n of the year 1594 of the era of
Alexander
son of Philip the Greek.
Arab-Historians-of-the-Crusades
r and of his son al-Malik as-Salih 'Ala?
' ad-Din 'Ali1 and to everything that came under their authority: Egypt with its provinces, borders and ports; Syria with its districts, castles, fortresses, shores and ports; the province of Hims with its surrounding territory; the Isma'ilite forts and their surrounding territory; the province of Sahyu?
n and Bala?
tunus; Ja?
bala, Laodicea and the territories under their control; the province of Hama?
t and its environs, the province of Aleppo and its environs, the Euphrates province and its territory; the (recent) conquests in Syria, the city of Hisn al-Akra?
d and its environs and everything therein or dependent on it or counted as part of it at the time of the signing of the present treaty in the way of cities, villages, arable fields, pastures, terrains, fortifications, mills, etc.
; the province of Safitha?
and its surrounding regions, villages and walls, and all the other villages and cities in its possession or added to it in the future; Mai'a?
r and its territory, al-'Uraima and its territory, with everything that comes under its control; Halaba?
and its territory, 'Arqa?
and its territory, Tibu?
and its territory, the fort of Hisn al-Akra?
d and its territory, al-Qulai'a?
t (lit.
,
The text of the document is here clumsily welded to the preamble.
The Seleucid era, beginning in 311 B. C.
Qalawu? n's appointed heir who, however, died before him, in 1288, when the succession passed to his younger brother al-Ashraf.
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Part Four: The Mamlu? ks and the Liquidation of the Crusaders 193
the small fortresses) and their territory; Maraqiyya and the whole of its lands, the region of al-Marqab, of which both sides agree to hold half each, and everything included in the treaty made with the Christians by al-Malik al-Mansu? r. The treaty embraces, in these regions far and near, neighbouring and bordering, every zone, cultivated or not, flat and hilly, land and sea, ports and shores, with their mills, towers, gardens, waters, trees and wells and all that God conquered by the hand of our Lord al-Malik al-Mansu? r and his son the Sultan al-Malik as-Salih and the commanders of his armies, in the way of forts, cities, villages and every region in between, flat and mountainous, cultivated or not, waters and gardens, ports and shores and plains. On the other hand the truce applies to Tortosa, which is held by the Order of the Temple, and to their lands recognized in perpetuity in the act of signing this blessed truce; as well as the annexed territories of al-'Uraima and Mai'a? r, according to a truce signed by al-Malik az-Zahir1 whose terms are transferred to this treaty. The treaty applies then to all the territories of our Lord the Sultan (with security for them) on the part of the Grand Master fre`re William of Beaujeu, Grand Master of the Order of the Temple, and all the Brethren of Tortosa, knights and turcopoles and other categories of Franks.
No one from Tortosa and its port and coast shall invade the lands of our Lord al-Malik al-Mansu? r and his son al-Malik as-Salih, or their forts and castles and cities, whether or not they have been mentioned in the treaty. In return Tortosa and the regions mentioned in the treaty, with the Brethren and knights and their subjects living there or visiting, shall enjoy security and tranquillity from our Lord the Sultan al-Malik al-Mansu? r, his son, their armies and subjects. No one shall invade Tortosa or its territory, or cause harm to or attack any of its inhabitants for as long as the truce shall last. All matters coming under prohibition shall be subject to the same prohibition.
Whenever a ship from the lands of our Lord the Sultan or one going thither from any other land or nation is wrecked or suffers damage in the port of Tortosa or its coasts and lands included in this treaty, all those on board the ship shall be kept safe, and also their goods and merchandise. Where the owner of the damaged ship is available, his ship and his property shall be handed over to him; if death or drowning have made this impossible, his property shall be sent under guard to a representative of our Lord the Sultan. The same rule shall apply to ships from Tortosa wrecked in the realms of our Lord the Sultan.
In the territory of Tortosa mentioned in the treaty no fort or fortification is to be repaired, nor any reinforcement, entrenchment or the like built.
THE TREATY WITH ACRE
(IBN 'ABD AZ-ZAHIR, TASHRI? F, 69r-85v)
In 682/1283 our Lord the Sultan agreed to grant a request from the people of Acre, after their ambassadors had appeared before him time after time, in Syria and Egypt, asking for peace. He forbade them to travel overland, inviting them to come by sea only, whenever they should desire an audience of him. This they did. The agreement reached was that they should submit themselves to the will of the Sultan, although before this, at the the
1 We do not possess a copy of the truce with Baibars referred to here.
194 Arab Historians of the Crusades
expiration of the truce (of al-Malik az-Zahir1), they had put forward exorbitant claims. In safar of this year/May 1283 delegates and notabilities came from Acre and signed the truce. The Sultan took the oath in the presence of the Frankish ambassadors, who were: two Brethren of the Order of the Temple, two of the Order of the Hospital, two royal knights, the governor-general William and the vizier Fahd. The text was as follows:
A truce is declared between our Lord the Sultan al-Malik al-Mansu? r (Qalawu? n) and his son al-Malik as-Salih 'Ala? ' ad-Dunya wa'd-Din 'Ali--God make their power eternal--and the authorities of the Commune of Acre, Sidon, 'Athli? th and the dependent territories, over which the truce extends. These are: the Seneschal Odo, bailli of Acre,2 the Grand Master fre`re William of Beaujeu, Grand Master of the Order of the Temple, the Grand Master fre`re Nicholas Lorgne, Grand Master of the Order of the Hospital, and the Marshal fre`re Conrad, representative of the Grand Master of the Teutonic Hospital. The truce is to last ten whole years, ten months, ten days and ten hours, beginning on Friday 5 rabi? ' I 682 of the hijra of the Prophet, which corresponds to 3 hazira? n 1594 of the era of Alexander son of Philip the Greek/3 June 1283. The truce is to be effective throughout all the states of our Lord al-Malik al-Mansu? r and of his son al-Malik as-Salih 'Ala? ' ad-Dunya wa'd-Din 'Ali: forts, castles, territories, provinces, cities, villages, farmed and unfarmed land. This includes:1
The kingdom of Egypt with all its regions and Muslim forts and castles, the district of Damietta, the district of Alexandria, Nastarawa, Santariyya and every port and coast and town connected with them; the district of Fuwwa and of Rosetta: the country of the Hija? z; the well-guarded district of Gaza with all its harbours and territories; the province of Karak, Shaubak and its territory, as-Salt and its territory, Bustra and its territory; the province of the Friend of God (Hebron)--on which be God's blessing! --the province of Jerusalem the noble and its territories, of the Jordan, of Bethlehem and its territory, with all the towns included in it and taken into account; Bait Gibri? l; the province of Nablus and its territory; the province of Alatru? n and its territory; Ascalon and its territory, harbours and coasts; the province of Jaffa and Ramla, its port and territory; Arsu? f, its port and territory; Caesarea, its port and coastline and territory; the fort of Qaqu? n and its territory; Lydda and its territory; the al-'Auja? zone and the salt works therein; the zone of the blessed conquest, with its territory and its farmland; Baisa? n and territory, at-Tur and territory, al-Laju? n and territory, Jubni? n and territory. 'Ain Jalu? t and territory, al-Qaimu? n and territory with all regions dependent on it; Tiberias with its lake and territory; the province of Safad and its dependencies; Tibni? n and Huni? n with all their towns and territories; ash-Shaqi? f, known as Shaqi? f Arnu? n, with its territory and dependencies; the town of al-Qarn and its dependencies, apart from those
The truce of 1272 with Baibars.
Odo Poilechien, Charles of Anjou's representative.
The long, monotonous list that follows, enumerating the dominions of the Mamlu? k Sultan of Egypt from south to north, has the eloquence of fact when one compares it with the brief description, a little further on, of the territories belonging to the other party to the treaty. The 'kingdom of Jerusalem' was in effect reduced to a narrow coastal strip extending from a short distance north of Acre as far as Carmel. Apart from this, Tyre and Sidon, Beiru? t and Tripoli and a few forts in Syria still held by the Templars and Hospitallers were all that remained of the Crusaders' achievements. The list of Qalawu? n's possessions, beginning with the Holy City, is in fact a list of all the territories that the Crusaders had lost during the last century, or had attacked in vain.
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specified in this treaty; half of the city of Alexandretta and of the suburb of Maru? n with their villages and vineyards and gardens and fields--and the rest of the above-mentioned Alexandretta shall all, including all its confines and lands, be subject to our Lord the Sultan and to his son--while the other half shall go to the kingdom of Acre; al-Biqa? ' al-'Azizi2 and its territory, Mashghar and territory, Shaqi? f Tiru? n and its territory; all the caves, Zalaya and the rest; Baniya? s and its territory; the fort of as-Subaiba with its lakes and territory; Kaukab and its territory; the fort of 'Ajlu? n and its territory; Damascus and its province with its forts and towns and districts and territories; the fortress of Baalbek and its territory; the province of Hims with its territory and confines; the province of Hama? t with its city and fort and lands and confines; Bala? tunus and its territory; Sahyu? n and its territory; Barzayya and its territory; the conquests of Hisn al-Akra? d and its territory; Safitha? and its territory; Mai'a? r and its territory; al-'Uraima and territory; Maraqiyya and its territory; Halaba? and its territory; the fort of 'Akka? r and its territory and lands; al-Qulai'a and its territory; the fort of Shaizar and its territory, Apamea and its territory; Ja? bala and its territory, Abu Qubais and its territory; the province of Aleppo, with all the forts, cities, towns and castles connected with it; Antioch and its territory, with everything that made up that blessed conquest;1 Baghra? s and its territory, Darbsa? k and its territory, Rawanda? n and its territory, Hari? m and its territory, 'Ainta? b and its territory, Tizi? n and its territory, Saih al-Hadi? d and its territory; the fort of Najm and its territory, Shaqi? f Dair Kush and its territory; ash-Shughr and its territory, Baka? s and its territory, as-Suwaida and its territory; al-Bab and Buza'a and their territories; al-Bira and its territory, ar-Rahba and its territory, Salamiyya and its territory, Shumaimi? s and its territory, Tadmur and its territory; and everything connected with these places, whether specified or not.
