature
favor a belief set up by a more definite experience- the experience
of dreams. Having no conception of mind, the primitive man regards
a dream as a series of actual occurrences; he did the things, went to
the places, saw the persons dreamt of. Untroubled by incongruities,
he accepts the facts as they stand; and in proportion as he thinks
about them, is led to conceive a double which goes away during
sleep and comes back. This conception of his own duality seems
confirmed by the somnambulism occasionally witnessed.
"More decisively does it seem confirmed by other abnormal insen-
sibilities. In swoon, apoplexy, catalepsy, and the unconsciousness
following violence, it appears that the other-self, instead of returning
at all, will not return for periods varying from some minutes to some
days. Occasionally after one of these states, the other-self tells what
has happened in the interval; occasionally prolonged absence raises
the doubt whether it is not gone away for an indefinite period.
"The distinction between these conditions of temporary insensibil-
ity and the condition of permanent insensibility is one which, some-
times imperceptible to instructed persons, cannot be perceived by the


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savage. The normal unconsciousness of sleep from which a man's
double is readily brought back, is linked by these abnormal kinds of
unconsciousness from which the double is brought back with diffi-
culty, to that lasting kind of unconsciousness from which the double
cannot be brought back at all. Still analogy leads the savage to infer
that it will eventually come back.
Such resurrection, shown
by the universal fear of the dead to be vaguely imagined even by
the lowest races, becomes clearly imagined as the idea of a wander-
ing duplicate is made definite by the dream theory.
•
"The second-self ascribed to each man, at first differs in nothing
from its original. It is figured as equally visible, equally material;
and no less suffers hunger, thirst, fatigue, pain. Indistinguishable
from the person himself,-capable of being slain, devoured, or other-
wise destroyed a second time,- the original ghost, soul, spirit, differ-
entiates slowly in supposed nature. Having at the outset but a
temporary second life, it gradually acquires a permanent one; while
it deviates more and more in substance from body, becoming at
length etherealized.
"This double of the dead man, originally conceived as like him in
all other respects, is conceived as having like occupations; and from
this belief in a second life thus like the first, and also like in the
social arrangements it is subject to, there result the practices of
leaving with the corpse food, drink, clothes weapons, and of sacri-
ficing at the grave domestic animals, wives, slaves.
The
place in which this life after death is believed to be passed, varies
with the antecedents of the races.
Hence at the grave are
left fit appliances for the journey: canoes for the voyage, or horses
to ride, dogs to guide, weapons for defense, money and passports
for security. And where burial on a mountain range entails belief
in this as a residence of ancestral ghosts, or where such a range has
been held by a conquering race, the heavens, supposed to be access-
ible from the mountain-tops, come to be regarded as the other-world,
or rather as one of the other-worlds.
·
"The doubles of dead men, at first assumed to have but temporary
second lives, do not, in that case, tend to form in popular belief an
accumulating host; but they necessarily tend to form such a host
when permanent second lives are ascribed to them. Swarming every-
where, capable of appearing and disappearing at will, and working in
ways that cannot be foreseen,- they are thought of as the causes of
all things which are strange, unexpected, inexplicable.
"But while primitive men, regarding themselves as at the mercy
of surrounding ghosts, try to defend themselves by the aid of the
exorcist and the sorcerer, who deal with ghosts antagonistically, there
is simultaneously adopted a contrary behavior towards ghosts,-a
propitiation of them. .
Out of this motive and its observances


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come all forms of worship. Awe of the ghost makes sacred the
sheltering structure of the tomb; and this grows into the temple,
while the tomb itself becomes the altar. From provisions placed
for the dead, now habitually and now at fixed intervals, arise reli-
gious oblations, ordinary and extraordinary,—daily and at festivals.
