Ticket Thinking
and Personalization in Politics, 663; 3.
and Personalization in Politics, 663; 3.
Adorno-T-Authoritarian-Personality-Harper-Bros-1950
ETHNOCENTRISM ?
IN RELATION TO INTELLI- GENCE AND EDUCATION-Daniel f.
Levinson 28o
PART II
PERSONALITY AS REVEALED THROUGH CLINICAL
IX.
INTERVIEWS
THE INTERVIEWS AS AN APPROACH TO THE PREJ- UDICED PERSONALITY-Else Frenkel-Brunswik 291 A. INTRODUCTION: COMP ARISON OF GROUPS 291 B. SELECTION OF SUBJECTS FOR THE INTERVIEWS 294
1. Basis of Selection, 294; 2. Representativeness of the
2I9 220
? XX
CONTENTS
Interviewees, 295; 3. Approaching the Interviewees, 300
C. THE INTERVIEWERS 301
D. SCOPE AND TECHNIQUE OF THE INTERVIEW 302 1. General Plan for the Interview, 302; 2. "Underlying"
and "Manifest" Questions, 303; 3. General Instructions
to the Interviewers, 303
E. THE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 304
1. Vocation, 304; 2. Income, 307; 3. Religion, 310; 4. Clinical Data, 312; 5. Politics, 320; 6. Minorities and "Race," 322
F. THE SCORING OF THE INTERVIEWS 325 1. Quantification of Interview Data, 325; 2. Broad Out-
line of Categories in the Interview Scoring Manual, 326;
3. The Interview Rating Procedure and the Raters, 327;
4. Reliability of the Interview Ratings, 328; 5. Minimiz-
ing Halo-Effects in Rating the Interviews, 333; 6. Tabu- lation of Interview Ratings by Categories: Statistical Sig-
nificance, 334
X. PARENTS AND CHILDHOOD AS SEEN THROUGH THE INTERVIEWS-Else Frenkel-Brunswik 337
A. B.
INTRODUCTION 337 ATTITUDES TOWARD PARENTS AND CONCEPTION OF THE FAMILY 338 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 338; 2. Idealization vs. Objective Appraisal of Par- ents, 340; 3. Genuineness of Affect, 346; 4. Feelings of Victimization, 347; 5. Submission vs. Principled Inde- pendence, 350; 6. Dependence for Things vs. Depend- ence for Love, 353; 7. Ingroup Orientation to the Family, 356
CONCEPTIONS OF CHILDHOOD ENVIRONMENT 358 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 358; 2. Image of the Father in Men: Distant and Stern vs. Relaxed and Mild, 359; 3. Image of the Father
in Women: The Role of Provider, 365; 4. Image of the Mother: Sacrifice, Moralism, Restrictiveness, 366; 5. Parental Conflict, 368; 6. Father-Dominated vs. Mother- Oriented Home, 370; 7. Discipline: Harsh Application of Rules vs. Assimilation of Principles, 371
CHILDHOOD EVENTS AND A TTITUDES TOW ARD SIBLINGS 376 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 376; 2. Attitudes Toward Siblings, 377; 3. Child- hood Events, 382; 4. Status Concern, 382
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ON FAMILY PATTERNS 384
C.
D.
E.
? C.
. D.
42 I
CONTENTS XXl
XI. SEX, PEOPLE, AND SELF AS SEEN THROUGH THE INTERVIEWS-Else Frenkel-Brunswik 390
A.
B.
A TTITUDE TOW ARD SEX 390 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 390; 2. Status via Sex, 393; 3. Moralistic Rejec-
- tion of Instinctual Tendencies, 395; 4. "Pure" vs. "Bad" Women, 397; 5. Ego-Alien Ambivalence vs. "Fondness," 399; 6. Exploitive Manipulation for Power, 400; 7. Conventionality vs. Individualism, 402; 8. Summary, 404 A TTITUDE TOW ARD PEOPLE
1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 405; 2. Moralistic Condemnation vs. Permissive- ness, 406; 3. Extrapunitiveness, 409; 4. World as Jun- gle, 411; 5. Hierarchical vs. Equalitarian Conception of Human Relations, 413; 6. Dependence for Things, 414; 7. Manipulation vs. Libidinization of People and Genuine Work Adjustment, 415; 8. Social Status vs. Intrinsic Worth in Friendship, 418; 9. Summary, 420
A TTITUDE TOW ARD PRESENT SELF
1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re-
sults, 421; 2. Self-Glorification vs. Objective Appraisal, 423; 3. Masculinity and Femininity, 428; 4. Conven- tionalism and Moralism, 429; 5. Conformity of Self and Ideal, 430; 6. Denial of Sociopsychological Causation, 432; 7. Property as Extension of Self, 433
405
CONCEPTION OF CHILDHOOD SELF 434 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 434; 2. "Difficult" Child, 437; 3. Blandness vs. Adult-Orientation, 438; 4. Contrasting Picture of Child- hood and Present, 440; 5. Summary of Attitude Toward
Present Self and Childhood Self, 440
XII. DYNAMIC AND COGNITIVE PERSONALITY OR- GANIZATION AS SEEN THROUGH THE INTER-
VIEWS-Else Frenkel-Brunswik 442
A.
B.
DYNAMIC CHARACTER STRUCTURE 442 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 442; 2. Orality and Anality, 445; 3. Dependence,
449; 4. Aggression, 450; 5. Ambivalence, 451; 6. Iden- tification, 452; 7. Superego, 454; 8. Strength of the Ego, 456; 9. Distortion of Reality, 457; 10. Physical Symptoms, 459
COGNITIVE PERSONALITY ORGANIZA TION 461 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re-
? XXll CONTENTS
sults, 461; 2. Rigidity, 461; 3. Negative Attitude To- ward Science. Superstition, 464; 4. Anti-Intraceptive- ness and Autism, 465; 5. Suggestibility, 467
XIII. COMPREHENSIVE SCORES AND SUMMARY OF IN- TERVIEW RESULTS-Else Frenkel-Brunswik
A. THE DISCRIMINATORY POWERS OF THE MAJOR AREAS STUDIED 468
1. Verification of Anticipated Trend by Categories, 468;
2. Composite Ratings for Seven Major Areas, 470
B. V ALITITY OF OVER-ALL SCORES AND RA TINGS OF THE INTER-
VIEWS
1. Individual Composite Score Based on All Areas of Rat- ing, 471; 2. Over-all Intuitive Rating and Its Agree- ment with the Composite Score, 472; 3. Agreement with the Questionnaire Results, 472
471
C. SUMMARY OF THE PERSONALITY PATTERNS DERIVED FROM
THE INTERVIEWS 473 1. Introduction, 473; 2. Repression vs. Awareness, 474;
3. Externalization vs. Internalization, 474; 4. Conven- tionalism vs. Genuineness, 476; 5. Power vs. Love-Orien- tation, 478; 6. Rigidity vs. Flexibility. Problems of Ad- justment, 479; 7. Some Genetic Aspects, 482; 8. Cul- tural Outlook, 484
PART Ill
PERSONALITY AS REVEALED THROUGH PROJECTIVE
MA TERIAL
XIV. THE THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST IN THE STUDY OF PREJUDICED AND UNPREJUDICED IN- DIVIDUALS-Betty Aron 489
A. TESTING PROCEDURE 490
1. The Sample Tested, 490; 2. Technique of Adminis-
tration, 493; 3. The Pictures Used, 493
B. METHOD OF ANALYSIS OF THE STORY PROTOCOLS 496
1. The Murray-Sanford Scheme, 496; 2. Thematic Anal-
ysis, 506
C. THE T. A. T. S OF MACK A:KD LARRY
1. Larry's Stories, 530; 2. Mack's Stories, 534; 3. Anal-
529
543
ysis of the Stories, 537 D. SUMMARY
? A. B. C.
D.
E.
INTRODUCTION S4S QUANTIFICATION BY MEANS OF SCORING CATEGORIES S48 SCORING MANUAL: CATEGORIES OF PROJECTIVE QUESTION RESPONSE SSO RESULTS S79 1. Reliability of Scoring, S81; 2. Projective Question Scores in Relation to Standing on the E Scale, S84; 3. Validation by Means of Case Studies: Mack and Larry, S92 CONCLUSIONS S9S 1. General Ego Functioning, S9S; 2. Specific Properties
CONTENTS XXlll
XV. PROJECTIVE QUESTIONS IN THE STUDY OF PER- SONALITY AND IDEOLOGY-Daniel J. Levinson S4S
of the Ego, S96; 3. Achievement Values vs. Conven- tional Values, S97; 4. The Handling of Dependency as an Underlying Trend, S99; S. The Handling of Other Trends, 600
PART IV
QUALIT A TIVE STUDIES OF IDEOLOGY
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
603
XVI. PREJUDICE IN THE INTERVIEW MATER/AL-T. W. Adorno 6os
A. INTRODUCTION 6os
B. THE "FUNCTIONAL" CHARACTER OF ANTI-SEMITISM 609
612 WHA T? 617 622
C. THE IMAGINARY FOE
D. ANTI-SEMITISM FOR
E. TWO KINDS OF JEWS
F. THE ANTI-SEMITE'S DILEMMA 627
G. PROSECUTOR AS JUDGE 629
H. THE MISFIT BOURGEOIS 637 I. OBSERVATIONS ON LOW-SCORING SUBJECTS 644
J . C O N C L U S I O N
6S 3
XVII. POLITICS AND ECONOMICS IN THE INTERVIEW MATER/AL-T. W. Adorno 6s4
A. B.
INTRODUCTION 6S4 FORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF POLITICAL THINKING 6s8 1. Ignorance and Confusion, 6S8; 2.