(The safety of all these places is guaranteed) by the authorities of the kingdom of Acre, i. e. the bailli of the Kingdom, the Grand Master of the Templars fre`re William of Beaujeu, the Grand Master of the Hospitallers, fre`re Nicholas Lorgne and the Marshal fre`re Conrad, representative of the Grand Master of the Teutonic Hospitallers; as well as all the Franks, Brethren and knights obedient to them and members of their State of Palestine; and by all the Franks without distinction who inhabit Acre and the coastal regions included in the treaty, and anyone of them to arrive there by land or sea, whatever his race or condition.
The territories of our Lord the Sultan al-Malik al-Mansu? r and of his son the Sultan al-Malik as-Salih, their castles, forts, towns, villages and armies, Arab, Turcoman and Kurdish, and their subjects of every race, with all their possessions, flocks, goods, crops and everything else, shall have to fear no harm, injury or encroachment, attack or assault. This shall apply to all conquests of our Lord the Sultan al-Malik al-Mansu? r and of his son al-Malik as-Salih, by their own hand or by means of their armies and their commanders of castles and forts and provinces, by land and by sea, in the plains or in the mountains.
In the same way all the coastal lands of the Franks to which this treaty applies (shall be guaranteed their safety); to wit: the city of Acre, with the gardens, terrain, mills and
Al-Biqa? ' is the region of Syria east of Mount Lebanon; the epithet al-'Azizi (singular because the originally plural meaning of the word--the districts--has been forgotten) refers to al-Malik al-'Aziz, Saladin's son.
Baibars' fairly recent conquests. It is not clear what is meant by the 'zone of the blessed conquest' mentioned a few lines earlier.
2
1
196 Arab Historians of the Crusades
vineyards dependent upon it, including the taxes received from its administrative area, and the regions agreed under this treaty, numbering seventy-three districts with their fields; all without dispute in possession of the Franks. In the same way Kaifa and its vineyards and gardens, with seven dependent districts. In the same way Marina and the region known by that name shall belong to the Franks. In the same way they shall hold the monastery of Saya? j(? ) and that of Mar Elias. Of the area of Carmel our Lord the Sultan shall take for himself 'Afa? and al-Mansura, while the rest, consisting of thirteen districts, shall belong to the Franks. Of 'Athli? th the fort and the city and the gardens that have been harvested, the vineyards and the cultivated land and terrains shall go to the Franks, with sixteen districts; our Lord the Sultan shall take the village of al-Harami? s herein mentioned, with its taxes and farmlands; the rest of the territory of Athli? th shall be divided in half, apart from that which is in our Lord the Sultan's private possession: eight districts. The Hospitallers' estates in the province of Caesarea shall be Frankish property with everything that they contain. A half of the city of Alexandretta and the suburb of Maru? n with all its contents shall belong to the Franks, and the rest to our Lord the Sultan; all the taxes and crops of Alexandretta and the suburb of Maru? n shall be divided between them. In the case of Sidon, the fort and the city, the vineyards and the administrative area with all that it involves shall belong to the Franks; they shall take possession of fifteen districts with all their rivers, waters, springs, gardens, mills, canals flowing streams and dikes, by which the land is watered according to ancient usage; the rest of the entire mountain region shall be in the sole possession of our Lord the Sultan and his son. All these territories belonging to Acre, and those specified in the treaty, shall be given guarantees of safety by our Lord the Sultan and his son on behalf of their armies and troops, whether the region is partly or wholly in Frankish hands; the guarantee shall apply to property and inhabitants.
Outside Acre, 'Athli? th and Sidon and the walls of these three places the Franks may not rebuild walls, forts, fortifications or castles, whether old or new.
The galleys of our Lord the Sultan and his son that have been fitted out and sent to sea are forbidden to cause any harm to the coastal territories under treaty. When the above- mentioned galleys are bound for a country other than those whose ruler is linked by treaty with the authorities of the Commune of Acre the galleys may not drop anchor or take on provisions in countries affected by this treaty; if however the ruler of the country for which they are bound is not linked by treaty with the authorities of the Commune of Acre the galleys may drop anchor and take on provisions in the afore-mentioned countries. If ever, which God forbid, one of these galleys should be wrecked on a harbour or on a coast affected by the treaty, if making for an ally of the Commune of Acre and its ruler, the bailli of the kingdom of Acre and the Grand Masters of the Orders must take it into custody, enable the crew to take on provisions and to repair the damage to the ship, and send it back to Muslim territory. The original objective of the ship that has been wrecked and cast up on the shore shall be cancelled. If however the country for which the ship was bound is not linked by treaty with the Commune of Acre, the wrecked ship may take on provisions and crew in countries affected by the treaty and may proceed toward the original objective. This clause shall obtain equally in the case of Frankish ships cast up on Muslim territory.
Whenever one of the Kings of the Franks or of Outremer shall leave his land and invade the territory of our Lord the Sultan or of his son, where that territory is under treaty, the bailli of the Commune and the Grand Masters of Acre shall undertake to give notice of
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their movements to our Lord the Sultan two months before their arrival; in the event of their arrival after the two months have elapsed the bailli of the Commune of Acre and the Grand Master shall be exempt from any obligations in the matter.
In the case of attack by the Mongols or other enemies whichever of the two signatories is the first to receive news of it shall inform the other. If an enemy force, which God forbid, whether Mongol or from some other hostile power, should attack Syria by the overland route and drive the (Sultan's) armies before it as far as the coastal territories affected by this treaty and invade these lands, the bailli of the Commune of Acre and the Grand Masters shall have the right to make provision by means of treaties for the defence of their persons, their subjects and their territories, to the best of their ability.
If, God forbid, sudden panic should cause Muslims to flee from their own lands into the coastal territories affected by the treaty, the bailli of the Commune of Acre and the Grand Masters shall give protection and defence to these fugitives, and defend them from their pursuers, so that they and their possessions may be safe and secure. The bailli of the Commune of Acre and the Grand Masters shall instruct all the other coastal territories under treaty not to permit pirates to take on food or water in their ports, to hold them if they capture them, and in the case of a pirate ship coming to sell its booty they shall detain the brigands until the rightful owner shall come to take back his property. The same conditions shall apply to the Sultan.
The church at Nazareth and four houses close to it shall be reserved for the use of Christian pilgrims, great and small, of whatsoever race and station, coming from Acre and the coastal lands affected by the treaty. In the church priests and friars shall perform their offices, and the houses shall be reserved for the use of visitors to the church of Nazareth, who shall have complete freedom of movement within the area under treaty. Concerning the stones of the church, those that are picked up (having fallen from their place) shall be cast away, and stone shall not be set upon stone to rebuild the church; nor shall unlawful gifts be solicited by priests and friars for this purpose. 1
The treaty contained the usual stipulations. When our Lord the Sultan had taken the oath on it the ami? r Fakhr ad-Din Aya? z, ami? r hajib 'lord chamberlain', and the Qadi Bahr ad-Din ibn Razi? n took it to the Franks, who also swore to it, and so the truce was concluded.
FORMULA OF THE OATH TAKEN BY THE SULTAN, SWEARING TO KEEP THIS TRUCE
(IBN AL-FURA? T, VII, 181V-182r)
By Alla? h by Alla? h by Alla? h, in the name of Alla? h of Alla? h of Alla? h, the witness being Alla? h Alla? h Alla? h, great and pursuing, inflicting and bestowing, constructive and destructive, aware of what is revealed and of what is concealed, of the secret and of the manifest, merciful, forgiving; by the Qur'a? n and He who revealed it and him to whom it was revealed,
Muslim law tolerated the existence of Christain churches on Islamic territory but did not permit them to be repaired or new ones to be built. Naturally, the local authorities wrung 'gifts' from the clergy in exchange for allowing such restorations.
1
198 Arab Historians of the Crusades
Muhammad son of 'Abdalla? h, God bless and save him, and by all that is stated therein, chapter by chapter, verse by verse; by the month of ramada? n: I bind myself to uphold this blessed truce agreed between myself and the Commune of Acre and the Grand Masters who live there; a truce that is valid for Acre, 'Athli? th and Sidon and the territories under their control. The duration of the truce shall be ten years, ten months, ten days and ten hours, beginning on Friday 5 rabi? ' I of the year of the hijra 682. I will observe the truce from first to last, I will keep it and abide by all the conditions laid out in it, basing my actions on its precepts for the duration of the time set out in it. I will not raise difficulties over it or any of the conditions it contains, nor will I seek legal advice in order to break it,1 for as long as the authorities of Acre, Sidon and 'Athli? th, to wit the bailli of the Commune of Acre, the Grand Master of the Temple and he of the Hospital and the representative of the Grand Master of the Teutonic Hospital, in person or those who succeed them in the Regency of Acre or the Mastership of the Orders in the above-mentioned kingdom, shall keep their oath that they swore to me, to my son al-Malik as-Salih and to my other sons, to keep the truce here formulated, applying the conditions laid down in it for as long as it is valid and obeying its precepts. If I should break this oath, my penance shall be to make the Pilgrimage to the House of God at Mecca thirty times, barefoot and bareheaded, and to fast the whole time, apart from the days on which fasting is forbidden.
