31) says that the language of the Gauls was
very concise and figurative, and that the Gauls made use of hyperbole in
blaming and praising.
very concise and figurative, and that the Gauls made use of hyperbole in
blaming and praising.
Napoleon - History of Julius Caesar - b
[This epithet of Eleutheri, which is found in
Cæsar (_De Bello Gallico_, VIII. 75) leads us to believe that in
southern Quercy there existed Cadurci placed under the dominion of
Rome. ]
_The Gabali_, who occupied the ancient Gévaudan (the department of the
Lozère).
_The Vellavi_, whose territory answered to the ancient Velay (department
of the Upper Loire).
_The Aulerci_ formed an extensive nation, which was subdivided into
three great tribes, established over the country from the lower course
of the Seine to the Mayenné.
1. _The Aulerci Cenomanni_, a fraction of whom was, as early as the
sixth century of Rome, established in Cisalpine Gaul, between the
Oglio and the Adige, and who occupied in Gaul the greater part of
the territory now forming the department of the Sarthe;
2. _The Aulerci Diablintes_, the northern and central parts of the
department of the Mayenne.
3. _The Aulerci Eburovices_, the central and southern part of the
department of the Eure.
_The Bituriges_, a nation which had more than twenty towns. Avaricum
(_Bourges_) was the principal. Their territory embraced the ancient
Berry (departments of the Cher, the Indre, and part of the Allier).
_The Carnutes_ occupied the greatest part of the present departments of
Eure-et-Loir, Loir-et-Cher, and Loiret. Genabum (_Gien_) was one of
their most important towns.
_The Ædui_ occupied the modern departments of Saône-et-Loire and the
Nièvre, and a part of the Côte-d’Or and the Allier. Their principal
_oppidum_ was Bibracte (_Mont-Beuvray_), the place of which was
subsequently taken by Augustodunum (_Autun_). Cabillonum
(_Chalon-sur-Saône_), Matisco (_Mâcon_), and Noviodunum, afterwards
called Nivernum (_Nevers_), were also reckoned among their most
important places. The _Ædui_ had for clients--
_The Ambarri_, a small tribe situated between the Saône, the Rhone, and
the Ain (department of the Ain).
_The Ambluaretes_, a people occupying a district around Ambierle
(arrondissement of Roanne, department of the Loire). (? )
_The Aulerci Brannovices_, a tribe which dwelt between the Saône and the
Loire, occupied the ancient country of Brionnais.
_The Blannovii_, who occupied a territory round Blanot (Saône-et-Loire).
(? )
_The Boii_, a fraction of a great nomadic nation of this name, of Celtic
origin, authorised by Cæsar to establish themselves on the territory of
the Ædui, between the Loire and the Allier.
_The Segusiavi_, who occupied the ancient Forez (departments of the
Rhône and the Loire), and extended to the left bank of the Saône.
_The Essuvii_, established in the department of the Orne.
_The Helvetii_, who were subdivided into four tribes or _pagi_; their
territory occupied the part of Switzerland which extends from the north
shore of the Léman to the Lake of Constance.
_The Lemovices_, whose territory answered to the Limousin (departments
of the Upper Vienne and the greater part of the Corrèze and the Creuse).
_The Lingones_, whose territory embraced the greatest part of the
department of the Haute-Marne and a fraction of the departments of the
Aube, the Yonne, and the Côte-d’Or.
_The Mandubii_, established between the Ædui and the Lingones
(department of the Côte-d’Or), occupied the ancient country of Auxois.
Alesia (_Alise_) was their principal _oppidum_.
_The Meldœ_ occupied the north of the department of the Seine-et-Marne
and a small part of the department of the Oise.
_The Nitiobriges_ occupied the greatest part of the department of the
Lot-et-Garonne and a fraction of the Tarn-et-Garonne.
_The Parisii_, whose territory embraced the department of the Seine and
a great part of the department of the Seine-et-Oise. Their principal
town was Lutetia (_Paris_).
_The Petrocorii_, established in the ancient Périgord (department of the
Dordogne).
_The Rauraci_, whose origin is perhaps German, established on both banks
of the Rhine, towards the elbow which the river forms at Bâle.
_The Ruteni_ occupied the ancient province of Rouergne (department of
the Aveyron).
_The Senones_, established between the Loire and the Marne. Their
principal town was Agedincum (_Sens_). Their territory comprised a part
of the departments of the Yonne, the Marne, the Loiret, Seine-et-Marne,
and the Aube.
_The Sequani_, whose territory embraced the ancient Franche-Comté (Jura,
Doubs, Haute-Saône, and part of the Haut-Rhin). Principal town, Vesontio
(_Besançon_).
_The Turones_, who occupied Touraine (department of Indre-et-Loire).
The peoples whom Cæsar calls _maritime_, or _Armorican_, were--
_The Ambibari_, established at the point where the departments of
La Manche and Ille-et-Vilaine join.
_The Ambiliates_, whose territory comprised the part of the
department of Maine-et-Loire situated to the south of the Loire.
_The Andes_, occupying Anjon (department of Maine-et-Loire and a
fraction of the department of the Sarthe).
_The Curiosolitæ_, occupying the greatest part of the department of
the Côtes-du-Nord.
_The Lemovices Armorici_, fixed to the south of the Loire, in the
southern part of the department of the Loire-Inférieure and the
west of that of Maine-et-Loire.
_The Lexovii_, occupying the department of Calvados, and a fraction
of that of the Eure.
_The Namnetes_, who occupied, in the department of the
Loire-Inférieure, the right bank of the Loire.
_The Osismii_, whose territory answered to the department of
Finistère.
_The Pictones_, occupying Poitou (departments of La Vendée, the
Deux-Sèvres, and the Vienne).