Ticket Thinking
and Personalization in Politics, 663; 3. Surface Ideology
and Real Opinion, 671; 4. Pseudoconservatism, 67S; S. The Usurpation Complex, 68S; 6. F. D. R. , 689; 7. Bu-
? XXIV
CONTENTS
C.
reaucrats and Politicians, 693; 8. There Will Be No Utopia, 695; 9. No Pity for the Poor, 699; 10. Educa-
tion Instead of Social Change, 700
SOME POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC TOPICS 702
1. Unions, 702; 2. Business and Government, 711; 3. Political Issues Close to the Subjects, 714; 4. Foreign Policy and Russia, 718; 5. Communism, 723
XVIII. SOME ASPECTS OF RELIGIOUS IDEOLOGY AS RE- VEALED IN THE INTERVIEW MATER/AL-T. W.
Adorno 727
A. INTRODUCTION 727
B. GENERAL OBSERV A TIONS 730
C. SPECIFIC ISSUES 733 1. The Function of Religion in High and Low Scorers,
733; 2. Belief in God, Disbelief in Immortality, 736; 3. The Irreligious Low Scorer, 738; 4. Religious Low Scorers, 742
XIX. TYPES AND SYNDROMES-T. W. Adorno 744
A. THE APPROACH 744
B. SYNDROMES FOUND AMONG HIGH SCORERS 753
1. Surface Resentment, 753; 2. The "Conventional" Syn- drome, 756; 3. The "Authoritarian" Syndrome, 759; 4. The Rebel and the Psychopath, 763; 5. The Crank, 765; 6. The "Manipulative" Type, 767
C. SYNDROMES FOUND AMONG LOW SCORERS 77I 1. The "Rigid" Low Scorer, 771; 2. The "Protesting" Low Scorer, 774; 3. The "Impulsive" Low Scorer, 776;
4. The "Easy-Going" Low Scorer, 778; 5. The Genuine Liberal, 781
PART v
APPLICATIONS TO INDIVIDUALS AND TO SPECIAL GROUPS
XX. GENETIC ASPECTS OF THE AUTHORITARIAN PER- SONALITY: CASE STUDIES OF TWO CONTRASTING INDIVIDUALS-R. Nevitt Sanford
A. INTRODUCTION
787 787 788
B. THE CASE OF MACK
1. Environmental Forces and Events, 789;
2. Deeper Per-
? CONTENTS XXV
sonality Needs, 794; 3. Dynamics of Surface Behavior
and Attitudes, 800
C. THE CONTRASTING CASE OF LARRY
XXI. CRIMINALITY AND ANTIDEMOCRATIC TRENDS: A STUDY OF PRISON INMATES-William R. Morrow 8r7 A. INTRODUCTION 8I7
1. The Problem, 817; 2. Sampling and Administration,
818; 3. Plan of Discussion, 822
B. ETHNOCENTRISM 823
1. General Questionnaire Statistics and Their Significance, 823; 2. Ideology Concerning Negroes: A Submerged Outgroup, 824; 3. Ideology Concerning Jews: A Sup- posed "Dominant" Outgroup, 830
c. POLITICO-ECONOMIC A TTITUDES
D. MORALS AND RELIGION 844
E. DEFENSES AGAINST WEAKNESS 856
F. HETEROSEXUALITY 866
G. ANTI-INTRACEPTIVENESS AND CHILDHOOD 873
H. A TTITUDES TO P ARENTS
875 I. "cRIMINALITY" IN HIGH AND LOW SCORERS 887
XXII. PSYCHOLOGICAL ILL HEALTH IN RELATION TO POTENTIAL FASCISM: A STUDY OF PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC PATIENTS-Maria Hertz Levinson
A. INTRODUCTION
B. THE NATURE OF THE SAMPLE
C. STATISTICAL RESULTS FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE
D. RELATIONSHIP OF ETHNOCENTRISM TO VARIOUS PSYCHIATRIC
E.
F.
G.
CLASSIFICA TIONS 897 1. Ethnocentrism in Relation to Neurosis and Psychosis, 904; 2. Ethnocentrism in Relation to Specific Diagnostic Categories, 906
ETHNOCENTRISM IN RELATION TO THE MINNESOTA MULTI- PHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY
PERSONALITY TRENDS AS REVEALED BY P A TIENTS' "ST A TE- MENT OF PROBLEM" IN THE FIRST PSYCHIATRIC INTERVIEW 917 1. Selection of Material, 918; 2. The Scoring Manual: Description of Variables, 919; 3. The Method of Quan- tification, 924; 4. The Reliability of the Measures, 926;
5. Relationship Between Ratings and Ethnocentrism Score, 932; 6. Summary, 941
CLINICAL PICTURES AND PERSONALITIES OF HIGH AND LOW SCORERS 942
835
? XXVl CONTENTS
1. The High Scorers, 942; 2. The Low Scorers, 951;
3. The "Middles," 959
H. CONCLUSIONS 961
XXIII. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES INDEX
? (I)
(III) 2 (III) 3 (III) 4 (III) 5 (III) 6 (III)
7 (III) 8 (III) 9 (III)
10 (III) 11 (III) 12 (III) 13 (III)
1 (IV)
2 (IV)
3 (IV)
4 (IV)
5 (IV) 6 (IV)
7 (IV) 8 (IV) 9 (IV)
TABLES AND FIGURES
Groups from Whom Questionnaires Were Collected 21
Anti-Semitism Subscale "Offensive" 63 Anti-Semitism Subscale "Threatening" 64 Anti-Semitism Subscale "Attitudes" 65 Anti-Semitism Subscales "Seclusive vs. Intrusive" 66 "Neutral" Items in the Anti-Semitism Scale 67 The Total Anti-Semitism Scale 68 Public Opinion Questionnaire A
The Total Anti-Semitism Scale 69
Public Opinion Questionnaire S
Reliability of the Anti-Semitism Scale and Its Subscales lntercorrelations of the A-S Subscales
Anti-Semitism Scale: Item Means and Discriminatory Powers University of California Women 78 The Ten-Item A-S Scale (Form 78) 84 Reliability of the A-S Scale (Form 78) 86 Item Means and Discriminatory Powers. A-S Scale-Form 78 87 Responses of Mack and Larry on the A-S Scale 90
Ethnocentrism Scale I05 Negro Subscale (N)
Ethnocentrism Scale I06 Minority Subscale (M)
Ethnocentrism Scale I08
Patriotism Subscale (P)
The Total Ethnocentrism Scale IIO Public Opinion Questionnaire E
Reliability of the Ethnocentrism (E) Scale and Its Subscales 112 Correlations of the E Subscales with Each Other and with the Total E Scale I13 Means and Discriminatory Powers of the E-Scale Items I15 The Second Form of theE Scale (Form 78) I17 Reliability of the E Scale (Form 78) I19
xxvii
73 75
? XXVlll TABLES AND FIGURES
10 (IV)
11 (IV)
12 (IV)
13 (IV)
14 (IV)
15 (IV)
16 (IV)
17 (IV)
18 (IV)
19 (IV)
20 (IV)
Means and Discriminatory Powers of the E-Scale Items (Form 78) 120 Correlations Between the A-S and E Scales (Initial Forms) 122 Correlations Between the A-S and E Scales (Form 78) 123 The Third Form of the E Scale (Form 60) 124 Reliability of the E Scale (Form 60) 125
Means and Discriminatory Powers of the E-Scale Items (Form 60) 126 The Fourth Form of theE Scale (Forms 45 and 40) 128
Reliability of the E Scale (Forms 45 and 40)
A. Groups Taking Form 45 (EA+B) 134
B. Groups Taking Form 40 (EA) 135
C. Groups Taking Both Forms 45 and 40 136
Means and Discriminatory Powers of the E-Scale Items (Forms45 and40) 139 Ethnocentrism Scale: Suggested Final Form 142 Responses of Mack and Larry on the E Scale 143
(V) The Initial Politico-Economic Conservatism Scale (Form 78) 158
2 (V)
3 (V)
4 (V)
5 (V)
6 (V)
7 (V)
8 (V)
9 (V)
10 (V)
11 (V)
12 (V)
13 (V)
14 (V)
Reliability of the PEC Scale (Form 78) 159 Means and Discriminatory Powers of the PEC-Scale Items
(Form 78) 160 The Second Form of the Politico-Economic Conservatism
(PEC) Scale (Form 60) 163 Reliability of the PEC Scale (Form 60) 165 Means and Discriminatory Powers of the PEC-Scale Items
(FQrm 60) 167 The Third Form of the Politico-Economic Conservatism
(PEC) Scale (Forms 45-40) 169 Means and Standard Deviations of PEC-Scale Scores for Groups Taking Forms 45 and 40 170 Means and Discriminatory Powers of the PEC-Scale Items
(Forms 40 and 45) 174 Correlations of the A-S and E Scales with the PEC Scale (All Forms) 179 Responses of Mack and Larry on the PEC Scale 183 Mean A-S or E Scores for Groups Showing Various Over-
all Political Party Preferences 188 Mean A-SorE Scores for Groups Whose Fathers Have Vari-
ous Political Party Preferences 191 Mean A-SorE Scores for Groups Showing Various Relations Between Subject's and Father's Political Preference 193
? 18 (V) 19 (V) 20 (V)
Mean A-S orE Scores for Groups Having Various Levels of Expected Yearly Income
Mean A-SorE Scores for Groups Whose Fathers Had Vari- ous Incomes
Mean A-SorE Scores for Groups Whose Fathers Have Vari- ous Occupations
TABLES AND FIGURES
XXlX
15 (V) Mean E Score for Various Organizations m the Form 40 Sample
16 (V) Mean E Score for Groups Having Various Maritime Union Affiliations (Maritime School Sample)
17 (V) Mean E Scores for Groups Who Have Various Present Yearly Incomes
I94 I97 I 98 200
202
205 210 2I2 2 I4 2I6
217
226 243
245 248 25I
253 255 258
260
263
264
266 270
(VI)
2 (VI) Mean A-S or E Scores for Groups Showing Various Fre-
3 (VI) 4 (VI) 5 (VI)
(VII) 2 (VII) 3 (VII)
4 (VII) 5 (VII) 6 (VII)
7 (VII) 8 (VII) 9 (VII)
10 (VII) 11 (VII) 12 (VII) 13 (VII)
quencies of Church Attendance
