Count Tarnowski looks upon this work as Krasinski's
greatest swerving from his patriotic and religious faith.
greatest swerving from his patriotic and religious faith.
Poland - 1919 - Krasinski - Anonymous Poet of Poland
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? Before the Dawn 199
Pantheism, Hegelianism, metempsychosis have all -
influenced the difficult poem, The Son of Darkness.
Polish critics differ considerably as to its literary merits:
we will therefore leave that side of it alone. Upon
the value of its matter opinions are also at variance1.
The theme is highly complicated and obscure, so that
as the present study is not a philosophical work perhaps
the writer may be excused for dealing with it some-
what cursorily.
The poem sets forth the origin of the human spirit
and its journey back to its last end. Some "unknown
power" cast it forth from darkness to the earth. "Half
slumbering," it wanders and gropes to the dimly dis-
cerned light, struggling with Titanic tortures, till it
clothes itself "in the garments of humanity," and,
becoming man, recognizes its own consciousness. In
its beginning it knows God only as the " lord of wrath. "
It endures suffering, yearning after God, by which it
advances to a higher life. Its throes are crowned by
the union of the Word with flesh, of God with man,
by the victory over evil and the "clay of the heart,"
which is the triumph of love2. Again returns a period
of longing, doubt and torment: but "the evil is only a
transition, only the highway's dust"; and the son of
darkness ascends, the son of light, to the stars.
Step ever further then, oh, son of light! Step to the
boundaries of the undiscovered worlds! . . . What thou didst
grasp with thought thou shalt with thy hand attain. What
thou didst feel by inspiration with thine eyes shalt thou behold.
There is no death. Before the spirit stretches cycle
1 Compare St. Tarnowski, op. cit. , with J. Kleiner, History of the
Thought of Zygmunt Krasinski, and Prof. Zdziechowski's Vision oj
Krasinski. Cracow, 1912 (Polish).
2 M. Zdziechowski, op. cit. J. Kleiner, op. cit.
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? 200 The Anonymous Poet of Poland
after cycle of life: and it passes through successive
transmigrations till at last more or less pantheistically
it is fused in the All Spirit of the Divinity, and hence-
forth through eternity must "think, love, create a
heaven in heaven1. "
The Dream of Cesara is once more national,
though the distinction between what we call Krasinski's
national writings and those in which he occupies him-
self with universal spiritual problems is more apparent
than real. Krasinski was led to the great interests of
humanity by the desire that they might throw light on
, the problem of his country. One enigma was the
complement of the other.
Neither The Dream of Cesara nor the Legend is
comparable to Krasinski's greater works. They are
written in his most highly decorated manner. Related
in the style of apocalyptic vision, they convey to the
reader's mind a strange sense of things seen in the
confusion of a dream. And, in fact, we have the testi-
mony of Mickiewicz who knew it from a friend of
Krasinski--Gaszynski, Dr Kleiner conjectures2--that
The Dream and the Legend were the poet's actual
dreams3.
A voice [Delphina's] called me by my name, "Cesara!
Cesara! " And I went forth I know not where, but that voice
will I follow, if needs be even to the end of the world.
1 Dr Kleiner gives an interpretation of the poem as referring to the
history of humanity in general. The allusion to the spirit's conception of
God as the "lord of wrath" is explainable by the Judaism that preceded
the Incarnation of Christ. The fresh sufferings that befall the spirit of
humanity after the time of Christ depict Krasinski's own epoch which he
hoped was to be merely the transition to the third and last epoch of
humanity. The spirit in the poem ascends to the other world: and here i
ends the earthly development of the human race. J. Kleiner, op. cit.
2 J. Kleiner, op. cit. 3 Adam Mickiewicz, Les Slaves.
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? Before the Dawn
201
The voice leads him to a mighty cathedral. Its
elaborate description is modelled on Krasinski's remem-
brances of Freiburg cathedral where he had wandered,
surrounded, it seemed to him, by invisible spirits of
those who had died for their faith, and asking himself
if they would rise again1. Against a mysterious back-
ground of moonlight and music Cesara sees the hosts
of the nations, and among them the last Poles left on
earth, advancing in chains and mourning garb to the
tomb.
And grief encompassed my heart, and tears flowed to my
eyes. And the voice cried to me as the wind: "Cesara, Cesara,
behold the people who are going from the earth, and will return
no more. ". . . I heard the voices of multitudes crying: "Live and
be our slaves. "
The Poles prefer death. The floor of the cathe-
dral yawns before them and, accompanied by the
figure of Christ, they go down to their grave amidst
sorrowful music. Over their tomb lies a great stone
marked by the inscription written in blood: The Nation.