_The Redones_, whose territory embraced the greatest part of the
department of Ille-et-Vilaine.
_The Santones_, occupying Saintonge, Aunis, and Angoumois
(department of the Charente and the Charente-Inférieure, and a part
of the department of the Gironde).
_The Unelli_, the people of the ancient Contentin (department of La
Manche).
_The Veneti_, whose territory included the department of Morbihan.
To these maritime peoples we must add--
_The Caletes_, }
_The Essuvii_, } mentioned above.
_The Morinu_, }
We may also join to the Celtic populations--
_The Nuntuates_, }
_The Seduni_, } Alpine tribes, established on the upper course of the
_The Veragri_, } Rhone, in the Valais and the Chablais.
[73] Tacitus. _Germania_, 28.
[74] PEOPLES OF AQUITAINE:
_The Ausci_, who occupied the central part of the department of the
Gers, the most powerful of the nations of Aquitaine, according to
Pomponius Mela (III. 2).
_The Bigerriones_ occupied Bigorre (department of the Hautes-Pyrénées).
_The Cocosates_, established on the coasts of the Gulf of Gascony, in
the Landes (the southern part of the department of the Gironde and the
northern of the department of the Landes).
_The Elusates_ occupied the north-west part of the department of the
Gers and part of that of the Lot-et-Garonne.
_The Gates_, at the confluence of the Gers and the Garonne.
_The Garumni_, in the south of the department of the Haute-Garonne.
_The Ptianes_, probably towards Pau and Orthez.
_The Sibuzates_ appear to have occupied the ancient country of Soule
(Basses-Pyrénées).
_The Sotiates_ occupied the south-west part of the department of
Lot-et-Garonne and a part of the departments of the Landes and the Gers.
_The Tarbelli_ occupied all the territory bordering upon the head of the
Gulf of Gascony (departments of the Landes and the Basses-Pyrénées).
_The Tarusates_, established on the Adour, in the ancient Tursan (the
south-east part of the department of the Landes). PEOPLES OF AQUITAINE
(_continued_).
_The Vasates_ or _Vocates_, established in the country of Bazas (the
south-east part of the department of the Gironde).
_The Bituriges Vivisci_, the most northern of the peoples }
of Aquitane (department of the Gironde). }
}
_The Convenes_ (a confederacy of small tribes established } Not mentioned by
in the valleys of the Hautes-Pyrénées and the } Cæsar.
southern part of the department of the Haute-Garonne). }
[75] “Pagus, pars civitatis. ” (_De Bello Gallico_, I. 12. )
[76] Cæsar mentions in different pasages the existence of _vici_ among
the Helvetii (I. 5), the Allobroges _trans Rhodanum_ (I. 11), the Remi
(II. 7), the Morini (III. 29), the Menapii (IV. 4), the Eburones (VI.
43), the Boii (VII. 14), the Carnutes (VIII. 5), and the Veragri (III.
1).
[77] _De Bello Gallico_ VII. 15, 25, 68.
[78] The “Commentaries” name twenty-one _oppida_: Alesia, Avaricum,
Bibracte, Bibrax, Bratuspantium, Cabillonum, Genabum, Genava, Gergovia,
Gorgobina, Lutetia, Lemonum, Melodunum, Noviodunum Æduorum, Noviodunum
Biturigum, Noviodunum Suessionum, Uxellodunum, Vellaunodunum, Vesontio,
the _oppidum_ Aduatucorum, and the _oppidum_ Sotiatum.
[79] “Oppidum dictum quod ibi homines opes suas conferunt. ” (Paulus
Diaconus, p. 184, edit. Müller. )
[80] The Gauls lived in houses, or rather in huts, constructed of wood
and with hurdles, tolerably spacious and of a circular form, covered
with a high roof. (Strabo, IV. 163, edit. Didot. )--The Gauls, to avoid
the heat, almost always built their habitations in the neighbourhood of
woods and rivers. (Cæsar, _De Bello Gallico_, VI. 30. )
[81] See a very curious passage in Solinus, chap. 25, on the practice of
tattooing among the Gauls.
[82] Diodorus Siculus (V. 28) says that the Gauls were of tall stature,
had white flesh, and were lymphatic in constitution. Some shaved; the
majority had beards of moderate size. --According to Titus Livius, the
Gauls possessed a tall stature (_procera corpora_), flowing hair of an
auburn colour (_promissæ et rutilatæ comæ_), a white complexion
(_candida corpora_). (Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 17, 21, and Ammianus
Marcellinus, XV. 22. ) The latter adds that the Gauls had generally a
threatening and terrible tone of voice, which is also stated by Diodorus
Siculus (V. 31). --The skeletons found in the excavations at
Saint-Etienne-au-Temple are 1·80m. to 1·90m. in length.
[83] Strabo, p. 163, edit. Didot.
[84] Isidorus Hispalensis, _Origines_, I. 19, 24.
[85] Diodorus Siculus, V. 30.
[86] Diodorus Siculus, V. 33.
[87] Pliny, XXXIII. 24. --Gold was very abundant in Gaul; silver was much
less common. The rich wore bracelets, rings on the leg, and collars, of
the purest gold and tolerably massive; they had even breastplates of
gold. (Diodorus Siculus, V. 27. )--A great number of these rings and
circles of gold, of very good workmanship, have been found in the
Gaulish burying-places. The Museum of Saint-Germain contains bracelets
and earrings of chased gold, found, in 1863, in a tumulus situated near
Châtillon-sur-Seine.
[88] _De Bello Gallico_, VI. 14.
[89] _De Bello Gallico_, VI. 13.
[90] Pliny, _Hist. Nat. _, VIII. xlviii. lxxiii. , p. 127, edit. Sillig.