Mean A-S or E Scores for Groups Showing Various Rela- tions Between Father's Religion and Mother's Religion Mean A-S or E Scores for Groups Showing Various Rela- tions Between Subject's Religion and Mother's Religion Mean A-S Scores of Groups Giving Different Categories of Response to the Question: "How Important Are Religion and the Church? "
The F Scale: Form 78
Reliability of the F Scale (Form 78)
Means and Discriminatory Powers of the F-Scale Items
(Form 78)
The F Scale: Form 60
Reliability of the F Scale (Form 60)
Means and Discriminatory Powers of the F-Scale Items
(Form 60)
F-Scale Clusters: Forms 45 and 40
Reliability of the F Scale (Forms 40 and 45)
Means and Discriminatory Powers of the F-Scale Items (Forms 40 and 45)
Correlations of the F Scale with the A-S, E, and PEC Scales in the Several Forms of the Questionnaire
Correlations of the F Scale with Each Half and with the Whole of the E Scale
Mean F-Scale Scores of Groups Taking the Several Forms of the Questionnaire
Responses of Mack and Larry on the F Scale (Form 78)
Mean A-S or E Scores of Various Religious Groups
? XXX
1 (VIII)
2 (VIII)
3 (VIII)
4 (VIII)
5 (VIII)
1 (IX)
2 (IX)
3 (IX)
4 (IX) 5 (IX)
6 (IX)
T ABLES AND FIGURES
Correlations of the E and F Scales with Various Ability Tests (Maritime School Men) 282 Correlations of the E, F, and PEC Scales with the Otis Higher Form A Intelligence Test (Employment Service Veteran Men) 283 Mean Wechsler-Bellevue IQ Score for Each Quartile of
the Ethnocentrism Scale (Psychiatric Clinic Men and Women) 283 Mean Number of Years of Education for Each Quartile of
the Ethnocentrism Scale (Psychiatric Clinic Men and Women) 285 Mean E Score for Groups Having Various Years of Edu- cation (Maritime School Men) 286
Survey of 20 Prejudiced and 20 Unprejudiced Men Inter- ~ewed 296 Survey of 25 Prejudiced and 15 Unprejudiced Women Inter- viewed 297 Representativeness of Interviewees in Terms of Scores on the Ethnocentrism Scale 298 Age Distribution in Total Extreme Quartiles and Interviewees 299 Religious Affiliation in Total Extreme Quartiles and Inter- VIewees 299 Political Outlook in Total Extreme Quartiles and Inter- viewees 300
7 (IX) Reliability of Interview Ratings: Interrater Agreement on Nine Subjects 330
8 (IX) Interrater Agreement on Interview Ratings for Six Major Areas 332
1 (X)
2 (X)
3 (X)
1 (XI)
Interview Ratings on Attitude Toward Parents and Concept
of Family for 80 Subjects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low" on the Ethnic Prejudice Questionnaire Scale 341 Interview Ratings on Concept of Childhood Environment for
80 Subjects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low" on the Ethnic Prejudice Questionnaire Scale 362 Interview Ratings on Childhood Events and Attitude Toward Siblings for 80 Subjects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low"
on the Ethnic Prejudice? Questionnaire Scale 379
Interview Ratings on Attitude Toward Sex for 80 Subjects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low" on the Ethnic Preju- dice Questionnaire Scale 392
? 2 (XI)
3 (XI)
4 (XI)
1 (XII)
Interview Ratings on Attitude Toward People for SO Sub- jects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low" on the Ethnic Prejudice Questionnaire Scale 407 Interview Ratings on Attitude Toward Present Self for SO Subjects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low" on the Ethnic Prejudice Questionnaire Scale 424 Interview Ratings on Attitude Toward Childhood Self for
SO Subjects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low" on the Ethnic Prejudice Questionnaire Scale 436
Interview Ratings on Dynamic Character Structure for SO Subjects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low" on the Ethnic Prejudice Questionnaire Scale 446
TABLES AND FIGURES XXXl
2 (XII) Interview Ratings on Cognitive Personality Organization
for SO Subjects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low" on the Ethnic Prejudice Questionnaire Scale 462
1 (XIII)
1 (XIV) 2 (XIV) 3 (XIV) 4 (XIV)
Composite Ratings (Means) for Major Areas of Study for "High" and "Low" Scoring Groups of Interviewees 469
Distribution of Thematic Apperception Test Sample Among the Several Groups Participating in the Study 491 Age Distribution of Subjects Receiving the Thematic Ap- perception Test 492 Distribution of Thematic Apperception Test Subjects with Respect to the Sex of the Examiners 492 Stimulus Values of the Ten Thematic Apperception Test Pictures 494
5 (XIV)A Intensities of Need and Press Variables as Expressed in Stories Told by Men 500
5 (XIV)B Intensities of Need and Press Variables as Expressed in Stories Told by Women 502
6 (XIV) Comparison of the Scores of Mack and Larry on the Thematic Apperception Test with the Mean Scores of Prejudiced and Unprejudiced Men 539
1 (XV) Scoring Reliability (Percentage Interrater Agreement) for
the Eight Projective Questions 5S3
2 (XV) Percentage Agreement Between Projective Question Scores
and E-Scale Scores 5S6
FIGURE 1 (XX) The Genetic Aspects of Mack's Personality Sor
? XXXII
1 (XXI)
2 (XXI) 3 (XXI) 4 (XXI) 5 (XXI)
1 (XXII) 2 (XXII) 3 (XXII) 4 (XXII)
5 (XXII) 6 (XXII)
FIGURE 1
7 (XXII)
8 (XXII)
9 (XXII)
10 (XXII)
11 (XXII)
TABLES AND FIGURES
Identifying Data for Interviewees in the Prison Inmates Group 820 Results on the E Scale from the Group of Prison Inmates 823 Results on the PEC Scale from the Group of Prison Inmates 836 Results on the F Scale from the Group of Prison Inmates 846 Mean E- and F-Scale Scores of the Prison Inmates, Grouped According to Offense 889
Reliability Data on the E Scale for Psychiatric Clinic Men
and Women 897 Incidence of Various Psychiatic Diagnoses in the Sample
of Psychiatric Clinic Patients 899 Percentage of Each E-Scale Quartile Falling Into Various Psychiatric Categories 901 Percentage of the Upper and of the Lower Halves of the E-Scale Distribution Falling Into Various Psychiatric Categories 902 Percentage of Neurotic Patients in Each E-Scale Quartile Showing Various Neurotic Features 903 Percentage of Neurotic Patients in the Upper and Lower Halves of theE-Scale Distribution Showing Various Neu- rotic Features 904
(XXII) Average MMPI Profile for Non-Psychotic Psychi- atric Patients Falling Into Each Half of theE-Scale Distribution
Mean Scores on the Several Scales of the MMPI for Sub- jects Falling into Each Quartile and Into Each Half of the E-Scale Distribution. Nonpsychotic Male Patients 914 Mean Scores on the Several Scales of the MMPI for Sub- jects Falling Into Each Quartile and Into Each Half of the E-Scale Distribution. N onpsychotic Female Patients 915 The Amount of Agreement Between Two Raters in Esti- mating a Subject's Standing on the E Scale from an Analy-
sis of His Intake Interview. Psychiatric Clinic Patients: Men and Women Combined 927 The Amount of Agreement Between a Single Rater (A)
and Seven Other Raters in Estimating Variables in Intake Interviews. Psychiatric Clinic Patients: Men and Women Combined 930 The Amount of Agreement Between Rater A's Estimate
of High or Low Ethnocentrism, Based on Analysis of In-
take Interviews, and Ethnocentrism as Measured by the
? 12 (XXII)
E Scale. Psychiatric Clinic Patients: Men and Women Combined
The Amount of Agreement Benveen Estimates of Ethno- centrism, Based on Ratings of Single Variables from In- take Interviews, and Ethnocentrism as Measured by the E Scale. Psychiatric Clinic Patients: Men and Women Combined
93 3
934
936
T ABLES AND FIGURES XXXlll
13 (XXII) Summary of Data from the Rating of Intake Interviews. A. Reliability: Percentage Agreement Among Raters for Seven Variables. B. Validity: Percentage Agreement Be- tween Ratings and Score on the E Scale. Psychiatric Clinic Patients: Men and Women Combined
? CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. THE PROBLEM
The research to be reported in this volume was guided by the following major hypothesis: that the political, economic, and social convictions of an individual often form a broad and coherent pattern, as if bound together by a "mentality" or "spirit," and that this pattern is an expression of deep- lying trends in his personality.