The other clauses of the oath. having been recited, it concludes: and Alla? h is the guarantor of that which we are saying here.
FORMULA OF THE FRANKISH OATH (IBN AL-FURA? T, VII, 182r-183r)
By God by God by God, in the name of God of God of God, the witness being God God God, by the Messiah the Messiah the Messiah, by the Cross the Cross the Cross, by the three persons of one substance, designated the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit and forming a single God; by the blessed Divinity2 dwelling in the august Humanity, by the pure Testament and all that it contains, by the four Gospels transmitted by Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, by their prayers and benedictions; by the twelve Apostles and the seventy- two Disciples and the three hundred and eighteen (Fathers of Niceae) gathered into the Church; by the voice that descended from Heaven over the river Jordan and which drove back its waves; by God who revealed the Good Tidings to Jesus son of Mary, Spirit and Word of God; by the Madonna, Holy Mary mother of the Light; by John the Baptist; by Saint Martha and Saint Mary; by the Lenten fast; by my Faith and the God whom I adore; and by the Christian dogmas in which I believe, and which have been impressed upon me by the Father and Priest who baptized me. From this moment and this hour I consecrate my whole intention and my deepest resolve to upholding, with regard to the Sultan al-Mansu? r, his son al-Malik as-Salih and their sons, all the articles of the blessed truce by which peace is concluded and reigns in the Kingdom of Acre, Sidon and 'Athli? th and their dependent
An old method, not only Muslim, of escaping from a sworn undertaking.
1
2 Text has 'the Cross'; an obvious error; the emendation is Quatreme`re's.
Part Four: The Mamlu? ks and the Liquidation of the Crusaders 199
territories as included in this truce and specified therein. The duration of the truce shall be ten years, ten months, ten days and ten hours, beginning on Friday 3 hazira?
n of the year 1594 of the era of Alexander son of Philip the Greek. I will observe all the stipulations set out in the treaty, one by one, and bind myself to keep faith in every clause included in the above-mentioned truce for as long as it applies. By God God God, by the Messiah and the Cross and my Faith, I will cause no harm or injury to any of the states belonging to the Sultan and his son, nor to any of the persons who live therein, nor to any of them who may visit any of the countries to which the truce applies, in respect of their persons or their possessions. By God, by my Faith, and by Him whom I adore, I will follow the path of the sincere confederate, committed to avoiding any act of violence or hostility toward persons or property, in loyally upholding the treaty and the truce, in sincere friendship, in defence of the Muslim people and of those who come and go from the Sultan's states. I bind myself to keep faith in all the stipulations of this truce for as long as it is valid, as long as al-Malik al-Mansu? r keeps the oath that he swore to this same truce. I shall not break my oath or any part of it, nor shall I make any exceptions to it or to any part of it with the aim of violating it. If I should contravene or break it, I shall be an outcast from my religion and my Faith and the God whom I adore, and a rebel against the Church; my penance shall be to perform thirty pilgrimages to Jerusalem the noble, bareheaded and barefoot; I shall be obliged to release a thousand Muslim prisoners from the Frankish prisons and shall be cut off from the Divinity handed down in Humanity. This is my oath, sworn by me, So and So. My intention in all this is the same as that of the Sultan al-Malik al-Mansu? r and of his son al-Malik as-Salih, and as his who takes the oath before them on my account, swearing on the noble Testament. This is my only intention. God and the Messiah are witnesses to our statement here.
THE FALL OF AL-MARQAB (TASHRI? F, FO. 1491-1601)
This is a great and mighty castle, which had long been a challenge to our Lord the Sultan al-Malik al-Mansu? r--God grant him victory. He studied every means of securing it for Isla? m and supported every plan or method for conquering it and over-coming it. Up to this time he had refused to authorize an attack by any of the (Muslim) rulers, none of whom was capable of getting anywhere near the place, much less besieging it. Al-Malik az-Zahir (Baibars) had led several offensives against it but God had not decreed or agreed to its conquest; He had not assigned it to him as his lot or hastened (its fall? ): on one occasion he marched toward it from Hama? t, but snow and rain fell and combined with the difficult terrain to make it impossible to reach the objective. Another time he tried to attack it from a different base, but was unable to bring up enough artillery. In fact God had reserved it for our Lord the Sultan (Qalawu? n), that it might be his glorious conquest and that he might crown his splendid life with it. The Hospitallers who held it were daily becoming more insolent, dangerous and murderous, to such a degree that the people of the neighbouring forts were confined to them as if imprisoned or even entombed. The Franks believed that it was unassailable by any combination of force and cunning, and that no one was clever enough to get the better of it. So they went on with their haughty ways, broke their oaths,
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and in the incident at al-Qulai'a? t1 committed every possible crime and perfidy, rapine and robbery. But our Lord the Sultan al-Mansu? r lay in wait for them like a man-eating lion, and went about it without attracting the attention of the castle, illumined by the heavenly guide every time that they lit a fire of war. He brought siege-engines from Damascus without anyone knowing where they had been sent to or were destined for; armies were mobilized from the various countries in uncountable number, with their stores, equipment and commanders. Some said that the expedition was bound for Greeks' Fortress,1 and others held other opinions. The Sultan had sent for a great arsenal from Egypt, with great bundles of arrows and other arms, and issues of arrows were made to the ami? rs and troops to carry with them. and use when given the word; iron implements and flame-throwing tubes were procured, such as exist only in the royal magazines and arsenals. All these were assembled before the army moved off on its march. A number of experts on the art of siege and the techniques of blockade were also enlisted. The catapults of the neighbouring forts were requisitioned and mobilized without any fuss that might attract the attention of the fort. Catapults and fighting gear were carried on men's shoulders. Eventually, our Lord the Sultan left his camp at 'Uyu? n al-Qasab and by forced marches arrived to besiege al-Marqab on Wednesday 10 safar (684/ 17 April 1285).
Immediately the catapults were brought up, carried on men's shoulders, and the fort was surrounded by a murderous circle of weapons, which began their attack under the gaze of the greatest of Sultans. Catapults of the 'Frankish' and 'qarabugha' types were brought up; they had three of the great 'Frankish' type, three 'qarabughas' and four 'devils' surrounding the fort on all sides. These began a formidable, murderous assault with stones, while excavations were started on each side to undermine the walls. The 'Frankish' catapults broke up those of the enemy, and the Muslims were able to bring theirs up close under the walls. But the Franks repaired their catapults, aimed them at the Muslims and smashed some of theirs, killing some of the Muslims who operated them. It is incontestable that the fortunes of war ebb and flow and that not everyone can save his skin. When the Sultan's tunnel under the wall was finished the wood was put into it and set on fire on Wednesday 17 rabi? ' I/ 25 May; the fire reached mid-tunnel under the tower at the angle of the bastion and the Muslims moved in to attack the walls themselves, but after violent fighting the attacking force proved insufficiently powerful to scale the wall. At sunset the tower fell, which in the opinion of our army increased the difficulty of gaining a foothold in the fortress. Thus the night passed in great confusion, for the use of catapults was made impossible by what had happened, and everything that could be done with mines had been done. Now God alone could exterminate the enemy. On the following Friday God did indeed send down His blessing and His grace and sent us the help of the angels closest to Him as well as all the hosts of heaven, who came down to bring victory to Isla? m. God made the Franks think that the tunnels under the entire wall were all equally far advanced, that they had reached the moats, then the towers, and from there were undermining the walls themselves. In fact the tunnels, travelling in conduits under the moats, had reached as far as the towers, but the Franks were unaware of this. When they did discover it they lost their
The latin Coliat, near 'Araq, the object of an attack by the Hospitallers just before the date of the treaty.
Qal'at ar-Rum, on the upper Euphrates.
1
1
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courage and presence of mind and gave themselves up for lost. They thought that they were trapped, and asked that their lives should be spared in exchange for their surrender, and that they should be treated with generous indulgence. Having chosen death rather than life, they now preferred life to death and were convinced that if they did not now take thought for their lives they would certainly lose them.
They begged our Lord the Sultan to show mercy and pardon them. In the circumstances it was most important for the Sultan to be sure of taking this great castle without a prolonged siege, for he judged that if he delayed the best moment would pass, and that it was better to seize the immediate advantage. For even if the Franks in the fort were saved from the fire of death in battle they would not in the end escape death in some form. So he agreed to grant them pardon and amnesty, and they, in the faith that our Sultan's word was worth more than any oaths, sent their leaders to the tent of victory and asked only for their lives and nothing more. They agreed to take away with them no property or arms belonging to the fortress and only those who happened to have possessions of their own received permission to take them away with them. The ami? rs interceded for them; they kissed the ground before our Lord the Sultan and begged that their request should be heard. The Sultan therefore made the following concessions: for their leaders' journey twenty-five horses and mules with the equipment necessary for them, and the sum estimated as the value of the owners' property, 2,000 Tyrian dinar. Safe-conducts were issued for them and they returned to the citadel accompanied by the ami? r Fakhr ad-Din al-Muqri al-Hajib, who witnessed the oaths of the Castellan and all the knights. They surrendered the fort in its entirety at the eighth hour of Friday 18 rabi? ' I/ 25 May. The Sultan's victorious standard rose over the battlements and a universal chorus of blessing was raised to our Lord the Sultan al-Mansu? r, in whose time it was granted to us to see this victory, for so long unattainable at no matter what cost, and for which the Muslims had for so long struggled in vain.