Immolations and mutilations at the grave pass into sacrifices and
offerings of blood at the altar of a deity. Abstinence from food
for the benefit of the ghost develops into fasting as a pious practice;
and journeys to the grave with gifts become pilgrimages to the
shrine. Praises of the dead and prayers to them grow into reli-
gious praises and prayers. And so every holy rite is derived from a
funeral rite. . . . Besides those aberrant developments of ancestor-
worship which result from identification of ancestors with idols,
animals, plants, and natural powers, there are direct developments
of it. Out of the assemblage of ghosts, some evolve into deities
who retain their anthropomorphic characters. As the divine and the
superior are, in the primitive mind, equivalent ideas; as the living
man and reappearing ghost are at first confounded in early beliefs;
as ghost and god are convertible terms, - we may understand how
a deity develops out of a powerful man, and out of the ghost of a
powerful man, by small steps. Within the tribe, the chief, the magi-
cian, or some one otherwise skilled, held in awe during his life as
showing powers of unknown origin and extent, is feared in a higher
degree when, after death, he gains the further powers possessed by
all ghosts; and still more the stranger bringing new arts, as well
as the conqueror of superior race, is treated as a superhuman being
during life and afterwards worshiped as a yet greater superhuman
being. Remembering that the most marvelous version of any story
commonly obtains the greatest currency, and that so, from genera-
tion to generation, the deeds of such traditional persons grow by un-
checked exaggerations eagerly listened to, we may see that in time
any amount of expansion and idealization can be reached. ”
The foregoing long excerpt will serve two important purposes: for
it shows not only the admirable power of the author to sum up in a
short space the long arguments and illustrations of many chapters,-
of, in the present instance, more than four hundred pages,--but also
it furnishes a brief résumé of one of his original theories, showing how
his writings are permeated through and through by the principle of
evolution; how one fact naturally leads to the next, and this fact to
another, and so on until at last we stand in awe before the stupen-
dous generalization to which these steps have led us. Stupendous
is the grasp of intellect involved; stupendous in that, compelled to
acknowledge the truth of each of the steps, we are forced to accept
the veracity of the larger truth to which we have ascended.
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Part ii. is entitled 'The Inductions of Sociology,' and deals with
all the varied forms which societies have, and their growths, struct-
ures, and functions, the sustaining, distributing, and regulating sys-
tems, the relations of these structures to the surrounding conditions,
the dominant forms of social activities entailed, and the metamor-
phoses of types caused by changes in the activities. It is here that
we come across the great division, or dichotomization, of all societies
into the militant and the industrial; into those which are framed on
the principle of compulsory co-operation, and those which are framed
on the principle of voluntary co-operation. These "two types, when
evolved to their extreme forms, are diametrically opposed; and the
contrasts between their traits are amongst the most important with
which Sociology has to deal. " In fact, without a thorough grasp
of this, a great deal of the author's work upon Society would be dif-
ficult to comprehend,-it underlies so much, and is so frequently
coming to the surface. It must not be imagined that these are the
highest types of society; for "some pages might be added respecting
a possible future social type, differing as much from the industrial as
this does from the militant, -a type which, having a sustaining sys-
tem more fully developed than any we know at present, will use the
products of industry, neither for maintaining a militant organization,
nor exclusively for material aggrandizement, but will devote them to
carrying on the higher activities. As the contrast between the mili-
tant and the industrial types is indicated by inversion of the belief
that individuals exist for the benefit of the State, into the belief that
the State exists for the benefit of individuals, so the contrast between
the industrial type and the type likely to be evolved from it is indi-
cated by inversion of the belief that life is for work, into the belief
that work is for life. " The multiplication of institutions and appli-
ances for intellectual and æsthetic culture, and for kindred purposes,
not of a directly life-sustaining kind, but having gratification for their
immediate purpose, tends to support this prospect.