[91] _De Bello Gallico_, VII. 22. --Pliny, XXXIV. xvii. , p. 162, edit.
Sillig.
[92] “Deinde et argentum incoquere simili modo cœpere, equorum maxime
ornamentis, jumentorumque ac jugorum, in Alesia oppido. ” (Pliny, XXXIV.
xvii. , p. 162. --Florus, III. 2. )
[93] Milk and the flesh of wild or domestic animals, especially swine’s
flesh fresh or salted, formed the principal food of the Gauls. (Strabo,
IV. , p. 163. )--Beer and mead were the principal drink of the Gauls.
(Posidonius quoted by Athenæus, IV. , p. 151, _Fragmenta Historicum
Græc. _, III. 260. )--This statement is made also by Diodorus Siculus (V.
26), who informs us that this beer was made with barley.
[94] Cicero already remarked the propensity of the Gauls to drunkenness
(_Orat. pro Fonteio_), and Ammianus Marcellinus (XV. 12) also addresses
the same reproach to them, which is again stated in Diodorus Siculus (V.
26).
[95] “The Gauls, in their great hospitality, invited the stranger to
their meal as soon as he presented himself, and it was only after
drinking and eating with them that they inquired his name and country. ”
(Diodorus Siculus, V. 28. )
[96] Strabo (IV. , p. 162) says that the Gauls were of a frank character
and good-hearted (literally, without malice). --Ammianus Marcellinus (XV.
12), who wrote at the end of the fifth century, represents the Gauls as
excessively vain. --Strabo (IV. , p. 165) assures us that they were much
inclined to disputes and quarrels.
[97] Cæsar often speaks of the fickleness of temper of this people,
which, during a long period, gave great trouble to the Roman people.
“Omnes fere Gallos novis rebus studere, et ad bellum mobiliter
celeriterque excitari. ” (_De Bello Gallico_, III 10. )--Lampridius, in
his _Life of Alexander Severus_, 59, expresses himself thus: “But the
Gauls, those tempers hard to deal with, and who regret all they have
ceased to possess, often furnished grave cares to the
emperors. ”--“Gallorum subita et repentina consilia. ” (_De Bello
Gallico_, III. 8. )
[98] _De Bello Gallico_, III. 19.
[99] Diodorus Siculus (V.
31) says that the language of the Gauls was
very concise and figurative, and that the Gauls made use of hyperbole in
blaming and praising.
[100] Diodorus Siculus, V. 32. --Strabo, IV. , p. 165. --Athenæus, XIII. ,
p. 603.
[101] _De Bello Gallico_, VII. 47 and 48. --Among the Gauls, the women
were equal to the men, not only in size, but also in courage. (Diodorus
Siculus, V. 32. )--The Gaulish women were tall and strong. --Ammianus
Marcellinus (XV. 12) writes: “Several foreigners together could not
wrestle against a single Gaul, if they quarrelled with him, especially
if he called for help to his wife, who even exceeds her husband in her
strength and in her haggard eyes. She would become especially formidable
if, swelling her throat and gnashing her teeth, she agitated her arms,
robust and white as snow, ready to act with feet or fists; to give blows
as vigorous as if they came from a catapult. ”
[102] _De Bello Gallico_, VI. 18: “Ab Dite patre prognatos. ”
[103] _De Bello Gallico_, VI. 18.
[104] _De Bello Gallico_, VI. 19.
[105] The Gauls, like most of the barbarian peoples, looked upon the
other life as resembling the present. And with this sentiment, at the
funeral, they threw into the funereal pile, letters addressed to the
dead, which they imagined he read. (Diodorus Siculus, V. 28. )
[106] Titus Livius tells us (XXXVIII. 17) that the Gauls had long swords
(_prælongi gladii_) and great bucklers (_vasta scuta_). In another
passage (XXII. 46) he remarks that the swords of the Gauls were long and
without point (_prælongi ac sine mucronibus_). --Their bucklers were
long, narrow, and flat (_scuta longa, cœterum ad amplitudinem corporum
parum lata et ea ipsa plana_). (Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 21. )--“Et Biturix
longisque leves Suessones in armis. ” (Lucan, _Pharsalia_, I.
422. )--Didorus Siculus (V. 30) says that the Gauls had iron coats of
mail. He adds: “Instead of glaive (ξἱφος), they have long swords
(σπἁθη), which they carry suspended to their right side by chains of
iron or bronze. Some bind their tunics with gilt or silvered girdles.
They have spears (λὁγχη or λογχἱς) having an iron blade a cubit long,
and sometimes more. The breadth is almost two palms, for the blade of
these _saunions_ (the Gaulish dart) is not less than that of our glaive,
and it is a little longer. Of these blades, some are forged straight,
others present undulated curves, so that they not only cut in striking,
but in addition they tear the wound when they are drawn out. ”
[107] Strabo, IV. , p. 163, edit. Didot. --Pseudo-Cicero (_Ad Herennium_,
IV. 32) writes _materis_.
[108] The _amentum_ was a small strap of leather which served to throw
the javelin and doubled its distance of carriage, as recent trials have
proved. In the _De Bello Gallico_, V. 48, there is mention of a Gaul
throwing the javelin with the _amentum_; but this Gaul was in the Roman
service, which explains his having more perfect arms. Strabo says that
the Gauls used javelins like the Roman _velites_, but that they threw
them with the hand, and not by means of a strap. (Strabo, edit. Didot,
II. 65. )
[109] Diodorus Siculus, V. 30.
[110] Diodorus Siculus, V. 30. --Varro, _De Lingua Latina_, V. 116. --The
Museum of Zurich possesses a Gaulish breastplate formed of long plates
of iron. The Louvre and the Museum of Saint-Germain possess Gaulish
breastplates in bronze.