The Muslims went up (to take possession of the fort) and from the heights of the citadel the call to prayer resounded with praise and thanks to God for having cast down the adorers of the Messiah and freed our land of them. Messages announcing the good news were written to all the provinces and couriers were sent to bear them in all directions. Our Lord the Sultan (himself) went up to the castle on the Saturday. The chief ami? rs met in his presence and a council was held under his presidency to decide whether or not to destroy the fort. Opinions differed, but the Sultan's inspired judgment was to preserve it for his own protection and safety, and to repair and restore it. He determined to keep it for the destruction of the infidels and the support of the neighbouring castles; he therefore stationed, 1,000 aq jiyya(? ) infantry there, catapulters and fighting men, and 400 craftsmen, a group of ami? rs 'with bands', and Bahrite, Salihite and Mansurite mamlu? ks;1 550 men in all. Then he had transferred to the castle the catapults that until now had been attacking it. Now their job was to attack the enemy from its ramparts. The same applied to the equipment, timbers, arrows, combustible materials, naphtha and all the other siege equipment belonging to His Highness. He made the command of the fort a feudal position giving the holder control of
Ami? rs 'with bands' were those with their own military orchestras (tablkhane) to perform in their honour. The Bahrite mamlu? ks were, as has been noted, those based on the Nile (Bahr), and the Salihites and Mansurites were those instituted in the names of al-Malik as-Salih and al-Malik al-Mansu? r, i. e. Qalawu? n.
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the Kafarta? b area, the city of Antioch, Laodicaea and its port and the area already dependent on al-Marqab itself, as well as what had already been his fief before the conquest. The total income of this territory once it had been put in order was a million dirham. The cost of repairing it and paying the garrison's wages was spread out over the country2 until the fort was back in working order and the local population returned. When he had seen to all this the Sultan--God grant him victory! --departed to the plains and the city of Bulunya? s.
THE FALL OF MARAQIYYA (TASHRI? F, FO. 172r-178v)
When our Lord the Sultan--God grant him victory! --had dealt with Marqab and gone down to the plains, as we have said, he turned his attention to the castle of Maraqiyya and studied ways of taking it. He perceived that it was like a wedge inserted between the other forts and that he could enjoy neither peace nor security while it flourished. Its ruler was called Bartholomew, and was one of the leading Franks. When Hisn al-Akra? d was taken (by the Muslims) he could no longer make a living in that part of the world, so he went over to the Mongols for protection, support and assistance, and enjoyed their patronage for several years. When al-Malik az-Zahir died he profited by the occasion to return to his land and began to fortify Maraqiyya. His resources were not great enough however, and fearing that it would be taken from him he built and fortified a large castle in front of the city with the help of the ruler of Tripoli and other Franks, the Hospitallers of Marqab and others. This fort lay between Tortosa and Marqab and faced Maraqiyya from a position in the sea, two bow-shots or more from the shore. It was almost square in shape; each side was twenty- five and a half cubits long, with walls seven cubits thick. It had seven storeys and was built on ships loaded with stones and sunk in the sea. Under each corner were sunk nine- hundred(? ) shiploads of stones; the blocks were held together by two continuous iron bands covered with an iron network. Within the citadel was a great cistern over which a vault was built, and above that some wooden beams supporting battering-rams and covered with fine gravel, a layer of sacking and hempen ropes fixed in such a way that if the fort were attacked by catapult from terra firma it would be able to smile at such a bombardment, for the stones would roll off the protective roof into the water. It had a garrison of a hundred. Behind it and attached to it was a small second fort defended by three mounted catapults. The place was in effect unassailable by siege or blockade. The (Muslim) commanders of Hisn al-Akra? d, watching the fort being built and unable to prevent it, because the materials and tools came by sea, were forced to build another nearby in the village of Mai'a? r, with a garrison of about fifty, but this had no effect whatsoever.
When our Lord the Sultan saw this fort, so strong and impregnable, when he realized that the castle built to oppose it had been more of a disadvantage than a benefit to its builders, that it was impossible to besiege a fort set in the midst of the sea, that the Muslims had no fleet strong enough to cut the supply-lines and prevent traffic reaching the fort, that it was
I think this means, over the whole vast economic and administrative unit so formed, as it seems
2
unlikely that the cost of the repairs would be borne by the actual region in need of rehabilitation.
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likely to be a long fight but at the same time that it was urgent--of the most absolute and particular importance--and that wit and not force was the agent necessary to its conquest; when he had taken account of all this he sent the following message to the Prince of Tripoli: 'My troops are free (from any other commitment) and their sole objective is you. You are the real builder of the fort, for it would not have been constructed without your aid, so the responsibility for it falls upon you. Either you demolish it or we shall take so much of your territory in revenge that the Lord of Maraqiyya will be of no help to you. You will repent then, when repentance is no longer of any use; the cover will be lifted and the gift taken back. '
When the Prince1 read this terrible judgment he was convinced that his lands, his castles and his whole state would be laid waste as the message promised, that the ruler of the land with his great armies was already at the gates of his city, encamped upon his land, and that the only alternatives were to lose his kingdom or to demolish the fort. He therefore took the course of surrendering the castle and demolishing it. He paid off its commander with all the money and land available, which was accepted after a certain amount of resistance. The commander's son was secretly smuggled into the Sultan's camp with a plan to hold the fort and hand it over to him. Still in secret he made for Acre by post-horse, but was arrested there by the officials. The news reached his father, who hurried from Tripoli to Acre, got hold of the boy and killed him with his own hand before the people of Acre; that was the end of the plot. In the end, however, when the Prince intervened as mediator, the commander agreed to bow his head and hand over the fort to the Muslims. The Prince sent a certain number of Franks to help with the demolition, by which means the word of God was fulfilled: 'They cast down their dwellings with their own hands, and with the hands of the believers. '1 The ruler of Tripoli sent one of his high officials to supervise the demolition as the leader of a band of Franks sent for this purpose, and also to put an end to excuses about having to find demolition tools, chains and so on. The ami? r Badr ad-Din Bakta? sh an-Najmi, a jamda? r ami? r, was also sent with a hundred engineers2 for the demolition. The sipahsala? r ami? r Rukn ad-Din Taqsu? al-Mansuri was stationed before Ja? bala with a body of troops, and the Sultan ordered him to take his men to the top of the fort to assist with the demolition. Stone by stone it came down, so zealously demolished that no trace of it remained, but the labour needed for the task made the spades groan, hardened the stones and exhausted the men for as long as the work took. Thus God was pleased to remove the traces of the fortress and to destroy its foundations, freeing the faithful from the threat of it and dissipating its menace, while in its place, in the hearts of Unbelievers, was only grief.
THE FALL OF TRIPOLI (ABU L-FIDA? ', 162)
The Sultan al-Malik al-Mansu? r Qalawu? n's campaign began in muharram of this year (688/ February 1289) when he led his Egyptian troops into Syria. With his combined Egyptian
The contested title is here restored to him, as the former ruler of Antioch.
Qur'a? n LIX, 2.
In Arabic hajjari? n, 'stonecutters' and also 'stone throwers', those who look after the ballistas, and so half-way between artillery and engineers.
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and Syrian armies he besieged the Syrian city of Tripoli on the first Friday of the month of rabi? ' 1/25 March. Most of the city is surrounded by sea; the only approach by land is from the west along a narrow bridge of land. The Sultan beleaguered the city with a large number of catapults, big and small. He enforced a stringent blockade and after a violent struggle took the city by storm on Tuesday 4 rabi? ' II 688/27 April. The Muslim troops forced their way in and the citizens fled to the harbour. A few got to safety on ships, but most of the men were killed and the children taken captive. The Muslims took quantities of booty from the place. When the killing and looting were over, the city, on the Sultan's orders, was demolished and razed to the ground.
In the sea, a short distance from Tripoli, is a small island with a church on it called the Church of Saint Thomas. It is separated from the city by the harbour. When Tripoli was taken a great many Franks fled with their women to the island and the church. The Muslim troops flung themselves into the sea and swam with their horses to the island, where they killed all the men and took the women, children and possessions. After the looting I went by boat to this island, and found it heaped with putrefying corpses; it was impossible to land there because of the stench.
When the Sultan finished taking and demolishing Tripoli he returned to Egypt. Tripoli had been in Frankish hands for 185 years and some months. 1
(MAQRIZI, 746-8)
On Thursday 10 muharram/4 February 1289 the Sultan camped outside Cairo, and on the 15th he departed, leaving his son al-Malik al-Ashraf Khali? l as commander in the Citadel,2 and the ami? r Baidar as his son's general and vizier. On his departure he wrote to the provinces of Syria to muster troops for the attack on Tripoli. He made for Damascus, entered it on 13 safar/ 7 March and on the 20th set out for Tripoli and laid siege to it. Four galleys came from the King of Cyprus to assist the town. The Sultan kept up continuous fire from his siege-engines and pressed his attack on the walls until at the seventh hour of Tuesday 4 rabi? ' II,1 after a siege of thirty-four days, he took the city by storm. He had used nineteen catapults and employed 1,500 artillerymen and bombardiers. The citizens tried to escape to an island that faced the city but the Muslims, cavalry and infantry together, threw themselves into the sea, captured and killed the fugitives and seized their goods. The swordsmen and palfreymen took many who had got on to boats but whom the waves2 had cast on to the beach. There were many prisoners; so many of them that 1,200 of them had to be kept in the Sultan's arsenal. Among the Muslims who fell were the ami? r 'Izz ad-Din Ma'n and the ami? r Rukn ad-Din Mankuras al-Farqani, with fifty-five of the Sultan's guard. On the Sultan's orders Tripoli was demolished. The thickness of the walls was such that three horsemen could ride their horses side by side along it. The population was extremely wealthy, and 4,000 weaver's looms were found.