The many facts contemplated in these "Inductions" unite in
proving that social evolution forms a part of evolution at large, and
fulfills in all respects the general formula: there is integration both
by simple increase of mass, and by coalescence and re-coalescence of
masses; there is a change from homogeneity to heterogeneity,—from
the simple tribe alike in all its parts, to the civilized nation full
of unlikenesses; there is greater coherence,- for while the wander-
ing tribe is held together by no bonds, a civilized nation will hold
together for hundreds of years, nay, thousands; there is greater defi-
niteness, arrangements become settled and slowly more precise, cus-
toms pass into laws which become more fixed and specific, and all
institutions, at first confusedly intermingled, slowly separate at the


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same time that each within itself marks off more distinctly its com-
ponent parts.
Part iii. , 'Domestic Institutions,' deals with the general phenomena
of race maintenance, and the diverse interests of the species, of the
parents, and of the offspring; the primitive relations of the sexes
from the early period of promiscuity to the latest form, that of mo-
nogamy; and the status of women and of children. In all of which
the law of evolution in general is shown to hold good, and that the
higher traits in the relations of the sexes to one another and to child-
ren, which have accompanied social evolution, have been made pos-
sible by those higher traits of intelligence and feeling produced by
the experiences and disciplines of progressing social states.
One of the most prominent changes in the future may be the
greater care of parents by offspring. "At present the latter days of
the old whose married children live away from them, are made
dreary by the lack of those pleasures yielded by the constant soci-
ety of descendants; but a time may be expected when this evil will
be met by an attachment of adults to their aged parents, which, if
not as strong as that of parents to children, approaches it in strength.
When the earlier stages of education passed through in the
domestic circle have come to yield, as they will in ways scarcely
dreamt of at present, daily occasions for the strengthening of sym-
pathy, intellectual and moral, then will the latter days of life be
smoothed by a greater filial care, reciprocating the greater parental
care bestowed in earlier life. "
Part iv. , Ceremonial Institutions,' shows how the formula of evo-
lution is conformed to by the history of Trophies, Mutilations, Pres-
ents, Visits, Obeisances, Titles, Badges, Costumes, and all the varied
forms of class distinction. It is shown that "rules of behavior are
not results of conventions at one time or other deliberately made, as
people tacitly assume: contrariwise, they are the natural products of
social life which have gradually evolved. " They are of course char-
acteristic of the militant type of society, and tend to fade and decay
as industrialism and voluntary co-operation develop.
Part v. , Political Institutions,' contains an account of the evolu-
tion of governments as determined by natural causes. Setting out
with an unorganized horde including both sexes and all ages, we
see that when some public question, such as that of migration or of
defense against enemies, has to be decided, the assembled individuals
fall more or less clearly into two divisions. The elder, the stronger,
and those whose sagacity and courage have been proved by experi-
ence, will form the smaller part who carry on the discussion; while
the larger part, formed of the young, weak, and undistinguished, will
be listeners who do no more than express from time to time as-
sent or dissent. Among the leaders there is sure to be some one


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HERBERT SPENCER
distinguished warrior, or aged hunter, who will have more than his
individual share in forming the plan finally acted upon. That is to
say, the entire assemblage will resolve itself, as in every public meet-
ing of the present day, into three parts, which will eventually develop
into that of chief or king; a ministry, or representative and consult-
ative body; and the general electorate. Or, in the formula of evolu-
tion, the advance will be from small incoherent social aggregates to
great coherent ones, which while becoming integrated will pass from
uniformity to multiformity, and from indefiniteness to definiteness of
political organization. But the conclusion of profoundest moment, to
which all lines of argument converge, is that the possibility of a high
social state, political as well as general, fundamentally depends on
the cessation of war. Persistent militancy, maintaining adapted insti-
tutions, must inevitably prevent, or else neutralize, changes in the
direction of more equitable institutions and laws; while permanent
peace will of necessity be followed by social ameliorations of every
kind. A study of Political Institutions' may lead some to think
whether the arrangements they are advocating involve increase of
that public regulation characterizing the militant type, or whether
they tend to produce that better regulation, that greater individuality,
and that more extended voluntary co-operation, characterizing the
industrial type.