[111] “Optimus excusso Lucus Remusque lacerto. ” (Lucan, _Pharsalia_, I.
424. )
[112] “Pugnaces pictis cohibebant Lingonas armis. ” (Lucan, _Pharsalia_,
I. 398. )
[113] Strabo, IV. , p. 163, edit. Didot.
[114] Pausanias (_Phocid. _, XIX. 10, 11), speaking of the ancient Gauls,
who had penetrated to Delphi, says that “each horseman had with him two
esquires, who were also mounted on horses; when the cavalry was engaged
in combat, these esquires were poised behind the main body of the army,
either to replace the horsemen who were killed, or to give their horse
to their companion if he lost his own, or to take his place in case he
were wounded, while the other esquire carried him out of the battle. ”
[115] _De Bello Civili_, I. 39.
[116] _De Bello Gallico_, III. 20 and VII. 22.
[117] _De Bello Gallico_, III. 21 and VII. 22.
[118] _De Bello Gallico_, VIII. 14.
[119] Diodorus Siculus, V. 29. --See the bas-reliefs from Entremonts in
the Museum of Aix, representing Gaulish horsemen, whose horses have
human heads suspended to the poitrel.
[120] Cæsar, _De Bello Gallico_, IV. 5; VII. 3.
[121] Titus Livius (V. 46) represents the Gauls as very religious.
[122] The existence of human sacrifices among the Gauls is attested by a
great number of authors. (Cicero, _Orat. pro Fonteio_, xiv.
31. --Dionysius of Halicarnassus, I. 38. --Lucan, _Pharsalia_, I. 444;
III. 399, _et seq. _--Solinus, 21. --Plutarch, _De Superstitione_, p.
171. --Strabo, IV. , p. 164, edit. Didot. )
[123] _De Bello Gallico_, VI. 17.
[124] _Pharsalia_, I. , lines 445, 446.
[125] “So, in spite of their love of money, the Gauls never touched the
piles of gold deposited in the temples and sacred woods, so great was
their horror of sacrilege. ” (Diodorus Siculus, V. 27. )
[126] _De Bello Gallico_, VI. 13, _et seq. _
[127] “The Gauls have poets who celebrate in rhythmic words, on a sort
of lyre, the high deeds of heroes, or who turn to derision disgraceful
actions. ” (Diodorus Siculus, V. 31. ) And he adds: “They have
philosophers and theologians, who are held in great honour, and are
named _Druids_ (according to certain texts, _Saronides_). They have
diviners, whose predictions are held in great respect. These consult the
future by the aid of auguries and the entrails of the victims; and, in
solemn circumstances, they have recourse to strange and incredible
rites. They immolate a man by striking him with a sword above the
diaphragm, and they draw presages from the manner in which he falls, in
which he struggles, or in which the blood flows. They authority of the
Druids and bards is not less powerful in peace than in war. Friends and
enemies consult them, and submit to their decision; it has often been
sufficient to arrest two armies on the point of engaging. ”--Strabo (VI. ,
p. 164, edit. Didot) relates nearly the same facts. He makes a
distinction also between the bards, the priests, and the Druids.
[128] Ammianus Marcellinus (XV. 9) speaks as follows of the ancient
Druids: “The men of that country (Gaul), having become gradually
polished, caused the useful studies to flourish which the bards, the
_euhages_ (prophets), and the Druids had begun to cultivate. The bards
sang, in heroic verse, to the sound of their lyres, the lofty deeds of
men; the _euhages_ tried, by meditation, to explain the order and
marvels of nature. In the midst of these were distinguished the Druids,
who united in a society, occupied themselves with profound and sublime
questions, raised themselves above human affairs, and sustained the
immortality of the soul. ” These details, which Ammianus Marcellinus
borrows from the Greek historian Timagenes, a contemporary of Cæsar, and
from other authors, show that the sacerdotal caste comprised three
classes--1, the bards; 2, the prophets; 3, the Druids, properly so
called.
[129] Amédée Thierry, II. 1.
[130] See Paulus Diaconus, p. 4, edit. Müller.
[131] Diodorus Siculus, V. 29.
[132] _De Bello Gallico_; III. 22.
[133] Cæsar mentions the names of ten kings: 1. Catamantalœdes, among
the Sequani (I. 3); 2. Divitiacus and Galba, among the Suessiones (II.
4, 13): 3. Commius, among the Atrebates (IV. 21, 27, 35; V. 22; VI. 6;
VII. 75, 76, 79; VIII. 6, 7, 10, 21, 23, 47, 48); 4. Catuvolcus, among
the Eburones (V. 24, 26; VI. 31); 5. Tasgetius, among the Carnutes (V.
25, 29); 6. Cavarinus, among the Treviri (V. 54; VI. 5); 7. Ambiorix,
among the Eburones (V. 24, 26, 27, 29, 38, 41; VI. 5, 6, 19, 29, 30, 31,
32, 42, 47; VIII. 24, 25); 8. Moritasgus, among the Senones (V. 54); 9.
Teutomatus, among the Nitiobriges (VII. 31, 46).
[134] _De Bello Gallico_, VII. 88; VIII. 12.
[135] _De Bello Gallico_, I. 16.
[136] Thus the _Civitates Armoricæ_ (V. 53; VII. 75; VIII. 81); Belgium
(V. 12, 24, 25; VIII. 46, 49, 54; the Aulerci Cenomanni and the Aulerci
Eburovices (II. 34; III. 17; VII. 4, 75; VIII. 7). See the interesting
memoir by Mr. Valentino Smith.
[137] Ambarri, necessarii et consanguinei Æduorum (I. 11); Suessiones
fratres consanguineosque Remorum, qui eodem jure et iisdem legibus
utuntur (II. 3); Suessiones qui Remis erant adtributi (VIII. 6).