According to the Muslim lunar calendar (502-688), or 180 solar years (1109-1289). The Citadel on the hill of al-Muqattam, the Sultan's home in Cairo.
The text of the document is here clumsily welded to the preamble.
The Seleucid era, beginning in 311 B. C.
Qalawu? n's appointed heir who, however, died before him, in 1288, when the succession passed to his younger brother al-Ashraf.
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the small fortresses) and their territory; Maraqiyya and the whole of its lands, the region of al-Marqab, of which both sides agree to hold half each, and everything included in the treaty made with the Christians by al-Malik al-Mansu? r. The treaty embraces, in these regions far and near, neighbouring and bordering, every zone, cultivated or not, flat and hilly, land and sea, ports and shores, with their mills, towers, gardens, waters, trees and wells and all that God conquered by the hand of our Lord al-Malik al-Mansu? r and his son the Sultan al-Malik as-Salih and the commanders of his armies, in the way of forts, cities, villages and every region in between, flat and mountainous, cultivated or not, waters and gardens, ports and shores and plains. On the other hand the truce applies to Tortosa, which is held by the Order of the Temple, and to their lands recognized in perpetuity in the act of signing this blessed truce; as well as the annexed territories of al-'Uraima and Mai'a? r, according to a truce signed by al-Malik az-Zahir1 whose terms are transferred to this treaty. The treaty applies then to all the territories of our Lord the Sultan (with security for them) on the part of the Grand Master fre`re William of Beaujeu, Grand Master of the Order of the Temple, and all the Brethren of Tortosa, knights and turcopoles and other categories of Franks.
No one from Tortosa and its port and coast shall invade the lands of our Lord al-Malik al-Mansu? r and his son al-Malik as-Salih, or their forts and castles and cities, whether or not they have been mentioned in the treaty. In return Tortosa and the regions mentioned in the treaty, with the Brethren and knights and their subjects living there or visiting, shall enjoy security and tranquillity from our Lord the Sultan al-Malik al-Mansu? r, his son, their armies and subjects. No one shall invade Tortosa or its territory, or cause harm to or attack any of its inhabitants for as long as the truce shall last. All matters coming under prohibition shall be subject to the same prohibition.
Whenever a ship from the lands of our Lord the Sultan or one going thither from any other land or nation is wrecked or suffers damage in the port of Tortosa or its coasts and lands included in this treaty, all those on board the ship shall be kept safe, and also their goods and merchandise. Where the owner of the damaged ship is available, his ship and his property shall be handed over to him; if death or drowning have made this impossible, his property shall be sent under guard to a representative of our Lord the Sultan. The same rule shall apply to ships from Tortosa wrecked in the realms of our Lord the Sultan.
In the territory of Tortosa mentioned in the treaty no fort or fortification is to be repaired, nor any reinforcement, entrenchment or the like built.
THE TREATY WITH ACRE
(IBN 'ABD AZ-ZAHIR, TASHRI? F, 69r-85v)
In 682/1283 our Lord the Sultan agreed to grant a request from the people of Acre, after their ambassadors had appeared before him time after time, in Syria and Egypt, asking for peace. He forbade them to travel overland, inviting them to come by sea only, whenever they should desire an audience of him. This they did. The agreement reached was that they should submit themselves to the will of the Sultan, although before this, at the the
1 We do not possess a copy of the truce with Baibars referred to here.
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expiration of the truce (of al-Malik az-Zahir1), they had put forward exorbitant claims. In safar of this year/May 1283 delegates and notabilities came from Acre and signed the truce. The Sultan took the oath in the presence of the Frankish ambassadors, who were: two Brethren of the Order of the Temple, two of the Order of the Hospital, two royal knights, the governor-general William and the vizier Fahd. The text was as follows:
A truce is declared between our Lord the Sultan al-Malik al-Mansu? r (Qalawu? n) and his son al-Malik as-Salih 'Ala? ' ad-Dunya wa'd-Din 'Ali--God make their power eternal--and the authorities of the Commune of Acre, Sidon, 'Athli? th and the dependent territories, over which the truce extends. These are: the Seneschal Odo, bailli of Acre,2 the Grand Master fre`re William of Beaujeu, Grand Master of the Order of the Temple, the Grand Master fre`re Nicholas Lorgne, Grand Master of the Order of the Hospital, and the Marshal fre`re Conrad, representative of the Grand Master of the Teutonic Hospital. The truce is to last ten whole years, ten months, ten days and ten hours, beginning on Friday 5 rabi? ' I 682 of the hijra of the Prophet, which corresponds to 3 hazira? n 1594 of the era of Alexander son of Philip the Greek/3 June 1283. The truce is to be effective throughout all the states of our Lord al-Malik al-Mansu? r and of his son al-Malik as-Salih 'Ala? ' ad-Dunya wa'd-Din 'Ali: forts, castles, territories, provinces, cities, villages, farmed and unfarmed land. This includes:1
The kingdom of Egypt with all its regions and Muslim forts and castles, the district of Damietta, the district of Alexandria, Nastarawa, Santariyya and every port and coast and town connected with them; the district of Fuwwa and of Rosetta: the country of the Hija? z; the well-guarded district of Gaza with all its harbours and territories; the province of Karak, Shaubak and its territory, as-Salt and its territory, Bustra and its territory; the province of the Friend of God (Hebron)--on which be God's blessing! --the province of Jerusalem the noble and its territories, of the Jordan, of Bethlehem and its territory, with all the towns included in it and taken into account; Bait Gibri? l; the province of Nablus and its territory; the province of Alatru? n and its territory; Ascalon and its territory, harbours and coasts; the province of Jaffa and Ramla, its port and territory; Arsu? f, its port and territory; Caesarea, its port and coastline and territory; the fort of Qaqu? n and its territory; Lydda and its territory; the al-'Auja? zone and the salt works therein; the zone of the blessed conquest, with its territory and its farmland; Baisa? n and territory, at-Tur and territory, al-Laju? n and territory, Jubni? n and territory. 'Ain Jalu? t and territory, al-Qaimu? n and territory with all regions dependent on it; Tiberias with its lake and territory; the province of Safad and its dependencies; Tibni? n and Huni? n with all their towns and territories; ash-Shaqi? f, known as Shaqi? f Arnu? n, with its territory and dependencies; the town of al-Qarn and its dependencies, apart from those
The truce of 1272 with Baibars.
Odo Poilechien, Charles of Anjou's representative.
The long, monotonous list that follows, enumerating the dominions of the Mamlu? k Sultan of Egypt from south to north, has the eloquence of fact when one compares it with the brief description, a little further on, of the territories belonging to the other party to the treaty. The 'kingdom of Jerusalem' was in effect reduced to a narrow coastal strip extending from a short distance north of Acre as far as Carmel. Apart from this, Tyre and Sidon, Beiru? t and Tripoli and a few forts in Syria still held by the Templars and Hospitallers were all that remained of the Crusaders' achievements. The list of Qalawu? n's possessions, beginning with the Holy City, is in fact a list of all the territories that the Crusaders had lost during the last century, or had attacked in vain.
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specified in this treaty; half of the city of Alexandretta and of the suburb of Maru? n with their villages and vineyards and gardens and fields--and the rest of the above-mentioned Alexandretta shall all, including all its confines and lands, be subject to our Lord the Sultan and to his son--while the other half shall go to the kingdom of Acre; al-Biqa? ' al-'Azizi2 and its territory, Mashghar and territory, Shaqi? f Tiru? n and its territory; all the caves, Zalaya and the rest; Baniya? s and its territory; the fort of as-Subaiba with its lakes and territory; Kaukab and its territory; the fort of 'Ajlu? n and its territory; Damascus and its province with its forts and towns and districts and territories; the fortress of Baalbek and its territory; the province of Hims with its territory and confines; the province of Hama? t with its city and fort and lands and confines; Bala? tunus and its territory; Sahyu? n and its territory; Barzayya and its territory; the conquests of Hisn al-Akra? d and its territory; Safitha? and its territory; Mai'a? r and its territory; al-'Uraima and territory; Maraqiyya and its territory; Halaba? and its territory; the fort of 'Akka? r and its territory and lands; al-Qulai'a and its territory; the fort of Shaizar and its territory, Apamea and its territory; Ja? bala and its territory, Abu Qubais and its territory; the province of Aleppo, with all the forts, cities, towns and castles connected with it; Antioch and its territory, with everything that made up that blessed conquest;1 Baghra? s and its territory, Darbsa? k and its territory, Rawanda? n and its territory, Hari? m and its territory, 'Ainta? b and its territory, Tizi? n and its territory, Saih al-Hadi? d and its territory; the fort of Najm and its territory, Shaqi? f Dair Kush and its territory; ash-Shughr and its territory, Baka? s and its territory, as-Suwaida and its territory; al-Bab and Buza'a and their territories; al-Bira and its territory, ar-Rahba and its territory, Salamiyya and its territory, Shumaimi? s and its territory, Tadmur and its territory; and everything connected with these places, whether specified or not.