Among social phenomena, those presented by 'Ecclesiastical Insti-
tutions,' Part vi. , illustrate very clearly the general law of evolution.
From the primitive undifferentiated social aggregate, in which domes-
tic, civil, and religious subordination are at first carried on in like
ways by the same agencies, develops the definite, coherent, and
heterogeneous ecclesiastical organization. With this structural differ-
entiation is a functional differentiation of deep and profound signifi-
cance. Two sacerdotal duties, which were at first parts of the same,
have been slowly separating: the first is the carrying on of worship,
the second is the insistence on rules of conduct. If we compare
modern with medieval Europeans, when fasts were habitual, penances
common, and men made pilgrimages and built shrines, we see that
with social progress has gone a marked diminution of religious
observances, and a marked increase in ethical injunctions and exhort-
ations. At the present day dogmatic theology, with its promises of
rewards and threats of damnation, bears a diminishing ratio to the
insistences on justice, honesty, kindness, and sincerity. And now,
what may we infer will be the evolution of religious ideas and senti-
ments throughout the future? "The conception of the First Cause,
which has been enlarging from the beginning, must go on enlarging,
until by disappearance of its limits it becomes a consciousness which
transcends the forms of distinct thought, though it forever remains a
consciousness. " "One truth must grow ever clearer,- the truth that


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there is an Inscrutable Existence everywhere manifested, to which
man can conceive neither beginning nor end. Amid the mysteries
which become the more mysterious the more they are thought about,
there will remain the one absolute certainty, that he is ever in the
presence of an Infinite and Eternal Energy, from which all things
proceed. »
In due course, were they written, should here follow the remaining
parts of the Principles of Sociology,' dealing with Progress - Lin-
guistic, Intellectual, Moral, Esthetic; but as Mr. Spencer says in the
preface to the last volume he has written, for an invalid of seventy-
six to deal adequately with topics so extensive and complex is obvi-
ously impossible. In strict order these parts should of course have
appeared before the 'Principles of Ethics'; but Mr. Spencer thought
it better to pass over them, fearing that the state of his health,
which for some years had been below its usual low average, might
prevent his completing that part of the Philosophy to which all the
preceding volumes led, and which, with many others of the highest
intellect, he thought to be the most important of all. This work was
completed in April 1893, although the first part, The Data of Ethics,'
had been published some years previously; Mr. Spencer "being the
more anxious to indicate in outline, if he cannot complete, this final
work, because the establishment of rules of right conduct on a scien-
tific basis is a pressing need. Now that moral injunctions are losing
the authority given by their supposed sacred origin, the seculari-
zation of morals is becoming imperative. Few things can happen
more disastrous than the decay and death of a regulative system no
longer fit, before another and fitter regulative system has grown up
to replace it. "
Part i. of the 'Principles of Ethics'-the 'Data of Ethics'—is con-
cerned with the various views which may be held about conduct;
and shows that "no school can avoid for the ultimate moral aim a
desirable state of feeling, called by whatever name— gratification,
enjoyment, happiness. Pleasure somewhere, at some time, to some
being or beings, is an inexpugnable element of the conception. " We
then have those generalizations furnished by Biology, Psychology, and
Sociology, which underlie a true theory of living; passing on to the
discussion on Selfishness and Unselfishness,-"egoism and altruism,”
-showing that a pure and unqualified form of either is impossible,
and that there must be a compromise or "conciliation"; which leads
us, on the evolution hypothesis, to a consideration of absolute and
relative ethics, or the conduct of the ideal man as existing in the
ideal social state, and the conduct of man as he is in existing soci-
ety, surrounded by the evils of a not perfect adaptation.