[138] _In fide_; thus the Ædui with the Bellovaci (II. 14); with the
Senones (VI. 4); with the Bituriges (VII.
Cæsar (_De Bello Gallico_, VIII. 75) leads us to believe that in
southern Quercy there existed Cadurci placed under the dominion of
Rome. ]
_The Gabali_, who occupied the ancient Gévaudan (the department of the
Lozère).
_The Vellavi_, whose territory answered to the ancient Velay (department
of the Upper Loire).
_The Aulerci_ formed an extensive nation, which was subdivided into
three great tribes, established over the country from the lower course
of the Seine to the Mayenné.
1. _The Aulerci Cenomanni_, a fraction of whom was, as early as the
sixth century of Rome, established in Cisalpine Gaul, between the
Oglio and the Adige, and who occupied in Gaul the greater part of
the territory now forming the department of the Sarthe;
2. _The Aulerci Diablintes_, the northern and central parts of the
department of the Mayenne.
3. _The Aulerci Eburovices_, the central and southern part of the
department of the Eure.
_The Bituriges_, a nation which had more than twenty towns. Avaricum
(_Bourges_) was the principal. Their territory embraced the ancient
Berry (departments of the Cher, the Indre, and part of the Allier).
_The Carnutes_ occupied the greatest part of the present departments of
Eure-et-Loir, Loir-et-Cher, and Loiret. Genabum (_Gien_) was one of
their most important towns.
_The Ædui_ occupied the modern departments of Saône-et-Loire and the
Nièvre, and a part of the Côte-d’Or and the Allier. Their principal
_oppidum_ was Bibracte (_Mont-Beuvray_), the place of which was
subsequently taken by Augustodunum (_Autun_). Cabillonum
(_Chalon-sur-Saône_), Matisco (_Mâcon_), and Noviodunum, afterwards
called Nivernum (_Nevers_), were also reckoned among their most
important places. The _Ædui_ had for clients--
_The Ambarri_, a small tribe situated between the Saône, the Rhone, and
the Ain (department of the Ain).
_The Ambluaretes_, a people occupying a district around Ambierle
(arrondissement of Roanne, department of the Loire). (? )
_The Aulerci Brannovices_, a tribe which dwelt between the Saône and the
Loire, occupied the ancient country of Brionnais.
_The Blannovii_, who occupied a territory round Blanot (Saône-et-Loire).
(? )
_The Boii_, a fraction of a great nomadic nation of this name, of Celtic
origin, authorised by Cæsar to establish themselves on the territory of
the Ædui, between the Loire and the Allier.
_The Segusiavi_, who occupied the ancient Forez (departments of the
Rhône and the Loire), and extended to the left bank of the Saône.
_The Essuvii_, established in the department of the Orne.
_The Helvetii_, who were subdivided into four tribes or _pagi_; their
territory occupied the part of Switzerland which extends from the north
shore of the Léman to the Lake of Constance.
_The Lemovices_, whose territory answered to the Limousin (departments
of the Upper Vienne and the greater part of the Corrèze and the Creuse).
_The Lingones_, whose territory embraced the greatest part of the
department of the Haute-Marne and a fraction of the departments of the
Aube, the Yonne, and the Côte-d’Or.
_The Mandubii_, established between the Ædui and the Lingones
(department of the Côte-d’Or), occupied the ancient country of Auxois.
Alesia (_Alise_) was their principal _oppidum_.
_The Meldœ_ occupied the north of the department of the Seine-et-Marne
and a small part of the department of the Oise.
_The Nitiobriges_ occupied the greatest part of the department of the
Lot-et-Garonne and a fraction of the Tarn-et-Garonne.
_The Parisii_, whose territory embraced the department of the Seine and
a great part of the department of the Seine-et-Oise. Their principal
town was Lutetia (_Paris_).
_The Petrocorii_, established in the ancient Périgord (department of the
Dordogne).
_The Rauraci_, whose origin is perhaps German, established on both banks
of the Rhine, towards the elbow which the river forms at Bâle.
_The Ruteni_ occupied the ancient province of Rouergne (department of
the Aveyron).
_The Senones_, established between the Loire and the Marne. Their
principal town was Agedincum (_Sens_). Their territory comprised a part
of the departments of the Yonne, the Marne, the Loiret, Seine-et-Marne,
and the Aube.
_The Sequani_, whose territory embraced the ancient Franche-Comté (Jura,
Doubs, Haute-Saône, and part of the Haut-Rhin). Principal town, Vesontio
(_Besançon_).
_The Turones_, who occupied Touraine (department of Indre-et-Loire).
The peoples whom Cæsar calls _maritime_, or _Armorican_, were--
_The Ambibari_, established at the point where the departments of
La Manche and Ille-et-Vilaine join.
_The Ambiliates_, whose territory comprised the part of the
department of Maine-et-Loire situated to the south of the Loire.
_The Andes_, occupying Anjon (department of Maine-et-Loire and a
fraction of the department of the Sarthe).
_The Curiosolitæ_, occupying the greatest part of the department of
the Côtes-du-Nord.
_The Lemovices Armorici_, fixed to the south of the Loire, in the
southern part of the department of the Loire-Inférieure and the
west of that of Maine-et-Loire.
_The Lexovii_, occupying the department of Calvados, and a fraction
of that of the Eure.
_The Namnetes_, who occupied, in the department of the
Loire-Inférieure, the right bank of the Loire.
_The Osismii_, whose territory answered to the department of
Finistère.
_The Pictones_, occupying Poitou (departments of La Vendée, the
Deux-Sèvres, and the Vienne).
_The Redones_, whose territory embraced the greatest part of the
department of Ille-et-Vilaine.