(The safety of all these places is guaranteed) by the authorities of the kingdom of Acre, i. e. the bailli of the Kingdom, the Grand Master of the Templars fre`re William of Beaujeu, the Grand Master of the Hospitallers, fre`re Nicholas Lorgne and the Marshal fre`re Conrad, representative of the Grand Master of the Teutonic Hospitallers; as well as all the Franks, Brethren and knights obedient to them and members of their State of Palestine; and by all the Franks without distinction who inhabit Acre and the coastal regions included in the treaty, and anyone of them to arrive there by land or sea, whatever his race or condition.
The territories of our Lord the Sultan al-Malik al-Mansu? r and of his son the Sultan al-Malik as-Salih, their castles, forts, towns, villages and armies, Arab, Turcoman and Kurdish, and their subjects of every race, with all their possessions, flocks, goods, crops and everything else, shall have to fear no harm, injury or encroachment, attack or assault. This shall apply to all conquests of our Lord the Sultan al-Malik al-Mansu? r and of his son al-Malik as-Salih, by their own hand or by means of their armies and their commanders of castles and forts and provinces, by land and by sea, in the plains or in the mountains.
In the same way all the coastal lands of the Franks to which this treaty applies (shall be guaranteed their safety); to wit: the city of Acre, with the gardens, terrain, mills and
Al-Biqa? ' is the region of Syria east of Mount Lebanon; the epithet al-'Azizi (singular because the originally plural meaning of the word--the districts--has been forgotten) refers to al-Malik al-'Aziz, Saladin's son.
Baibars' fairly recent conquests. It is not clear what is meant by the 'zone of the blessed conquest' mentioned a few lines earlier.
2
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vineyards dependent upon it, including the taxes received from its administrative area, and the regions agreed under this treaty, numbering seventy-three districts with their fields; all without dispute in possession of the Franks. In the same way Kaifa and its vineyards and gardens, with seven dependent districts. In the same way Marina and the region known by that name shall belong to the Franks. In the same way they shall hold the monastery of Saya? j(? ) and that of Mar Elias. Of the area of Carmel our Lord the Sultan shall take for himself 'Afa? and al-Mansura, while the rest, consisting of thirteen districts, shall belong to the Franks. Of 'Athli? th the fort and the city and the gardens that have been harvested, the vineyards and the cultivated land and terrains shall go to the Franks, with sixteen districts; our Lord the Sultan shall take the village of al-Harami? s herein mentioned, with its taxes and farmlands; the rest of the territory of Athli? th shall be divided in half, apart from that which is in our Lord the Sultan's private possession: eight districts. The Hospitallers' estates in the province of Caesarea shall be Frankish property with everything that they contain. A half of the city of Alexandretta and the suburb of Maru? n with all its contents shall belong to the Franks, and the rest to our Lord the Sultan; all the taxes and crops of Alexandretta and the suburb of Maru? n shall be divided between them. In the case of Sidon, the fort and the city, the vineyards and the administrative area with all that it involves shall belong to the Franks; they shall take possession of fifteen districts with all their rivers, waters, springs, gardens, mills, canals flowing streams and dikes, by which the land is watered according to ancient usage; the rest of the entire mountain region shall be in the sole possession of our Lord the Sultan and his son. All these territories belonging to Acre, and those specified in the treaty, shall be given guarantees of safety by our Lord the Sultan and his son on behalf of their armies and troops, whether the region is partly or wholly in Frankish hands; the guarantee shall apply to property and inhabitants.
Outside Acre, 'Athli? th and Sidon and the walls of these three places the Franks may not rebuild walls, forts, fortifications or castles, whether old or new.
The galleys of our Lord the Sultan and his son that have been fitted out and sent to sea are forbidden to cause any harm to the coastal territories under treaty. When the above- mentioned galleys are bound for a country other than those whose ruler is linked by treaty with the authorities of the Commune of Acre the galleys may not drop anchor or take on provisions in countries affected by this treaty; if however the ruler of the country for which they are bound is not linked by treaty with the authorities of the Commune of Acre the galleys may drop anchor and take on provisions in the afore-mentioned countries. If ever, which God forbid, one of these galleys should be wrecked on a harbour or on a coast affected by the treaty, if making for an ally of the Commune of Acre and its ruler, the bailli of the kingdom of Acre and the Grand Masters of the Orders must take it into custody, enable the crew to take on provisions and to repair the damage to the ship, and send it back to Muslim territory. The original objective of the ship that has been wrecked and cast up on the shore shall be cancelled. If however the country for which the ship was bound is not linked by treaty with the Commune of Acre, the wrecked ship may take on provisions and crew in countries affected by the treaty and may proceed toward the original objective. This clause shall obtain equally in the case of Frankish ships cast up on Muslim territory.
Whenever one of the Kings of the Franks or of Outremer shall leave his land and invade the territory of our Lord the Sultan or of his son, where that territory is under treaty, the bailli of the Commune and the Grand Masters of Acre shall undertake to give notice of
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their movements to our Lord the Sultan two months before their arrival; in the event of their arrival after the two months have elapsed the bailli of the Commune of Acre and the Grand Master shall be exempt from any obligations in the matter.
In the case of attack by the Mongols or other enemies whichever of the two signatories is the first to receive news of it shall inform the other. If an enemy force, which God forbid, whether Mongol or from some other hostile power, should attack Syria by the overland route and drive the (Sultan's) armies before it as far as the coastal territories affected by this treaty and invade these lands, the bailli of the Commune of Acre and the Grand Masters shall have the right to make provision by means of treaties for the defence of their persons, their subjects and their territories, to the best of their ability.
If, God forbid, sudden panic should cause Muslims to flee from their own lands into the coastal territories affected by the treaty, the bailli of the Commune of Acre and the Grand Masters shall give protection and defence to these fugitives, and defend them from their pursuers, so that they and their possessions may be safe and secure. The bailli of the Commune of Acre and the Grand Masters shall instruct all the other coastal territories under treaty not to permit pirates to take on food or water in their ports, to hold them if they capture them, and in the case of a pirate ship coming to sell its booty they shall detain the brigands until the rightful owner shall come to take back his property. The same conditions shall apply to the Sultan.
The church at Nazareth and four houses close to it shall be reserved for the use of Christian pilgrims, great and small, of whatsoever race and station, coming from Acre and the coastal lands affected by the treaty. In the church priests and friars shall perform their offices, and the houses shall be reserved for the use of visitors to the church of Nazareth, who shall have complete freedom of movement within the area under treaty. Concerning the stones of the church, those that are picked up (having fallen from their place) shall be cast away, and stone shall not be set upon stone to rebuild the church; nor shall unlawful gifts be solicited by priests and friars for this purpose. 1
The treaty contained the usual stipulations. When our Lord the Sultan had taken the oath on it the ami? r Fakhr ad-Din Aya? z, ami? r hajib 'lord chamberlain', and the Qadi Bahr ad-Din ibn Razi? n took it to the Franks, who also swore to it, and so the truce was concluded.
FORMULA OF THE OATH TAKEN BY THE SULTAN, SWEARING TO KEEP THIS TRUCE
(IBN AL-FURA? T, VII, 181V-182r)
By Alla? h by Alla? h by Alla? h, in the name of Alla? h of Alla? h of Alla? h, the witness being Alla? h Alla? h Alla? h, great and pursuing, inflicting and bestowing, constructive and destructive, aware of what is revealed and of what is concealed, of the secret and of the manifest, merciful, forgiving; by the Qur'a? n and He who revealed it and him to whom it was revealed,
Muslim law tolerated the existence of Christain churches on Islamic territory but did not permit them to be repaired or new ones to be built. Naturally, the local authorities wrung 'gifts' from the clergy in exchange for allowing such restorations.
1
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Muhammad son of 'Abdalla? h, God bless and save him, and by all that is stated therein, chapter by chapter, verse by verse; by the month of ramada? n: I bind myself to uphold this blessed truce agreed between myself and the Commune of Acre and the Grand Masters who live there; a truce that is valid for Acre, 'Athli? th and Sidon and the territories under their control. The duration of the truce shall be ten years, ten months, ten days and ten hours, beginning on Friday 5 rabi? ' I of the year of the hijra 682. I will observe the truce from first to last, I will keep it and abide by all the conditions laid out in it, basing my actions on its precepts for the duration of the time set out in it. I will not raise difficulties over it or any of the conditions it contains, nor will I seek legal advice in order to break it,1 for as long as the authorities of Acre, Sidon and 'Athli? th, to wit the bailli of the Commune of Acre, the Grand Master of the Temple and he of the Hospital and the representative of the Grand Master of the Teutonic Hospital, in person or those who succeed them in the Regency of Acre or the Mastership of the Orders in the above-mentioned kingdom, shall keep their oath that they swore to me, to my son al-Malik as-Salih and to my other sons, to keep the truce here formulated, applying the conditions laid down in it for as long as it is valid and obeying its precepts. If I should break this oath, my penance shall be to make the Pilgrimage to the House of God at Mecca thirty times, barefoot and bareheaded, and to fast the whole time, apart from the days on which fasting is forbidden.
The other clauses of the oath. having been recited, it concludes: and Alla? h is the guarantor of that which we are saying here.