The major concern was with the potentially fascistic individual, one whose structure is such as to render him particularly susceptible to anti- democratic propaganda. We say "potential" because we have not studied individuals who were avowedly fascistic or who belonged to known fascist organizations. At the time when most of our data were collected fascism had just been defeated in war and, hence, we could not expect to find sub- jects who would openly identify themselves with it; yet there was no difficulty in finding subjects whose outlook was such as to indicate that they would readily accept fascism if it should become a strong or respectable social movement.
In concentrating upon the potential fascist we do not wish to imply that other patterns of personality and ideology might not profitably be studied in the same way. It is our opinion, however, that no politico-social trend imposes a graver threat to our traditional values and institutions than does fascism, and that knowledge of the personality forces that favor its accept- ance may ultimately prove useful in combating it. A question may be raised as to why, if we wish to explore new resources for combating fascism, we do not give as much attention to the "potential antifascist. " The answer is that we do study trends that stand in opposition to fascism, but we do not conceive that they constitute any single pattern. It is one of the major findings of the present study that individuals who show extreme susceptibil- ity to fascist propaganda have a great deal in common. (They exhibit numerous characteristics that go together to form a "syndrome" although typical variations within this major pattern can be distinguished. ) Indi- viduals who are extreme in the opposite direction are much more diverse. The task of diagnosing potential fascism and studying its determinants required techniques especially designed for these purposes; it could not be
I
? 2 THE AUTHORITARIA~ PERSONALITY
asked of them that they serve as well for various other patterns. Neverthe- less, it was possible to distinguish several types of personality structure that seemed particularly resistant to antidemocratic ideas, and these are given due attention in later chapters.
If a potentially fascistic individual exists, what, precisely, is he like? What goes to make up antidemocratic thought? What are the organizing forces within the person? If such a person exists, how commonly does he exist in our society? And if such a person exists, what have been the determinants and what. the course of his development?
These are questions upon which the present research was designed to throw some "light. Though the notion that the potentially antidemocratic individual is a totality may be accepted as a plausible hypothesis, some analysis is called for at the start. In most approaches to the problem of polit- ical types two essential conceptions may be distinguished: the conception of ideology and the conception of underlying needs in the person. Though the two may be thought of as forming an organized whole within the individual, they may nonetheless be studied separately. The same ideological trends may in different individuals have different sources, and the same personal needs may express themselves in different ideological trends.
The term ideology is used in this book, in the way that is common in current literature, to stand for an organization of opinions, attitudes, and values-a way of thinking about man and society. We may speak of an indi- vidual's total ideology or of his ideology with respect to different areas of social life: politics, economics, religion, minority groups, and so forth. Ideol- ogies have an existence independent of any single individual; and those which exist at a particular time are results both of historical processes and of contemporary social events. These ideologies have for different individ- uals, different degrees of appeal, a matter that depends upon the individual's needs and the degree to which these needs are being satisfied or frustrated.
There are, to be sure, individuals who take unto themselves ideas from more than one existing ideological system and weave them into patterns that are more or less uniquely their own. It can be assumed, however, that when the opinions, attitudes, and values of numerous individuals are examined, common patterns will be discovered. These patterns may not in all cases correspond to the familiar, current ideologies" but they will fulfill the defi- nition of ideology given above and in each case be found to have a function within the over-all adjustment of the individual.
The present inquiry into the nature of the potentially fascistic individual began with anti-Semitism in the focus of attention. The authors, in common with most social scientists, hold the view that anti-Semitism is based more largely upon factors in the subject and in his total situation than upon actual characteristics of Jews, and that one place tolook for determinants of anti- Semitic opinions and attitudes is within the persons who express them. Since
? INTRODUCTION
3 this emphasis on personality'required a focusing of attention on psychology rather than on sociology or history-though in the last analysis the three can be separated only artificially-there could be no attempt to account for the existence of anti-Semitic ideas in our society. The question was, rather, why is it that certain individuals accept these ideas while others do not? And since from the start the research was guided by the hypotheses stated above, it was supposed (r) that anti-Semitism probably is not a specific or isolated phe- nomenon but a part of a broader ideological framework, and (2) that an individual's susceptibility to this ideology depends primarily upon his psy-
chological needs.
The insights and hypotheses concerning the antidemocratic individual,
which are present in our general cultural climate, must be supported by a great deal of painstaking observation, and in many instances by quantifica- tion, before they can be regarded as conclusive. How can one say with assurance that . the numerous opinions, attitudes, and values expressed by an individual actually constitute a consistent pattern or organized totality? The most intensive investigation of that individual would seem to be neces- sary. How can one say that opinions, attitudes, and values found in groups of people go together to form patterns, some of which are more common than others? There is no adequate way to proceed other than by actually measuring, in populations, a wide variety of thought contents and determin- ing by means of standard statistical methods which ones go together.
To many social psychologists the scientific study of ideology, as it has been defined, seems a hopeless task. To measure-with suitable accuracy a single, specific, isolated attitude is a long and arduous proceeding for both subject and experimenter. (It is frequently argued that unless the attitude is specific and isolated, it cannot properly be measured at all. ) How then can we hope to survey within a reasonable period of time the numerous attitudes and ideas that go to make up an ideology? Obviously, some kind of selec- tion is necessary. The investigator must limit himself to what is most significant, and judgments of significance can only be made on the basis of theory.
The theories that have guided the present research will be presented in suitable contexts later. Though theoretical considerations had a role at every stage of the work, a beginning had to be made with the objective study of the most observable and relatively specific opinions, attitudes, and values.
Opinions, attitudes, and values, as we conceive of them, are expressed more or less openly in words. Psychologically they are "on the surface. " It must be recognized, however, that when it comes to such affect-laden questions as those concerning minority groups and current political issues, the degree of openness with which a person speaks will depend upon the situation in which he finds himself. There may be a discrepancy between what he says on a particular occasion and what he "really thinks. " Let us say that what
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
4
he really thinks he can express in confidential discussion with his intimates. This much, which is still relatively superficial psychologically, may still b~ observed directly by the psychologist if he uses appropriate techniques- and this we have attempted to do.
It is to be recognized, however, that the individual may have "secret" thoughts which he will under no circumstances reveal to anyone else if he can help it; he may have thoughts which he cannot admit to himself, and he may have thoughts which he does not express because they are so vague and ill-formed that he cannot put them into words. To gain access to these deeper trends is particularly important, for precisely here may lie the indi- vidual's potential for democratic or antidemocratic thought and action in crucial situations.
What people say and, to a lesser degree, what they really think depends very largely upon the climate of opinion in which they are living; but when that climate changes, some individuals adapt themselves much more quickly than others. If there should be a marked increase in antidemocratic propa- ganda, we should expect some people to accept and repeat it at once, others when it seemed that "everybody believed it," and still others not at all. In other words, individuals differ in their susceptibility to antidemocratic propa- ganda, in their readiness to exhibit antidemocratic tendencies. It seems neces- sary to study ideology at this "readiness level" in order to gauge the potential for fascism in this country. Observers have noted that the amount of out- spoken anti-Semitism in pre-Hitler Germany was less than that in this coun- try at the present time; one might hope that the potentiality is less in this country, but this can be known only through intensive investigation, through the detailed survey of what is on the surface and the thorough probing of what lies beneath it.
A question may be raised as to what is the degree of relationship between ideology and action. If an individual is making antidemocratic propaganda or engaging in overt attacks upon minority group members, it is usually assumed that his opinions, attitudes, and values are congruent with his action; but comfort is sometimes found in the thought that though another individual expresses antidemocratic ideas verbally, he does not, and perhaps will not, put them into overt action. Here, once again, there is a question of potentialities. Overt action, like open verbal expression, depends very largely upon the situation of the moment-something that is best described in socio- economic and political terms-but individuals differ very widely with respect to their readiness to be provoked into action. The study of this potential is a part of the study of the individual's over-all ideology; to know what kinds and what intensities of belief, attitude, and value are likely to lead to action, and to know what forces within the individual serve as inhibitions upon . action are matters of the greatest practical importance.
There seems little reason to doubt that ideology-in-readiness (ideological
? INTRODUCTION
5
receptivity) and ideology-in~wordsand in action are essentially the same stuff. The description of an individual's total ideology must portray not only the organization on each level but organization among levels. What the indi- vidual consistently says in public, what he says when he feels safe from criticism, what he thinks but will not say at all, what he thinks but will not admit to himself, what he is disposed to think or to do when various kinds of appeal are made to him-all these phenomena may be conceived of as constituting a single structure. The structure may not be integrated, it may contain contradictions as well as consistencies, but it is organized in the sense that the constituent parts are related in psychologically meaningful ways.
In order to understand such a structure, a theory of the total personality is necessary. According to the theory that has guided the present research, personality is a more or less enduring organization of forces within the indi- vidual. These persisting forces of personality help to determine response in various situations, and it is thus largely to them that consistency of behavior -whether verbal or physical-is attributable. But behavior, however con- sistent, is not the same thing as personality; personality lies behind behavior and within the individual.