_The Santones_, occupying Saintonge, Aunis, and Angoumois
(department of the Charente and the Charente-Inférieure, and a part
of the department of the Gironde).
_The Unelli_, the people of the ancient Contentin (department of La
Manche).
_The Veneti_, whose territory included the department of Morbihan.
To these maritime peoples we must add--
_The Caletes_, }
_The Essuvii_, } mentioned above.
_The Morinu_, }
We may also join to the Celtic populations--
_The Nuntuates_, }
_The Seduni_, } Alpine tribes, established on the upper course of the
_The Veragri_, } Rhone, in the Valais and the Chablais.
[73] Tacitus. _Germania_, 28.
[74] PEOPLES OF AQUITAINE:
_The Ausci_, who occupied the central part of the department of the
Gers, the most powerful of the nations of Aquitaine, according to
Pomponius Mela (III. 2).
_The Bigerriones_ occupied Bigorre (department of the Hautes-Pyrénées).
_The Cocosates_, established on the coasts of the Gulf of Gascony, in
the Landes (the southern part of the department of the Gironde and the
northern of the department of the Landes).
_The Elusates_ occupied the north-west part of the department of the
Gers and part of that of the Lot-et-Garonne.
_The Gates_, at the confluence of the Gers and the Garonne.
_The Garumni_, in the south of the department of the Haute-Garonne.
_The Ptianes_, probably towards Pau and Orthez.
_The Sibuzates_ appear to have occupied the ancient country of Soule
(Basses-Pyrénées).
_The Sotiates_ occupied the south-west part of the department of
Lot-et-Garonne and a part of the departments of the Landes and the Gers.
_The Tarbelli_ occupied all the territory bordering upon the head of the
Gulf of Gascony (departments of the Landes and the Basses-Pyrénées).
_The Tarusates_, established on the Adour, in the ancient Tursan (the
south-east part of the department of the Landes). PEOPLES OF AQUITAINE
(_continued_).
_The Vasates_ or _Vocates_, established in the country of Bazas (the
south-east part of the department of the Gironde).
_The Bituriges Vivisci_, the most northern of the peoples }
of Aquitane (department of the Gironde). }
}
_The Convenes_ (a confederacy of small tribes established } Not mentioned by
in the valleys of the Hautes-Pyrénées and the } Cæsar.
southern part of the department of the Haute-Garonne). }
[75] “Pagus, pars civitatis. ” (_De Bello Gallico_, I. 12. )
[76] Cæsar mentions in different pasages the existence of _vici_ among
the Helvetii (I. 5), the Allobroges _trans Rhodanum_ (I. 11), the Remi
(II. 7), the Morini (III. 29), the Menapii (IV. 4), the Eburones (VI.
43), the Boii (VII. 14), the Carnutes (VIII. 5), and the Veragri (III.
1).
[77] _De Bello Gallico_ VII. 15, 25, 68.
[78] The “Commentaries” name twenty-one _oppida_: Alesia, Avaricum,
Bibracte, Bibrax, Bratuspantium, Cabillonum, Genabum, Genava, Gergovia,
Gorgobina, Lutetia, Lemonum, Melodunum, Noviodunum Æduorum, Noviodunum
Biturigum, Noviodunum Suessionum, Uxellodunum, Vellaunodunum, Vesontio,
the _oppidum_ Aduatucorum, and the _oppidum_ Sotiatum.
[79] “Oppidum dictum quod ibi homines opes suas conferunt. ” (Paulus
Diaconus, p. 184, edit. Müller. )
[80] The Gauls lived in houses, or rather in huts, constructed of wood
and with hurdles, tolerably spacious and of a circular form, covered
with a high roof. (Strabo, IV. 163, edit. Didot. )--The Gauls, to avoid
the heat, almost always built their habitations in the neighbourhood of
woods and rivers. (Cæsar, _De Bello Gallico_, VI. 30. )
[81] See a very curious passage in Solinus, chap. 25, on the practice of
tattooing among the Gauls.
[82] Diodorus Siculus (V. 28) says that the Gauls were of tall stature,
had white flesh, and were lymphatic in constitution. Some shaved; the
majority had beards of moderate size. --According to Titus Livius, the
Gauls possessed a tall stature (_procera corpora_), flowing hair of an
auburn colour (_promissæ et rutilatæ comæ_), a white complexion
(_candida corpora_). (Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 17, 21, and Ammianus
Marcellinus, XV. 22. ) The latter adds that the Gauls had generally a
threatening and terrible tone of voice, which is also stated by Diodorus
Siculus (V. 31). --The skeletons found in the excavations at
Saint-Etienne-au-Temple are 1·80m. to 1·90m. in length.
[83] Strabo, p. 163, edit. Didot.
[84] Isidorus Hispalensis, _Origines_, I. 19, 24.
[85] Diodorus Siculus, V. 30.
[86] Diodorus Siculus, V. 33.
[87] Pliny, XXXIII. 24. --Gold was very abundant in Gaul; silver was much
less common. The rich wore bracelets, rings on the leg, and collars, of
the purest gold and tolerably massive; they had even breastplates of
gold. (Diodorus Siculus, V. 27. )--A great number of these rings and
circles of gold, of very good workmanship, have been found in the
Gaulish burying-places. The Museum of Saint-Germain contains bracelets
and earrings of chased gold, found, in 1863, in a tumulus situated near
Châtillon-sur-Seine.
[88] _De Bello Gallico_, VI. 14.
[89] _De Bello Gallico_, VI. 13.
[90] Pliny, _Hist. Nat. _, VIII. xlviii. lxxiii. , p. 127, edit. Sillig.
[91] _De Bello Gallico_, VII. 22. --Pliny, XXXIV. xvii. , p. 162, edit.
Sillig.