FORMULA OF THE FRANKISH OATH (IBN AL-FURA? T, VII, 182r-183r)
By God by God by God, in the name of God of God of God, the witness being God God God, by the Messiah the Messiah the Messiah, by the Cross the Cross the Cross, by the three persons of one substance, designated the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit and forming a single God; by the blessed Divinity2 dwelling in the august Humanity, by the pure Testament and all that it contains, by the four Gospels transmitted by Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, by their prayers and benedictions; by the twelve Apostles and the seventy- two Disciples and the three hundred and eighteen (Fathers of Niceae) gathered into the Church; by the voice that descended from Heaven over the river Jordan and which drove back its waves; by God who revealed the Good Tidings to Jesus son of Mary, Spirit and Word of God; by the Madonna, Holy Mary mother of the Light; by John the Baptist; by Saint Martha and Saint Mary; by the Lenten fast; by my Faith and the God whom I adore; and by the Christian dogmas in which I believe, and which have been impressed upon me by the Father and Priest who baptized me. From this moment and this hour I consecrate my whole intention and my deepest resolve to upholding, with regard to the Sultan al-Mansu? r, his son al-Malik as-Salih and their sons, all the articles of the blessed truce by which peace is concluded and reigns in the Kingdom of Acre, Sidon and 'Athli? th and their dependent
An old method, not only Muslim, of escaping from a sworn undertaking.
1
2 Text has 'the Cross'; an obvious error; the emendation is Quatreme`re's.
Part Four: The Mamlu? ks and the Liquidation of the Crusaders 199
territories as included in this truce and specified therein. The duration of the truce shall be ten years, ten months, ten days and ten hours, beginning on Friday 3 hazira?
n of the year 1594 of the era of Alexander son of Philip the Greek. I will observe all the stipulations set out in the treaty, one by one, and bind myself to keep faith in every clause included in the above-mentioned truce for as long as it applies. By God God God, by the Messiah and the Cross and my Faith, I will cause no harm or injury to any of the states belonging to the Sultan and his son, nor to any of the persons who live therein, nor to any of them who may visit any of the countries to which the truce applies, in respect of their persons or their possessions. By God, by my Faith, and by Him whom I adore, I will follow the path of the sincere confederate, committed to avoiding any act of violence or hostility toward persons or property, in loyally upholding the treaty and the truce, in sincere friendship, in defence of the Muslim people and of those who come and go from the Sultan's states. I bind myself to keep faith in all the stipulations of this truce for as long as it is valid, as long as al-Malik al-Mansu? r keeps the oath that he swore to this same truce. I shall not break my oath or any part of it, nor shall I make any exceptions to it or to any part of it with the aim of violating it. If I should contravene or break it, I shall be an outcast from my religion and my Faith and the God whom I adore, and a rebel against the Church; my penance shall be to perform thirty pilgrimages to Jerusalem the noble, bareheaded and barefoot; I shall be obliged to release a thousand Muslim prisoners from the Frankish prisons and shall be cut off from the Divinity handed down in Humanity. This is my oath, sworn by me, So and So. My intention in all this is the same as that of the Sultan al-Malik al-Mansu? r and of his son al-Malik as-Salih, and as his who takes the oath before them on my account, swearing on the noble Testament. This is my only intention. God and the Messiah are witnesses to our statement here.
THE FALL OF AL-MARQAB (TASHRI? F, FO. 1491-1601)
This is a great and mighty castle, which had long been a challenge to our Lord the Sultan al-Malik al-Mansu? r--God grant him victory. He studied every means of securing it for Isla? m and supported every plan or method for conquering it and over-coming it. Up to this time he had refused to authorize an attack by any of the (Muslim) rulers, none of whom was capable of getting anywhere near the place, much less besieging it. Al-Malik az-Zahir (Baibars) had led several offensives against it but God had not decreed or agreed to its conquest; He had not assigned it to him as his lot or hastened (its fall? ): on one occasion he marched toward it from Hama? t, but snow and rain fell and combined with the difficult terrain to make it impossible to reach the objective. Another time he tried to attack it from a different base, but was unable to bring up enough artillery. In fact God had reserved it for our Lord the Sultan (Qalawu? n), that it might be his glorious conquest and that he might crown his splendid life with it. The Hospitallers who held it were daily becoming more insolent, dangerous and murderous, to such a degree that the people of the neighbouring forts were confined to them as if imprisoned or even entombed. The Franks believed that it was unassailable by any combination of force and cunning, and that no one was clever enough to get the better of it. So they went on with their haughty ways, broke their oaths,
200 Arab Historians of the Crusades
and in the incident at al-Qulai'a? t1 committed every possible crime and perfidy, rapine and robbery. But our Lord the Sultan al-Mansu? r lay in wait for them like a man-eating lion, and went about it without attracting the attention of the castle, illumined by the heavenly guide every time that they lit a fire of war. He brought siege-engines from Damascus without anyone knowing where they had been sent to or were destined for; armies were mobilized from the various countries in uncountable number, with their stores, equipment and commanders. Some said that the expedition was bound for Greeks' Fortress,1 and others held other opinions. The Sultan had sent for a great arsenal from Egypt, with great bundles of arrows and other arms, and issues of arrows were made to the ami? rs and troops to carry with them. and use when given the word; iron implements and flame-throwing tubes were procured, such as exist only in the royal magazines and arsenals. All these were assembled before the army moved off on its march. A number of experts on the art of siege and the techniques of blockade were also enlisted. The catapults of the neighbouring forts were requisitioned and mobilized without any fuss that might attract the attention of the fort. Catapults and fighting gear were carried on men's shoulders. Eventually, our Lord the Sultan left his camp at 'Uyu? n al-Qasab and by forced marches arrived to besiege al-Marqab on Wednesday 10 safar (684/ 17 April 1285).
Immediately the catapults were brought up, carried on men's shoulders, and the fort was surrounded by a murderous circle of weapons, which began their attack under the gaze of the greatest of Sultans. Catapults of the 'Frankish' and 'qarabugha' types were brought up; they had three of the great 'Frankish' type, three 'qarabughas' and four 'devils' surrounding the fort on all sides. These began a formidable, murderous assault with stones, while excavations were started on each side to undermine the walls. The 'Frankish' catapults broke up those of the enemy, and the Muslims were able to bring theirs up close under the walls. But the Franks repaired their catapults, aimed them at the Muslims and smashed some of theirs, killing some of the Muslims who operated them. It is incontestable that the fortunes of war ebb and flow and that not everyone can save his skin. When the Sultan's tunnel under the wall was finished the wood was put into it and set on fire on Wednesday 17 rabi? ' I/ 25 May; the fire reached mid-tunnel under the tower at the angle of the bastion and the Muslims moved in to attack the walls themselves, but after violent fighting the attacking force proved insufficiently powerful to scale the wall. At sunset the tower fell, which in the opinion of our army increased the difficulty of gaining a foothold in the fortress. Thus the night passed in great confusion, for the use of catapults was made impossible by what had happened, and everything that could be done with mines had been done. Now God alone could exterminate the enemy. On the following Friday God did indeed send down His blessing and His grace and sent us the help of the angels closest to Him as well as all the hosts of heaven, who came down to bring victory to Isla? m. God made the Franks think that the tunnels under the entire wall were all equally far advanced, that they had reached the moats, then the towers, and from there were undermining the walls themselves. In fact the tunnels, travelling in conduits under the moats, had reached as far as the towers, but the Franks were unaware of this. When they did discover it they lost their
The latin Coliat, near 'Araq, the object of an attack by the Hospitallers just before the date of the treaty.
Qal'at ar-Rum, on the upper Euphrates.
1
1
Part Four: The Mamlu? ks and the Liquidation of the Crusaders 201
courage and presence of mind and gave themselves up for lost. They thought that they were trapped, and asked that their lives should be spared in exchange for their surrender, and that they should be treated with generous indulgence. Having chosen death rather than life, they now preferred life to death and were convinced that if they did not now take thought for their lives they would certainly lose them.
They begged our Lord the Sultan to show mercy and pardon them. In the circumstances it was most important for the Sultan to be sure of taking this great castle without a prolonged siege, for he judged that if he delayed the best moment would pass, and that it was better to seize the immediate advantage. For even if the Franks in the fort were saved from the fire of death in battle they would not in the end escape death in some form. So he agreed to grant them pardon and amnesty, and they, in the faith that our Sultan's word was worth more than any oaths, sent their leaders to the tent of victory and asked only for their lives and nothing more. They agreed to take away with them no property or arms belonging to the fortress and only those who happened to have possessions of their own received permission to take them away with them. The ami? rs interceded for them; they kissed the ground before our Lord the Sultan and begged that their request should be heard. The Sultan therefore made the following concessions: for their leaders' journey twenty-five horses and mules with the equipment necessary for them, and the sum estimated as the value of the owners' property, 2,000 Tyrian dinar. Safe-conducts were issued for them and they returned to the citadel accompanied by the ami? r Fakhr ad-Din al-Muqri al-Hajib, who witnessed the oaths of the Castellan and all the knights. They surrendered the fort in its entirety at the eighth hour of Friday 18 rabi? ' I/ 25 May. The Sultan's victorious standard rose over the battlements and a universal chorus of blessing was raised to our Lord the Sultan al-Mansu? r, in whose time it was granted to us to see this victory, for so long unattainable at no matter what cost, and for which the Muslims had for so long struggled in vain.