PART II
PERSONALITY AS REVEALED THROUGH CLINICAL
IX.
INTERVIEWS
THE INTERVIEWS AS AN APPROACH TO THE PREJ- UDICED PERSONALITY-Else Frenkel-Brunswik 291 A. INTRODUCTION: COMP ARISON OF GROUPS 291 B. SELECTION OF SUBJECTS FOR THE INTERVIEWS 294
1. Basis of Selection, 294; 2. Representativeness of the
2I9 220
? XX
CONTENTS
Interviewees, 295; 3. Approaching the Interviewees, 300
C. THE INTERVIEWERS 301
D. SCOPE AND TECHNIQUE OF THE INTERVIEW 302 1. General Plan for the Interview, 302; 2. "Underlying"
and "Manifest" Questions, 303; 3. General Instructions
to the Interviewers, 303
E. THE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 304
1. Vocation, 304; 2. Income, 307; 3. Religion, 310; 4. Clinical Data, 312; 5. Politics, 320; 6. Minorities and "Race," 322
F. THE SCORING OF THE INTERVIEWS 325 1. Quantification of Interview Data, 325; 2. Broad Out-
line of Categories in the Interview Scoring Manual, 326;
3. The Interview Rating Procedure and the Raters, 327;
4. Reliability of the Interview Ratings, 328; 5. Minimiz-
ing Halo-Effects in Rating the Interviews, 333; 6. Tabu- lation of Interview Ratings by Categories: Statistical Sig-
nificance, 334
X. PARENTS AND CHILDHOOD AS SEEN THROUGH THE INTERVIEWS-Else Frenkel-Brunswik 337
A. B.
INTRODUCTION 337 ATTITUDES TOWARD PARENTS AND CONCEPTION OF THE FAMILY 338 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 338; 2. Idealization vs. Objective Appraisal of Par- ents, 340; 3. Genuineness of Affect, 346; 4. Feelings of Victimization, 347; 5. Submission vs. Principled Inde- pendence, 350; 6. Dependence for Things vs. Depend- ence for Love, 353; 7. Ingroup Orientation to the Family, 356
CONCEPTIONS OF CHILDHOOD ENVIRONMENT 358 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 358; 2. Image of the Father in Men: Distant and Stern vs. Relaxed and Mild, 359; 3. Image of the Father
in Women: The Role of Provider, 365; 4. Image of the Mother: Sacrifice, Moralism, Restrictiveness, 366; 5. Parental Conflict, 368; 6. Father-Dominated vs. Mother- Oriented Home, 370; 7. Discipline: Harsh Application of Rules vs. Assimilation of Principles, 371
CHILDHOOD EVENTS AND A TTITUDES TOW ARD SIBLINGS 376 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 376; 2. Attitudes Toward Siblings, 377; 3. Child- hood Events, 382; 4. Status Concern, 382
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ON FAMILY PATTERNS 384
C.
D.
E.
? C.
. D.
42 I
CONTENTS XXl
XI. SEX, PEOPLE, AND SELF AS SEEN THROUGH THE INTERVIEWS-Else Frenkel-Brunswik 390
A.
B.
A TTITUDE TOW ARD SEX 390 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 390; 2. Status via Sex, 393; 3. Moralistic Rejec-
- tion of Instinctual Tendencies, 395; 4. "Pure" vs. "Bad" Women, 397; 5. Ego-Alien Ambivalence vs. "Fondness," 399; 6. Exploitive Manipulation for Power, 400; 7. Conventionality vs. Individualism, 402; 8. Summary, 404 A TTITUDE TOW ARD PEOPLE
1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 405; 2. Moralistic Condemnation vs. Permissive- ness, 406; 3. Extrapunitiveness, 409; 4. World as Jun- gle, 411; 5. Hierarchical vs. Equalitarian Conception of Human Relations, 413; 6. Dependence for Things, 414; 7. Manipulation vs. Libidinization of People and Genuine Work Adjustment, 415; 8. Social Status vs. Intrinsic Worth in Friendship, 418; 9. Summary, 420
A TTITUDE TOW ARD PRESENT SELF
1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re-
sults, 421; 2. Self-Glorification vs. Objective Appraisal, 423; 3. Masculinity and Femininity, 428; 4. Conven- tionalism and Moralism, 429; 5. Conformity of Self and Ideal, 430; 6. Denial of Sociopsychological Causation, 432; 7. Property as Extension of Self, 433
405
CONCEPTION OF CHILDHOOD SELF 434 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 434; 2. "Difficult" Child, 437; 3. Blandness vs. Adult-Orientation, 438; 4. Contrasting Picture of Child- hood and Present, 440; 5. Summary of Attitude Toward
Present Self and Childhood Self, 440
XII. DYNAMIC AND COGNITIVE PERSONALITY OR- GANIZATION AS SEEN THROUGH THE INTER-
VIEWS-Else Frenkel-Brunswik 442
A.
B.
DYNAMIC CHARACTER STRUCTURE 442 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 442; 2. Orality and Anality, 445; 3. Dependence,
449; 4. Aggression, 450; 5. Ambivalence, 451; 6. Iden- tification, 452; 7. Superego, 454; 8. Strength of the Ego, 456; 9. Distortion of Reality, 457; 10. Physical Symptoms, 459
COGNITIVE PERSONALITY ORGANIZA TION 461 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re-
? XXll CONTENTS
sults, 461; 2. Rigidity, 461; 3. Negative Attitude To- ward Science. Superstition, 464; 4. Anti-Intraceptive- ness and Autism, 465; 5. Suggestibility, 467
XIII. COMPREHENSIVE SCORES AND SUMMARY OF IN- TERVIEW RESULTS-Else Frenkel-Brunswik
A. THE DISCRIMINATORY POWERS OF THE MAJOR AREAS STUDIED 468
1. Verification of Anticipated Trend by Categories, 468;
2. Composite Ratings for Seven Major Areas, 470
B. V ALITITY OF OVER-ALL SCORES AND RA TINGS OF THE INTER-
VIEWS
1. Individual Composite Score Based on All Areas of Rat- ing, 471; 2. Over-all Intuitive Rating and Its Agree- ment with the Composite Score, 472; 3. Agreement with the Questionnaire Results, 472
471
C. SUMMARY OF THE PERSONALITY PATTERNS DERIVED FROM
THE INTERVIEWS 473 1. Introduction, 473; 2. Repression vs. Awareness, 474;
3. Externalization vs. Internalization, 474; 4. Conven- tionalism vs. Genuineness, 476; 5. Power vs. Love-Orien- tation, 478; 6. Rigidity vs. Flexibility. Problems of Ad- justment, 479; 7. Some Genetic Aspects, 482; 8. Cul- tural Outlook, 484
PART Ill
PERSONALITY AS REVEALED THROUGH PROJECTIVE
MA TERIAL
XIV. THE THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST IN THE STUDY OF PREJUDICED AND UNPREJUDICED IN- DIVIDUALS-Betty Aron 489
A. TESTING PROCEDURE 490
1. The Sample Tested, 490; 2. Technique of Adminis-
tration, 493; 3. The Pictures Used, 493
B. METHOD OF ANALYSIS OF THE STORY PROTOCOLS 496
1. The Murray-Sanford Scheme, 496; 2. Thematic Anal-
ysis, 506
C. THE T. A. T. S OF MACK A:KD LARRY
1. Larry's Stories, 530; 2. Mack's Stories, 534; 3. Anal-
529
543
ysis of the Stories, 537 D. SUMMARY
? A. B. C.
D.
E.
INTRODUCTION S4S QUANTIFICATION BY MEANS OF SCORING CATEGORIES S48 SCORING MANUAL: CATEGORIES OF PROJECTIVE QUESTION RESPONSE SSO RESULTS S79 1. Reliability of Scoring, S81; 2. Projective Question Scores in Relation to Standing on the E Scale, S84; 3. Validation by Means of Case Studies: Mack and Larry, S92 CONCLUSIONS S9S 1. General Ego Functioning, S9S; 2. Specific Properties
CONTENTS XXlll
XV. PROJECTIVE QUESTIONS IN THE STUDY OF PER- SONALITY AND IDEOLOGY-Daniel J. Levinson S4S
of the Ego, S96; 3. Achievement Values vs. Conven- tional Values, S97; 4. The Handling of Dependency as an Underlying Trend, S99; S. The Handling of Other Trends, 600
PART IV
QUALIT A TIVE STUDIES OF IDEOLOGY
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
603
XVI. PREJUDICE IN THE INTERVIEW MATER/AL-T. W. Adorno 6os
A. INTRODUCTION 6os
B. THE "FUNCTIONAL" CHARACTER OF ANTI-SEMITISM 609
612 WHA T? 617 622
C. THE IMAGINARY FOE
D. ANTI-SEMITISM FOR
E. TWO KINDS OF JEWS
F. THE ANTI-SEMITE'S DILEMMA 627
G. PROSECUTOR AS JUDGE 629
H. THE MISFIT BOURGEOIS 637 I. OBSERVATIONS ON LOW-SCORING SUBJECTS 644
J . C O N C L U S I O N
6S 3
XVII. POLITICS AND ECONOMICS IN THE INTERVIEW MATER/AL-T. W. Adorno 6s4
A. B.
INTRODUCTION 6S4 FORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF POLITICAL THINKING 6s8 1. Ignorance and Confusion, 6S8; 2.