[92] “Deinde et argentum incoquere simili modo cœpere, equorum maxime
ornamentis, jumentorumque ac jugorum, in Alesia oppido. ” (Pliny, XXXIV.
xvii. , p. 162. --Florus, III. 2. )
[93] Milk and the flesh of wild or domestic animals, especially swine’s
flesh fresh or salted, formed the principal food of the Gauls. (Strabo,
IV. , p. 163. )--Beer and mead were the principal drink of the Gauls.
(Posidonius quoted by Athenæus, IV. , p. 151, _Fragmenta Historicum
Græc. _, III. 260. )--This statement is made also by Diodorus Siculus (V.
26), who informs us that this beer was made with barley.
[94] Cicero already remarked the propensity of the Gauls to drunkenness
(_Orat. pro Fonteio_), and Ammianus Marcellinus (XV. 12) also addresses
the same reproach to them, which is again stated in Diodorus Siculus (V.
26).
[95] “The Gauls, in their great hospitality, invited the stranger to
their meal as soon as he presented himself, and it was only after
drinking and eating with them that they inquired his name and country. ”
(Diodorus Siculus, V. 28. )
[96] Strabo (IV. , p. 162) says that the Gauls were of a frank character
and good-hearted (literally, without malice). --Ammianus Marcellinus (XV.
12), who wrote at the end of the fifth century, represents the Gauls as
excessively vain. --Strabo (IV. , p. 165) assures us that they were much
inclined to disputes and quarrels.
[97] Cæsar often speaks of the fickleness of temper of this people,
which, during a long period, gave great trouble to the Roman people.
“Omnes fere Gallos novis rebus studere, et ad bellum mobiliter
celeriterque excitari. ” (_De Bello Gallico_, III 10. )--Lampridius, in
his _Life of Alexander Severus_, 59, expresses himself thus: “But the
Gauls, those tempers hard to deal with, and who regret all they have
ceased to possess, often furnished grave cares to the
emperors. ”--“Gallorum subita et repentina consilia. ” (_De Bello
Gallico_, III. 8. )
[98] _De Bello Gallico_, III. 19.
[99] Diodorus Siculus (V.
31) says that the language of the Gauls was
very concise and figurative, and that the Gauls made use of hyperbole in
blaming and praising.
[100] Diodorus Siculus, V. 32. --Strabo, IV. , p. 165. --Athenæus, XIII. ,
p. 603.
[101] _De Bello Gallico_, VII. 47 and 48. --Among the Gauls, the women
were equal to the men, not only in size, but also in courage. (Diodorus
Siculus, V. 32. )--The Gaulish women were tall and strong. --Ammianus
Marcellinus (XV. 12) writes: “Several foreigners together could not
wrestle against a single Gaul, if they quarrelled with him, especially
if he called for help to his wife, who even exceeds her husband in her
strength and in her haggard eyes. She would become especially formidable
if, swelling her throat and gnashing her teeth, she agitated her arms,
robust and white as snow, ready to act with feet or fists; to give blows
as vigorous as if they came from a catapult. ”
[102] _De Bello Gallico_, VI. 18: “Ab Dite patre prognatos. ”
[103] _De Bello Gallico_, VI. 18.
[104] _De Bello Gallico_, VI. 19.
[105] The Gauls, like most of the barbarian peoples, looked upon the
other life as resembling the present. And with this sentiment, at the
funeral, they threw into the funereal pile, letters addressed to the
dead, which they imagined he read. (Diodorus Siculus, V. 28. )
[106] Titus Livius tells us (XXXVIII. 17) that the Gauls had long swords
(_prælongi gladii_) and great bucklers (_vasta scuta_). In another
passage (XXII. 46) he remarks that the swords of the Gauls were long and
without point (_prælongi ac sine mucronibus_). --Their bucklers were
long, narrow, and flat (_scuta longa, cœterum ad amplitudinem corporum
parum lata et ea ipsa plana_). (Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 21. )--“Et Biturix
longisque leves Suessones in armis. ” (Lucan, _Pharsalia_, I.
422. )--Didorus Siculus (V. 30) says that the Gauls had iron coats of
mail. He adds: “Instead of glaive (ξἱφος), they have long swords
(σπἁθη), which they carry suspended to their right side by chains of
iron or bronze. Some bind their tunics with gilt or silvered girdles.
They have spears (λὁγχη or λογχἱς) having an iron blade a cubit long,
and sometimes more. The breadth is almost two palms, for the blade of
these _saunions_ (the Gaulish dart) is not less than that of our glaive,
and it is a little longer. Of these blades, some are forged straight,
others present undulated curves, so that they not only cut in striking,
but in addition they tear the wound when they are drawn out. ”
[107] Strabo, IV. , p. 163, edit. Didot. --Pseudo-Cicero (_Ad Herennium_,
IV. 32) writes _materis_.
[108] The _amentum_ was a small strap of leather which served to throw
the javelin and doubled its distance of carriage, as recent trials have
proved. In the _De Bello Gallico_, V. 48, there is mention of a Gaul
throwing the javelin with the _amentum_; but this Gaul was in the Roman
service, which explains his having more perfect arms. Strabo says that
the Gauls used javelins like the Roman _velites_, but that they threw
them with the hand, and not by means of a strap. (Strabo, edit. Didot,
II. 65. )
[109] Diodorus Siculus, V. 30.
[110] Diodorus Siculus, V. 30. --Varro, _De Lingua Latina_, V. 116. --The
Museum of Zurich possesses a Gaulish breastplate formed of long plates
of iron. The Louvre and the Museum of Saint-Germain possess Gaulish
breastplates in bronze.
[111] “Optimus excusso Lucus Remusque lacerto. ” (Lucan, _Pharsalia_, I.