Part ii. , The Inductions of Ethics,' is a statement of those rules
of human action which are registered as essential laws by all civilized


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nations: in other words, the generalizations of expediency. Disre-
garding the conventional limits of ethics, here are treated such mat-
ters as aggression, robbery, revenge, justice, generosity, humanity,
veracity, obedience, industry, temperance, and chastity: and we are
shown that with militancy goes pride in aggression and robbery,
revenge and lying, obedience to despotic rulers, and contempt for
industry; while with industrialism all these feelings are reversed,—
leading to the not unreasonable inference that there needs but a
continuance of absolute peace externally, and non-aggression inter-
nally, to insure the molding of man into a form naturally charac-
terized by all the virtues!
Part iii. , The Ethics of Individual Life,' is short, and deals with
those modes of private action which must result from the eventual
equilibration of internal desires and external needs. The headings of
the chapters - Activity, Rest, Nutrition, Stimulation, Culture, Amuse-
ments, Marriage, and Parenthood-are instructive as showing the
scope here given to "Ethics. " Generally, this division gives definite-
ness to the idea of proportion; to the maintenance, that is, of bal-
anced amounts of the activities, bodily and mental, required for
complete health and happiness. Until the activities are spontaneously
regulated by the natural promptings, these ethics must keep clearly
in view, and continually emphasize, the needs to which the nature
has to be adjusted; but the nature must not be too much strained
out of its inherited form, for the normal remolding can go on but
slowly.
Part iv. , Justice,' coincides in area with the author's first work
alluded to above, 'Social Statics,' but differs in its treatment, in leav-
ing out entirely all supernaturalistic interpretation; in definitely set-
ting forth and elaborating a biological origin for Ethics; and in
making much more frequent use of inductive verification. The for-
mula of Justice here given is most important, and of far-reaching
consequences in Mr. Spencer's individualistic theory of politics. It
is, "Every man is free to do that which he wills, provided he infringes
not the equal freedom of any other man. " Calling the several partic-
ular freedoms of each man his rights, we find them enumerated under
such titles as physical integrity, free motion, property, free exchange
and contract, free industry, free belief and worship, free speech and
publication. And absolute Ethics asserts each of these. But the pres-
ervation of the species, or that variety of it constituting a society.
being an end which must take precedence of individual preserva-
tion, it follows that relative Ethics justifies, and indeed warrants,
such equitably distributed taxation, whether of property, industry.
belief, or what not, as may be required for maintaining social order
and safety. There has still to be considered, from the ethical point
of view, the political position of women. Now, men are liable to


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furnish contingents to the army and the navy; hence, ethically con-
sidered, as women have not to furnish them, their equal "political
rights" cannot be entertained until there is permanent peace, when
only will it be possible to consider such equalization. The rights of
children are complicated by the fact that while at first they are de-
pendent on their parents for general sustentation, they but gradually
and slowly grow out of this state and become independent and able
to support themselves. 'Justice' then goes on to consider the duties
of the State, which are defined as the maintenance of the conditions
under which each citizen may gain the fullest life compatible with
the fullest lives of his fellow-citizens. And many reasons are given
that this can only be done efficiently by limiting as far as possible
the number and variety of those duties.
In Part v. we have Negative Beneficence,'- a few short chapters
dealing with those minor self-restraints which are dictated by what
may be called passive sympathy. Free competition, free contract,
undeserved payments, displays of ability, and the administration of
blame and praise, are all areas in which negative beneficence may
legitimately be displayed. The most eminent professional men may
so restrain their practice by enlarged fees, as not to ruin those only
a little less able; the unexpected occurrence of rock in a tunnel
which has been contracted for, may justify a payment beyond the
price contracted for; unmusical street musicians without their un-
deserved payments would take to some occupation for which they
are less unfit; and those capable of monopolizing the whole attention
of a dinner party may so restrain themselves as to allow the less dis-
tinguished to join in the exchange of thoughts. The origin of the
obligation to this beneficence is of course conduciveness to happi-
ness, immediate or remote, or both; and consequent conduciveness to
maintenance of the species or the variety, regarded as hereafter the
recipient of increased happiness.