Ticket Thinking
and Personalization in Politics, 663; 3. Surface Ideology
and Real Opinion, 671; 4. Pseudoconservatism, 67S; S. The Usurpation Complex, 68S; 6. F. D. R. , 689; 7. Bu-
? XXIV
CONTENTS
C.
reaucrats and Politicians, 693; 8. There Will Be No Utopia, 695; 9. No Pity for the Poor, 699; 10. Educa-
tion Instead of Social Change, 700
SOME POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC TOPICS 702
1. Unions, 702; 2. Business and Government, 711; 3. Political Issues Close to the Subjects, 714; 4. Foreign Policy and Russia, 718; 5. Communism, 723
XVIII. SOME ASPECTS OF RELIGIOUS IDEOLOGY AS RE- VEALED IN THE INTERVIEW MATER/AL-T. W.
Adorno 727
A. INTRODUCTION 727
B. GENERAL OBSERV A TIONS 730
C. SPECIFIC ISSUES 733 1. The Function of Religion in High and Low Scorers,
733; 2. Belief in God, Disbelief in Immortality, 736; 3. The Irreligious Low Scorer, 738; 4. Religious Low Scorers, 742
XIX. TYPES AND SYNDROMES-T. W. Adorno 744
A. THE APPROACH 744
B. SYNDROMES FOUND AMONG HIGH SCORERS 753
1. Surface Resentment, 753; 2. The "Conventional" Syn- drome, 756; 3. The "Authoritarian" Syndrome, 759; 4. The Rebel and the Psychopath, 763; 5. The Crank, 765; 6. The "Manipulative" Type, 767
C. SYNDROMES FOUND AMONG LOW SCORERS 77I 1. The "Rigid" Low Scorer, 771; 2. The "Protesting" Low Scorer, 774; 3. The "Impulsive" Low Scorer, 776;
4. The "Easy-Going" Low Scorer, 778; 5. The Genuine Liberal, 781
PART v
APPLICATIONS TO INDIVIDUALS AND TO SPECIAL GROUPS
XX. GENETIC ASPECTS OF THE AUTHORITARIAN PER- SONALITY: CASE STUDIES OF TWO CONTRASTING INDIVIDUALS-R. Nevitt Sanford
A. INTRODUCTION
787 787 788
B. THE CASE OF MACK
1. Environmental Forces and Events, 789;
2. Deeper Per-
? CONTENTS XXV
sonality Needs, 794; 3. Dynamics of Surface Behavior
and Attitudes, 800
C. THE CONTRASTING CASE OF LARRY
XXI. CRIMINALITY AND ANTIDEMOCRATIC TRENDS: A STUDY OF PRISON INMATES-William R. Morrow 8r7 A. INTRODUCTION 8I7
1. The Problem, 817; 2. Sampling and Administration,
818; 3. Plan of Discussion, 822
B. ETHNOCENTRISM 823
1. General Questionnaire Statistics and Their Significance, 823; 2. Ideology Concerning Negroes: A Submerged Outgroup, 824; 3. Ideology Concerning Jews: A Sup- posed "Dominant" Outgroup, 830
c. POLITICO-ECONOMIC A TTITUDES
D. MORALS AND RELIGION 844
E. DEFENSES AGAINST WEAKNESS 856
F. HETEROSEXUALITY 866
G. ANTI-INTRACEPTIVENESS AND CHILDHOOD 873
H. A TTITUDES TO P ARENTS
875 I. "cRIMINALITY" IN HIGH AND LOW SCORERS 887
XXII. PSYCHOLOGICAL ILL HEALTH IN RELATION TO POTENTIAL FASCISM: A STUDY OF PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC PATIENTS-Maria Hertz Levinson
A. INTRODUCTION
B. THE NATURE OF THE SAMPLE
C. STATISTICAL RESULTS FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE
D. RELATIONSHIP OF ETHNOCENTRISM TO VARIOUS PSYCHIATRIC
E.
F.
G.
CLASSIFICA TIONS 897 1. Ethnocentrism in Relation to Neurosis and Psychosis, 904; 2. Ethnocentrism in Relation to Specific Diagnostic Categories, 906
ETHNOCENTRISM IN RELATION TO THE MINNESOTA MULTI- PHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY
PERSONALITY TRENDS AS REVEALED BY P A TIENTS' "ST A TE- MENT OF PROBLEM" IN THE FIRST PSYCHIATRIC INTERVIEW 917 1. Selection of Material, 918; 2. The Scoring Manual: Description of Variables, 919; 3. The Method of Quan- tification, 924; 4. The Reliability of the Measures, 926;
5. Relationship Between Ratings and Ethnocentrism Score, 932; 6. Summary, 941
CLINICAL PICTURES AND PERSONALITIES OF HIGH AND LOW SCORERS 942
835
? XXVl CONTENTS
1. The High Scorers, 942; 2. The Low Scorers, 951;
3. The "Middles," 959
H. CONCLUSIONS 961
XXIII. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES INDEX
? (I)
(III) 2 (III) 3 (III) 4 (III) 5 (III) 6 (III)
7 (III) 8 (III) 9 (III)
10 (III) 11 (III) 12 (III) 13 (III)
1 (IV)
2 (IV)
3 (IV)
4 (IV)
5 (IV) 6 (IV)
7 (IV) 8 (IV) 9 (IV)
TABLES AND FIGURES
Groups from Whom Questionnaires Were Collected 21
Anti-Semitism Subscale "Offensive" 63 Anti-Semitism Subscale "Threatening" 64 Anti-Semitism Subscale "Attitudes" 65 Anti-Semitism Subscales "Seclusive vs. Intrusive" 66 "Neutral" Items in the Anti-Semitism Scale 67 The Total Anti-Semitism Scale 68 Public Opinion Questionnaire A
The Total Anti-Semitism Scale 69
Public Opinion Questionnaire S
Reliability of the Anti-Semitism Scale and Its Subscales lntercorrelations of the A-S Subscales
Anti-Semitism Scale: Item Means and Discriminatory Powers University of California Women 78 The Ten-Item A-S Scale (Form 78) 84 Reliability of the A-S Scale (Form 78) 86 Item Means and Discriminatory Powers. A-S Scale-Form 78 87 Responses of Mack and Larry on the A-S Scale 90
Ethnocentrism Scale I05 Negro Subscale (N)
Ethnocentrism Scale I06 Minority Subscale (M)
Ethnocentrism Scale I08
Patriotism Subscale (P)
The Total Ethnocentrism Scale IIO Public Opinion Questionnaire E
Reliability of the Ethnocentrism (E) Scale and Its Subscales 112 Correlations of the E Subscales with Each Other and with the Total E Scale I13 Means and Discriminatory Powers of the E-Scale Items I15 The Second Form of theE Scale (Form 78) I17 Reliability of the E Scale (Form 78) I19
xxvii
73 75
? XXVlll TABLES AND FIGURES
10 (IV)
11 (IV)
12 (IV)
13 (IV)
14 (IV)
15 (IV)
16 (IV)
17 (IV)
18 (IV)
19 (IV)
20 (IV)
Means and Discriminatory Powers of the E-Scale Items (Form 78) 120 Correlations Between the A-S and E Scales (Initial Forms) 122 Correlations Between the A-S and E Scales (Form 78) 123 The Third Form of the E Scale (Form 60) 124 Reliability of the E Scale (Form 60) 125
Means and Discriminatory Powers of the E-Scale Items (Form 60) 126 The Fourth Form of theE Scale (Forms 45 and 40) 128
Reliability of the E Scale (Forms 45 and 40)
A. Groups Taking Form 45 (EA+B) 134
B. Groups Taking Form 40 (EA) 135
C. Groups Taking Both Forms 45 and 40 136
Means and Discriminatory Powers of the E-Scale Items (Forms45 and40) 139 Ethnocentrism Scale: Suggested Final Form 142 Responses of Mack and Larry on the E Scale 143
(V) The Initial Politico-Economic Conservatism Scale (Form 78) 158
2 (V)
3 (V)
4 (V)
5 (V)
6 (V)
7 (V)
8 (V)
9 (V)
10 (V)
11 (V)
12 (V)
13 (V)
14 (V)
Reliability of the PEC Scale (Form 78) 159 Means and Discriminatory Powers of the PEC-Scale Items
(Form 78) 160 The Second Form of the Politico-Economic Conservatism
(PEC) Scale (Form 60) 163 Reliability of the PEC Scale (Form 60) 165 Means and Discriminatory Powers of the PEC-Scale Items
(FQrm 60) 167 The Third Form of the Politico-Economic Conservatism
(PEC) Scale (Forms 45-40) 169 Means and Standard Deviations of PEC-Scale Scores for Groups Taking Forms 45 and 40 170 Means and Discriminatory Powers of the PEC-Scale Items
(Forms 40 and 45) 174 Correlations of the A-S and E Scales with the PEC Scale (All Forms) 179 Responses of Mack and Larry on the PEC Scale 183 Mean A-S or E Scores for Groups Showing Various Over-
all Political Party Preferences 188 Mean A-SorE Scores for Groups Whose Fathers Have Vari-
ous Political Party Preferences 191 Mean A-SorE Scores for Groups Showing Various Relations Between Subject's and Father's Political Preference 193
? 18 (V) 19 (V) 20 (V)
Mean A-S orE Scores for Groups Having Various Levels of Expected Yearly Income
Mean A-SorE Scores for Groups Whose Fathers Had Vari- ous Incomes
Mean A-SorE Scores for Groups Whose Fathers Have Vari- ous Occupations
TABLES AND FIGURES
XXlX
15 (V) Mean E Score for Various Organizations m the Form 40 Sample
16 (V) Mean E Score for Groups Having Various Maritime Union Affiliations (Maritime School Sample)
17 (V) Mean E Scores for Groups Who Have Various Present Yearly Incomes
I94 I97 I 98 200
202
205 210 2I2 2 I4 2I6
217
226 243
245 248 25I
253 255 258
260
263
264
266 270
(VI)
2 (VI) Mean A-S or E Scores for Groups Showing Various Fre-
3 (VI) 4 (VI) 5 (VI)
(VII) 2 (VII) 3 (VII)
4 (VII) 5 (VII) 6 (VII)
7 (VII) 8 (VII) 9 (VII)
10 (VII) 11 (VII) 12 (VII) 13 (VII)
quencies of Church Attendance