The Muslims went up (to take possession of the fort) and from the heights of the citadel the call to prayer resounded with praise and thanks to God for having cast down the adorers of the Messiah and freed our land of them. Messages announcing the good news were written to all the provinces and couriers were sent to bear them in all directions. Our Lord the Sultan (himself) went up to the castle on the Saturday. The chief ami? rs met in his presence and a council was held under his presidency to decide whether or not to destroy the fort. Opinions differed, but the Sultan's inspired judgment was to preserve it for his own protection and safety, and to repair and restore it. He determined to keep it for the destruction of the infidels and the support of the neighbouring castles; he therefore stationed, 1,000 aq jiyya(? ) infantry there, catapulters and fighting men, and 400 craftsmen, a group of ami? rs 'with bands', and Bahrite, Salihite and Mansurite mamlu? ks;1 550 men in all. Then he had transferred to the castle the catapults that until now had been attacking it. Now their job was to attack the enemy from its ramparts. The same applied to the equipment, timbers, arrows, combustible materials, naphtha and all the other siege equipment belonging to His Highness. He made the command of the fort a feudal position giving the holder control of
Ami? rs 'with bands' were those with their own military orchestras (tablkhane) to perform in their honour. The Bahrite mamlu? ks were, as has been noted, those based on the Nile (Bahr), and the Salihites and Mansurites were those instituted in the names of al-Malik as-Salih and al-Malik al-Mansu? r, i. e. Qalawu? n.
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202 Arab Historians of the Crusades
the Kafarta? b area, the city of Antioch, Laodicaea and its port and the area already dependent on al-Marqab itself, as well as what had already been his fief before the conquest. The total income of this territory once it had been put in order was a million dirham. The cost of repairing it and paying the garrison's wages was spread out over the country2 until the fort was back in working order and the local population returned. When he had seen to all this the Sultan--God grant him victory! --departed to the plains and the city of Bulunya? s.
THE FALL OF MARAQIYYA (TASHRI? F, FO. 172r-178v)
When our Lord the Sultan--God grant him victory! --had dealt with Marqab and gone down to the plains, as we have said, he turned his attention to the castle of Maraqiyya and studied ways of taking it. He perceived that it was like a wedge inserted between the other forts and that he could enjoy neither peace nor security while it flourished. Its ruler was called Bartholomew, and was one of the leading Franks. When Hisn al-Akra? d was taken (by the Muslims) he could no longer make a living in that part of the world, so he went over to the Mongols for protection, support and assistance, and enjoyed their patronage for several years. When al-Malik az-Zahir died he profited by the occasion to return to his land and began to fortify Maraqiyya. His resources were not great enough however, and fearing that it would be taken from him he built and fortified a large castle in front of the city with the help of the ruler of Tripoli and other Franks, the Hospitallers of Marqab and others. This fort lay between Tortosa and Marqab and faced Maraqiyya from a position in the sea, two bow-shots or more from the shore. It was almost square in shape; each side was twenty- five and a half cubits long, with walls seven cubits thick. It had seven storeys and was built on ships loaded with stones and sunk in the sea. Under each corner were sunk nine- hundred(? ) shiploads of stones; the blocks were held together by two continuous iron bands covered with an iron network. Within the citadel was a great cistern over which a vault was built, and above that some wooden beams supporting battering-rams and covered with fine gravel, a layer of sacking and hempen ropes fixed in such a way that if the fort were attacked by catapult from terra firma it would be able to smile at such a bombardment, for the stones would roll off the protective roof into the water. It had a garrison of a hundred. Behind it and attached to it was a small second fort defended by three mounted catapults. The place was in effect unassailable by siege or blockade. The (Muslim) commanders of Hisn al-Akra? d, watching the fort being built and unable to prevent it, because the materials and tools came by sea, were forced to build another nearby in the village of Mai'a? r, with a garrison of about fifty, but this had no effect whatsoever.
When our Lord the Sultan saw this fort, so strong and impregnable, when he realized that the castle built to oppose it had been more of a disadvantage than a benefit to its builders, that it was impossible to besiege a fort set in the midst of the sea, that the Muslims had no fleet strong enough to cut the supply-lines and prevent traffic reaching the fort, that it was
I think this means, over the whole vast economic and administrative unit so formed, as it seems
2
unlikely that the cost of the repairs would be borne by the actual region in need of rehabilitation.
Part Four: The Mamlu? ks and the Liquidation of the Crusaders 203
likely to be a long fight but at the same time that it was urgent--of the most absolute and particular importance--and that wit and not force was the agent necessary to its conquest; when he had taken account of all this he sent the following message to the Prince of Tripoli: 'My troops are free (from any other commitment) and their sole objective is you. You are the real builder of the fort, for it would not have been constructed without your aid, so the responsibility for it falls upon you. Either you demolish it or we shall take so much of your territory in revenge that the Lord of Maraqiyya will be of no help to you. You will repent then, when repentance is no longer of any use; the cover will be lifted and the gift taken back. '
When the Prince1 read this terrible judgment he was convinced that his lands, his castles and his whole state would be laid waste as the message promised, that the ruler of the land with his great armies was already at the gates of his city, encamped upon his land, and that the only alternatives were to lose his kingdom or to demolish the fort. He therefore took the course of surrendering the castle and demolishing it. He paid off its commander with all the money and land available, which was accepted after a certain amount of resistance. The commander's son was secretly smuggled into the Sultan's camp with a plan to hold the fort and hand it over to him. Still in secret he made for Acre by post-horse, but was arrested there by the officials. The news reached his father, who hurried from Tripoli to Acre, got hold of the boy and killed him with his own hand before the people of Acre; that was the end of the plot. In the end, however, when the Prince intervened as mediator, the commander agreed to bow his head and hand over the fort to the Muslims. The Prince sent a certain number of Franks to help with the demolition, by which means the word of God was fulfilled: 'They cast down their dwellings with their own hands, and with the hands of the believers. '1 The ruler of Tripoli sent one of his high officials to supervise the demolition as the leader of a band of Franks sent for this purpose, and also to put an end to excuses about having to find demolition tools, chains and so on. The ami? r Badr ad-Din Bakta? sh an-Najmi, a jamda? r ami? r, was also sent with a hundred engineers2 for the demolition. The sipahsala? r ami? r Rukn ad-Din Taqsu? al-Mansuri was stationed before Ja? bala with a body of troops, and the Sultan ordered him to take his men to the top of the fort to assist with the demolition. Stone by stone it came down, so zealously demolished that no trace of it remained, but the labour needed for the task made the spades groan, hardened the stones and exhausted the men for as long as the work took. Thus God was pleased to remove the traces of the fortress and to destroy its foundations, freeing the faithful from the threat of it and dissipating its menace, while in its place, in the hearts of Unbelievers, was only grief.
THE FALL OF TRIPOLI (ABU L-FIDA? ', 162)
The Sultan al-Malik al-Mansu? r Qalawu? n's campaign began in muharram of this year (688/ February 1289) when he led his Egyptian troops into Syria. With his combined Egyptian
The contested title is here restored to him, as the former ruler of Antioch.
Qur'a? n LIX, 2.
In Arabic hajjari? n, 'stonecutters' and also 'stone throwers', those who look after the ballistas, and so half-way between artillery and engineers.
1 1 2
204 Arab Historians of the Crusades
and Syrian armies he besieged the Syrian city of Tripoli on the first Friday of the month of rabi? ' 1/25 March. Most of the city is surrounded by sea; the only approach by land is from the west along a narrow bridge of land. The Sultan beleaguered the city with a large number of catapults, big and small. He enforced a stringent blockade and after a violent struggle took the city by storm on Tuesday 4 rabi? ' II 688/27 April. The Muslim troops forced their way in and the citizens fled to the harbour. A few got to safety on ships, but most of the men were killed and the children taken captive. The Muslims took quantities of booty from the place. When the killing and looting were over, the city, on the Sultan's orders, was demolished and razed to the ground.
In the sea, a short distance from Tripoli, is a small island with a church on it called the Church of Saint Thomas. It is separated from the city by the harbour. When Tripoli was taken a great many Franks fled with their women to the island and the church. The Muslim troops flung themselves into the sea and swam with their horses to the island, where they killed all the men and took the women, children and possessions. After the looting I went by boat to this island, and found it heaped with putrefying corpses; it was impossible to land there because of the stench.
When the Sultan finished taking and demolishing Tripoli he returned to Egypt. Tripoli had been in Frankish hands for 185 years and some months. 1
(MAQRIZI, 746-8)
On Thursday 10 muharram/4 February 1289 the Sultan camped outside Cairo, and on the 15th he departed, leaving his son al-Malik al-Ashraf Khali? l as commander in the Citadel,2 and the ami? r Baidar as his son's general and vizier. On his departure he wrote to the provinces of Syria to muster troops for the attack on Tripoli. He made for Damascus, entered it on 13 safar/ 7 March and on the 20th set out for Tripoli and laid siege to it. Four galleys came from the King of Cyprus to assist the town. The Sultan kept up continuous fire from his siege-engines and pressed his attack on the walls until at the seventh hour of Tuesday 4 rabi? ' II,1 after a siege of thirty-four days, he took the city by storm. He had used nineteen catapults and employed 1,500 artillerymen and bombardiers. The citizens tried to escape to an island that faced the city but the Muslims, cavalry and infantry together, threw themselves into the sea, captured and killed the fugitives and seized their goods. The swordsmen and palfreymen took many who had got on to boats but whom the waves2 had cast on to the beach. There were many prisoners; so many of them that 1,200 of them had to be kept in the Sultan's arsenal. Among the Muslims who fell were the ami? r 'Izz ad-Din Ma'n and the ami? r Rukn ad-Din Mankuras al-Farqani, with fifty-five of the Sultan's guard. On the Sultan's orders Tripoli was demolished. The thickness of the walls was such that three horsemen could ride their horses side by side along it. The population was extremely wealthy, and 4,000 weaver's looms were found.
According to the Muslim lunar calendar (502-688), or 180 solar years (1109-1289). The Citadel on the hill of al-Muqattam, the Sultan's home in Cairo.