424. )
[112] “Pugnaces pictis cohibebant Lingonas armis. ” (Lucan, _Pharsalia_,
I. 398. )
[113] Strabo, IV. , p. 163, edit. Didot.
[114] Pausanias (_Phocid. _, XIX. 10, 11), speaking of the ancient Gauls,
who had penetrated to Delphi, says that “each horseman had with him two
esquires, who were also mounted on horses; when the cavalry was engaged
in combat, these esquires were poised behind the main body of the army,
either to replace the horsemen who were killed, or to give their horse
to their companion if he lost his own, or to take his place in case he
were wounded, while the other esquire carried him out of the battle. ”
[115] _De Bello Civili_, I. 39.
[116] _De Bello Gallico_, III. 20 and VII. 22.
[117] _De Bello Gallico_, III. 21 and VII. 22.
[118] _De Bello Gallico_, VIII. 14.
[119] Diodorus Siculus, V. 29. --See the bas-reliefs from Entremonts in
the Museum of Aix, representing Gaulish horsemen, whose horses have
human heads suspended to the poitrel.
[120] Cæsar, _De Bello Gallico_, IV. 5; VII. 3.
[121] Titus Livius (V. 46) represents the Gauls as very religious.
[122] The existence of human sacrifices among the Gauls is attested by a
great number of authors. (Cicero, _Orat. pro Fonteio_, xiv.
31. --Dionysius of Halicarnassus, I. 38. --Lucan, _Pharsalia_, I. 444;
III. 399, _et seq. _--Solinus, 21. --Plutarch, _De Superstitione_, p.
171. --Strabo, IV. , p. 164, edit. Didot. )
[123] _De Bello Gallico_, VI. 17.
[124] _Pharsalia_, I. , lines 445, 446.
[125] “So, in spite of their love of money, the Gauls never touched the
piles of gold deposited in the temples and sacred woods, so great was
their horror of sacrilege. ” (Diodorus Siculus, V. 27. )
[126] _De Bello Gallico_, VI. 13, _et seq. _
[127] “The Gauls have poets who celebrate in rhythmic words, on a sort
of lyre, the high deeds of heroes, or who turn to derision disgraceful
actions. ” (Diodorus Siculus, V. 31. ) And he adds: “They have
philosophers and theologians, who are held in great honour, and are
named _Druids_ (according to certain texts, _Saronides_). They have
diviners, whose predictions are held in great respect. These consult the
future by the aid of auguries and the entrails of the victims; and, in
solemn circumstances, they have recourse to strange and incredible
rites. They immolate a man by striking him with a sword above the
diaphragm, and they draw presages from the manner in which he falls, in
which he struggles, or in which the blood flows. They authority of the
Druids and bards is not less powerful in peace than in war. Friends and
enemies consult them, and submit to their decision; it has often been
sufficient to arrest two armies on the point of engaging. ”--Strabo (VI. ,
p. 164, edit. Didot) relates nearly the same facts. He makes a
distinction also between the bards, the priests, and the Druids.
[128] Ammianus Marcellinus (XV. 9) speaks as follows of the ancient
Druids: “The men of that country (Gaul), having become gradually
polished, caused the useful studies to flourish which the bards, the
_euhages_ (prophets), and the Druids had begun to cultivate. The bards
sang, in heroic verse, to the sound of their lyres, the lofty deeds of
men; the _euhages_ tried, by meditation, to explain the order and
marvels of nature. In the midst of these were distinguished the Druids,
who united in a society, occupied themselves with profound and sublime
questions, raised themselves above human affairs, and sustained the
immortality of the soul. ” These details, which Ammianus Marcellinus
borrows from the Greek historian Timagenes, a contemporary of Cæsar, and
from other authors, show that the sacerdotal caste comprised three
classes--1, the bards; 2, the prophets; 3, the Druids, properly so
called.
[129] Amédée Thierry, II. 1.
[130] See Paulus Diaconus, p. 4, edit. Müller.
[131] Diodorus Siculus, V. 29.
[132] _De Bello Gallico_; III. 22.
[133] Cæsar mentions the names of ten kings: 1. Catamantalœdes, among
the Sequani (I. 3); 2. Divitiacus and Galba, among the Suessiones (II.
4, 13): 3. Commius, among the Atrebates (IV. 21, 27, 35; V. 22; VI. 6;
VII. 75, 76, 79; VIII. 6, 7, 10, 21, 23, 47, 48); 4. Catuvolcus, among
the Eburones (V. 24, 26; VI. 31); 5. Tasgetius, among the Carnutes (V.
25, 29); 6. Cavarinus, among the Treviri (V. 54; VI. 5); 7. Ambiorix,
among the Eburones (V. 24, 26, 27, 29, 38, 41; VI. 5, 6, 19, 29, 30, 31,
32, 42, 47; VIII. 24, 25); 8. Moritasgus, among the Senones (V. 54); 9.
Teutomatus, among the Nitiobriges (VII. 31, 46).
[134] _De Bello Gallico_, VII. 88; VIII. 12.
[135] _De Bello Gallico_, I. 16.
[136] Thus the _Civitates Armoricæ_ (V. 53; VII. 75; VIII. 81); Belgium
(V. 12, 24, 25; VIII. 46, 49, 54; the Aulerci Cenomanni and the Aulerci
Eburovices (II. 34; III. 17; VII. 4, 75; VIII. 7). See the interesting
memoir by Mr. Valentino Smith.
[137] Ambarri, necessarii et consanguinei Æduorum (I. 11); Suessiones
fratres consanguineosque Remorum, qui eodem jure et iisdem legibus
utuntur (II. 3); Suessiones qui Remis erant adtributi (VIII. 6).
[138] _In fide_; thus the Ædui with the Bellovaci (II. 14); with the
Senones (VI. 4); with the Bituriges (VII.