Mean A-S or E Scores for Groups Showing Various Rela- tions Between Father's Religion and Mother's Religion Mean A-S or E Scores for Groups Showing Various Rela- tions Between Subject's Religion and Mother's Religion Mean A-S Scores of Groups Giving Different Categories of Response to the Question: "How Important Are Religion and the Church? "
The F Scale: Form 78
Reliability of the F Scale (Form 78)
Means and Discriminatory Powers of the F-Scale Items
(Form 78)
The F Scale: Form 60
Reliability of the F Scale (Form 60)
Means and Discriminatory Powers of the F-Scale Items
(Form 60)
F-Scale Clusters: Forms 45 and 40
Reliability of the F Scale (Forms 40 and 45)
Means and Discriminatory Powers of the F-Scale Items (Forms 40 and 45)
Correlations of the F Scale with the A-S, E, and PEC Scales in the Several Forms of the Questionnaire
Correlations of the F Scale with Each Half and with the Whole of the E Scale
Mean F-Scale Scores of Groups Taking the Several Forms of the Questionnaire
Responses of Mack and Larry on the F Scale (Form 78)
Mean A-S or E Scores of Various Religious Groups
? XXX
1 (VIII)
2 (VIII)
3 (VIII)
4 (VIII)
5 (VIII)
1 (IX)
2 (IX)
3 (IX)
4 (IX) 5 (IX)
6 (IX)
T ABLES AND FIGURES
Correlations of the E and F Scales with Various Ability Tests (Maritime School Men) 282 Correlations of the E, F, and PEC Scales with the Otis Higher Form A Intelligence Test (Employment Service Veteran Men) 283 Mean Wechsler-Bellevue IQ Score for Each Quartile of
the Ethnocentrism Scale (Psychiatric Clinic Men and Women) 283 Mean Number of Years of Education for Each Quartile of
the Ethnocentrism Scale (Psychiatric Clinic Men and Women) 285 Mean E Score for Groups Having Various Years of Edu- cation (Maritime School Men) 286
Survey of 20 Prejudiced and 20 Unprejudiced Men Inter- ~ewed 296 Survey of 25 Prejudiced and 15 Unprejudiced Women Inter- viewed 297 Representativeness of Interviewees in Terms of Scores on the Ethnocentrism Scale 298 Age Distribution in Total Extreme Quartiles and Interviewees 299 Religious Affiliation in Total Extreme Quartiles and Inter- VIewees 299 Political Outlook in Total Extreme Quartiles and Inter- viewees 300
7 (IX) Reliability of Interview Ratings: Interrater Agreement on Nine Subjects 330
8 (IX) Interrater Agreement on Interview Ratings for Six Major Areas 332
1 (X)
2 (X)
3 (X)
1 (XI)
Interview Ratings on Attitude Toward Parents and Concept
of Family for 80 Subjects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low" on the Ethnic Prejudice Questionnaire Scale 341 Interview Ratings on Concept of Childhood Environment for
80 Subjects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low" on the Ethnic Prejudice Questionnaire Scale 362 Interview Ratings on Childhood Events and Attitude Toward Siblings for 80 Subjects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low"
on the Ethnic Prejudice? Questionnaire Scale 379
Interview Ratings on Attitude Toward Sex for 80 Subjects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low" on the Ethnic Preju- dice Questionnaire Scale 392
? 2 (XI)
3 (XI)
4 (XI)
1 (XII)
Interview Ratings on Attitude Toward People for SO Sub- jects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low" on the Ethnic Prejudice Questionnaire Scale 407 Interview Ratings on Attitude Toward Present Self for SO Subjects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low" on the Ethnic Prejudice Questionnaire Scale 424 Interview Ratings on Attitude Toward Childhood Self for
SO Subjects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low" on the Ethnic Prejudice Questionnaire Scale 436
Interview Ratings on Dynamic Character Structure for SO Subjects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low" on the Ethnic Prejudice Questionnaire Scale 446
TABLES AND FIGURES XXXl
2 (XII) Interview Ratings on Cognitive Personality Organization
for SO Subjects Scoring Extremely "High" or "Low" on the Ethnic Prejudice Questionnaire Scale 462
1 (XIII)
1 (XIV) 2 (XIV) 3 (XIV) 4 (XIV)
Composite Ratings (Means) for Major Areas of Study for "High" and "Low" Scoring Groups of Interviewees 469
Distribution of Thematic Apperception Test Sample Among the Several Groups Participating in the Study 491 Age Distribution of Subjects Receiving the Thematic Ap- perception Test 492 Distribution of Thematic Apperception Test Subjects with Respect to the Sex of the Examiners 492 Stimulus Values of the Ten Thematic Apperception Test Pictures 494
5 (XIV)A Intensities of Need and Press Variables as Expressed in Stories Told by Men 500
5 (XIV)B Intensities of Need and Press Variables as Expressed in Stories Told by Women 502
6 (XIV) Comparison of the Scores of Mack and Larry on the Thematic Apperception Test with the Mean Scores of Prejudiced and Unprejudiced Men 539
1 (XV) Scoring Reliability (Percentage Interrater Agreement) for
the Eight Projective Questions 5S3
2 (XV) Percentage Agreement Between Projective Question Scores
and E-Scale Scores 5S6
FIGURE 1 (XX) The Genetic Aspects of Mack's Personality Sor
? XXXII
1 (XXI)
2 (XXI) 3 (XXI) 4 (XXI) 5 (XXI)
1 (XXII) 2 (XXII) 3 (XXII) 4 (XXII)
5 (XXII) 6 (XXII)
FIGURE 1
7 (XXII)
8 (XXII)
9 (XXII)
10 (XXII)
11 (XXII)
TABLES AND FIGURES
Identifying Data for Interviewees in the Prison Inmates Group 820 Results on the E Scale from the Group of Prison Inmates 823 Results on the PEC Scale from the Group of Prison Inmates 836 Results on the F Scale from the Group of Prison Inmates 846 Mean E- and F-Scale Scores of the Prison Inmates, Grouped According to Offense 889
Reliability Data on the E Scale for Psychiatric Clinic Men
and Women 897 Incidence of Various Psychiatic Diagnoses in the Sample
of Psychiatric Clinic Patients 899 Percentage of Each E-Scale Quartile Falling Into Various Psychiatric Categories 901 Percentage of the Upper and of the Lower Halves of the E-Scale Distribution Falling Into Various Psychiatric Categories 902 Percentage of Neurotic Patients in Each E-Scale Quartile Showing Various Neurotic Features 903 Percentage of Neurotic Patients in the Upper and Lower Halves of theE-Scale Distribution Showing Various Neu- rotic Features 904
(XXII) Average MMPI Profile for Non-Psychotic Psychi- atric Patients Falling Into Each Half of theE-Scale Distribution
Mean Scores on the Several Scales of the MMPI for Sub- jects Falling into Each Quartile and Into Each Half of the E-Scale Distribution. Nonpsychotic Male Patients 914 Mean Scores on the Several Scales of the MMPI for Sub- jects Falling Into Each Quartile and Into Each Half of the E-Scale Distribution. N onpsychotic Female Patients 915 The Amount of Agreement Between Two Raters in Esti- mating a Subject's Standing on the E Scale from an Analy-
sis of His Intake Interview. Psychiatric Clinic Patients: Men and Women Combined 927 The Amount of Agreement Between a Single Rater (A)
and Seven Other Raters in Estimating Variables in Intake Interviews. Psychiatric Clinic Patients: Men and Women Combined 930 The Amount of Agreement Between Rater A's Estimate
of High or Low Ethnocentrism, Based on Analysis of In-
take Interviews, and Ethnocentrism as Measured by the
? 12 (XXII)
E Scale. Psychiatric Clinic Patients: Men and Women Combined
The Amount of Agreement Benveen Estimates of Ethno- centrism, Based on Ratings of Single Variables from In- take Interviews, and Ethnocentrism as Measured by the E Scale. Psychiatric Clinic Patients: Men and Women Combined
93 3
934
936
T ABLES AND FIGURES XXXlll
13 (XXII) Summary of Data from the Rating of Intake Interviews. A. Reliability: Percentage Agreement Among Raters for Seven Variables. B. Validity: Percentage Agreement Be- tween Ratings and Score on the E Scale. Psychiatric Clinic Patients: Men and Women Combined
? CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. THE PROBLEM
The research to be reported in this volume was guided by the following major hypothesis: that the political, economic, and social convictions of an individual often form a broad and coherent pattern, as if bound together by a "mentality" or "spirit," and that this pattern is an expression of deep- lying trends in his personality.
The major concern was with the potentially fascistic individual, one whose structure is such as to render him particularly susceptible to anti- democratic propaganda. We say "potential" because we have not studied individuals who were avowedly fascistic or who belonged to known fascist organizations. At the time when most of our data were collected fascism had just been defeated in war and, hence, we could not expect to find sub- jects who would openly identify themselves with it; yet there was no difficulty in finding subjects whose outlook was such as to indicate that they would readily accept fascism if it should become a strong or respectable social movement.
In concentrating upon the potential fascist we do not wish to imply that other patterns of personality and ideology might not profitably be studied in the same way. It is our opinion, however, that no politico-social trend imposes a graver threat to our traditional values and institutions than does fascism, and that knowledge of the personality forces that favor its accept- ance may ultimately prove useful in combating it. A question may be raised as to why, if we wish to explore new resources for combating fascism, we do not give as much attention to the "potential antifascist. " The answer is that we do study trends that stand in opposition to fascism, but we do not conceive that they constitute any single pattern. It is one of the major findings of the present study that individuals who show extreme susceptibil- ity to fascist propaganda have a great deal in common. (They exhibit numerous characteristics that go together to form a "syndrome" although typical variations within this major pattern can be distinguished. ) Indi- viduals who are extreme in the opposite direction are much more diverse. The task of diagnosing potential fascism and studying its determinants required techniques especially designed for these purposes; it could not be
I
? 2 THE AUTHORITARIA~ PERSONALITY
asked of them that they serve as well for various other patterns. Neverthe- less, it was possible to distinguish several types of personality structure that seemed particularly resistant to antidemocratic ideas, and these are given due attention in later chapters.
If a potentially fascistic individual exists, what, precisely, is he like? What goes to make up antidemocratic thought? What are the organizing forces within the person? If such a person exists, how commonly does he exist in our society? And if such a person exists, what have been the determinants and what. the course of his development?
These are questions upon which the present research was designed to throw some "light. Though the notion that the potentially antidemocratic individual is a totality may be accepted as a plausible hypothesis, some analysis is called for at the start. In most approaches to the problem of polit- ical types two essential conceptions may be distinguished: the conception of ideology and the conception of underlying needs in the person. Though the two may be thought of as forming an organized whole within the individual, they may nonetheless be studied separately. The same ideological trends may in different individuals have different sources, and the same personal needs may express themselves in different ideological trends.
The term ideology is used in this book, in the way that is common in current literature, to stand for an organization of opinions, attitudes, and values-a way of thinking about man and society. We may speak of an indi- vidual's total ideology or of his ideology with respect to different areas of social life: politics, economics, religion, minority groups, and so forth. Ideol- ogies have an existence independent of any single individual; and those which exist at a particular time are results both of historical processes and of contemporary social events. These ideologies have for different individ- uals, different degrees of appeal, a matter that depends upon the individual's needs and the degree to which these needs are being satisfied or frustrated.
There are, to be sure, individuals who take unto themselves ideas from more than one existing ideological system and weave them into patterns that are more or less uniquely their own. It can be assumed, however, that when the opinions, attitudes, and values of numerous individuals are examined, common patterns will be discovered. These patterns may not in all cases correspond to the familiar, current ideologies" but they will fulfill the defi- nition of ideology given above and in each case be found to have a function within the over-all adjustment of the individual.
The present inquiry into the nature of the potentially fascistic individual began with anti-Semitism in the focus of attention. The authors, in common with most social scientists, hold the view that anti-Semitism is based more largely upon factors in the subject and in his total situation than upon actual characteristics of Jews, and that one place tolook for determinants of anti- Semitic opinions and attitudes is within the persons who express them. Since
? INTRODUCTION
3 this emphasis on personality'required a focusing of attention on psychology rather than on sociology or history-though in the last analysis the three can be separated only artificially-there could be no attempt to account for the existence of anti-Semitic ideas in our society. The question was, rather, why is it that certain individuals accept these ideas while others do not? And since from the start the research was guided by the hypotheses stated above, it was supposed (r) that anti-Semitism probably is not a specific or isolated phe- nomenon but a part of a broader ideological framework, and (2) that an individual's susceptibility to this ideology depends primarily upon his psy-
chological needs.
The insights and hypotheses concerning the antidemocratic individual,
which are present in our general cultural climate, must be supported by a great deal of painstaking observation, and in many instances by quantifica- tion, before they can be regarded as conclusive. How can one say with assurance that . the numerous opinions, attitudes, and values expressed by an individual actually constitute a consistent pattern or organized totality? The most intensive investigation of that individual would seem to be neces- sary. How can one say that opinions, attitudes, and values found in groups of people go together to form patterns, some of which are more common than others? There is no adequate way to proceed other than by actually measuring, in populations, a wide variety of thought contents and determin- ing by means of standard statistical methods which ones go together.
To many social psychologists the scientific study of ideology, as it has been defined, seems a hopeless task. To measure-with suitable accuracy a single, specific, isolated attitude is a long and arduous proceeding for both subject and experimenter. (It is frequently argued that unless the attitude is specific and isolated, it cannot properly be measured at all. ) How then can we hope to survey within a reasonable period of time the numerous attitudes and ideas that go to make up an ideology? Obviously, some kind of selec- tion is necessary. The investigator must limit himself to what is most significant, and judgments of significance can only be made on the basis of theory.
The theories that have guided the present research will be presented in suitable contexts later. Though theoretical considerations had a role at every stage of the work, a beginning had to be made with the objective study of the most observable and relatively specific opinions, attitudes, and values.
Opinions, attitudes, and values, as we conceive of them, are expressed more or less openly in words. Psychologically they are "on the surface. " It must be recognized, however, that when it comes to such affect-laden questions as those concerning minority groups and current political issues, the degree of openness with which a person speaks will depend upon the situation in which he finds himself. There may be a discrepancy between what he says on a particular occasion and what he "really thinks. " Let us say that what
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
4
he really thinks he can express in confidential discussion with his intimates. This much, which is still relatively superficial psychologically, may still b~ observed directly by the psychologist if he uses appropriate techniques- and this we have attempted to do.
It is to be recognized, however, that the individual may have "secret" thoughts which he will under no circumstances reveal to anyone else if he can help it; he may have thoughts which he cannot admit to himself, and he may have thoughts which he does not express because they are so vague and ill-formed that he cannot put them into words. To gain access to these deeper trends is particularly important, for precisely here may lie the indi- vidual's potential for democratic or antidemocratic thought and action in crucial situations.
What people say and, to a lesser degree, what they really think depends very largely upon the climate of opinion in which they are living; but when that climate changes, some individuals adapt themselves much more quickly than others. If there should be a marked increase in antidemocratic propa- ganda, we should expect some people to accept and repeat it at once, others when it seemed that "everybody believed it," and still others not at all. In other words, individuals differ in their susceptibility to antidemocratic propa- ganda, in their readiness to exhibit antidemocratic tendencies. It seems neces- sary to study ideology at this "readiness level" in order to gauge the potential for fascism in this country. Observers have noted that the amount of out- spoken anti-Semitism in pre-Hitler Germany was less than that in this coun- try at the present time; one might hope that the potentiality is less in this country, but this can be known only through intensive investigation, through the detailed survey of what is on the surface and the thorough probing of what lies beneath it.
A question may be raised as to what is the degree of relationship between ideology and action. If an individual is making antidemocratic propaganda or engaging in overt attacks upon minority group members, it is usually assumed that his opinions, attitudes, and values are congruent with his action; but comfort is sometimes found in the thought that though another individual expresses antidemocratic ideas verbally, he does not, and perhaps will not, put them into overt action. Here, once again, there is a question of potentialities. Overt action, like open verbal expression, depends very largely upon the situation of the moment-something that is best described in socio- economic and political terms-but individuals differ very widely with respect to their readiness to be provoked into action. The study of this potential is a part of the study of the individual's over-all ideology; to know what kinds and what intensities of belief, attitude, and value are likely to lead to action, and to know what forces within the individual serve as inhibitions upon . action are matters of the greatest practical importance.
There seems little reason to doubt that ideology-in-readiness (ideological
? INTRODUCTION
5
receptivity) and ideology-in~wordsand in action are essentially the same stuff. The description of an individual's total ideology must portray not only the organization on each level but organization among levels. What the indi- vidual consistently says in public, what he says when he feels safe from criticism, what he thinks but will not say at all, what he thinks but will not admit to himself, what he is disposed to think or to do when various kinds of appeal are made to him-all these phenomena may be conceived of as constituting a single structure. The structure may not be integrated, it may contain contradictions as well as consistencies, but it is organized in the sense that the constituent parts are related in psychologically meaningful ways.
In order to understand such a structure, a theory of the total personality is necessary. According to the theory that has guided the present research, personality is a more or less enduring organization of forces within the indi- vidual. These persisting forces of personality help to determine response in various situations, and it is thus largely to them that consistency of behavior -whether verbal or physical-is attributable. But behavior, however con- sistent, is not the same thing as personality; personality lies behind behavior and within the individual.