No trace of them remains: but a beautiful mourning
woman rises before the poet's eyes, the sister, says the
voice, of those who have fallen. "Like a dream though
ever visible," she, who Count Tarnowski hazards may
be the memory of his country, or the love of her or
hope for her, floats before him through nights and days,
through the mists of his vision, whither he knows not:
but whither she goes I go, and where she pauses there will I
halt, and where she disappears there will I disappear with her.
As they pass on they reach a spirit in the guise of
an old man seated on a rock above the mists, playing
a harp on which there is only one string left. In this
1 Letters to Sattan. Freiburg, Sept. 20, 1839.
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? 202 The Anonymous Poet of Poland
obscure allegory where, according to Dr Kleiner, it is
not clearness that is aimed at, but the mystery of a
vision, we can only conjecture for whom the different
symbols stand. Count Tarnowski suggests that the
harpist may represent Time or Satan or Brute Force1.
Whoever he may be, he conjures the poet to "forsake
her who will never live again. "
And the figure halted and turned her face upon me. All
the unfulfilled dreams, all the slain hopes of her race, all their
life, all their pride and their death and now their slumber in
the grave, together at one moment were reflected on that face. . .
And again the spirit sang: "Return and live among the living
peoples. And I will remain here with her and will sing to her
my song without hope on this last string. For the others have
played their music away and are shattered. All together were
once called faith, courage, love. This only one left to-day is
called Nothingness. "
He calls to the poet: "Choose. " The voice of the
woman calls: "Cesara! "
And I followed her who will never return, to the cemetery
of death. She whom I loved has vanished in whirlwinds of
snow. And I felt all the pains of parting, all the emptiness of
void. I thought that the figure of" Christ had deceived them,
descending with them into the grave, for they shall wake no
more, and that she whom I defended had deceived me likewise,
for she had left me among those who were dead for ever.
And I sat on the shores of that sea and besought my soul to
leave me.
"What now? " is the mocking reiteration of the
harper: and it must be remembered that the temptation
to despair of Poland's resurrection was to the mind of
Krasinski and the great Polish patriot mystics as the
direct assault of the Evil One. And again, "either in
the depths of my heart or beyond the clouds," the voice
that had led Cesara calls.
1 St. Tarnowski, Zygmunt Krasinski.
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? Before the Dawn
203
And I started up and cried: "Save me, for I die: and I
die because thou didst deceive me. "
She answers:
"Cesara, Cesara, wherefore dost thou grieve, because thou hast
sacrificed thy life for her who is dead? Knowest thou not that
there is a resurrection? She who took away thy life shall give
it back to thee, for her death was only an illusion. "
I beheld the figure, rising as a new-born star from the
bounds of the horizon. . . and around me were men being raised
up from the dust, and the vision of Christ flashed white above
them in the sky. I closed my eyes, and fell with my face to
the earth among those who were rising from the dead.
This is the pith of The Dream of Cesara, taken
from a crowd of details, some of which appear wholly
extraneous to the matter. Although its general impres-
sion is that of a bewildered despair, yet it ends on the
note of resurrection, and contains Krasinski's favourite
moral of the "test of the grave. "
The Legend opens in the Roman Campagna, in the
twilight of the last Christmas Eve that is ever to be.
A boat comes across the sea, and lands "the last left
of the Polish knighthood," bound for the midnight Mass
in St Peter's. The dreamer leads them across the
Campagna and through the streets of Rome. The
description of the crowds of pilgrims, carrying flaring
torches, hastening to St Peter's, where the last Mass
on earth is to be sung, the clashing of all the bells of
Rome, lights flaming on towers and gates, have the
feverish effect of a nightmare and lend credence to the
story that Krasinski was writing down what he had
dreamed. With the sorrow of death imprinted on their
countenances, the Polish knights pass. The citizens
of Rome try to withhold them from entering the basilica
that seems on fire with light. A cardinal clad in purple
appears on the balcony, and bids the Romans "let enter
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? 204 The Anonymous Poet of Poland
those who erst redeemed a strange nation from death1,
and later for that same faith died themselves. Let the
dead enter. "
They enter, and kneel at the tomb of St Peter,
swords in hand. The eye' and ear are wearied by the
ornate vision of the interior of the church, filled with
countless throngs: how it is dim with "silver smoke"
from the thuribles, how the marble columns flash as
brilliant snows, how the Pope in golden vestments comes
in, surrounded by a glittering retinue, and for the last
time in the history of the world celebrates Mass. The
Cardinal summons all to "pray, for the time is short,
and to-day prayers are needed on earth and in heaven. "
There is throughout the premonition of a terrible
approaching cataclysm. At the moment of the Elevation
the form of Christ with bleeding Hands and Feet is
seen raised in the air. The chalice trembles in the
Pontiff's fingers. The Cardinal cries out, "The time
is fulfilled," and, stretching out his hands to St Peter's
tomb, conjures the apostle to "arise and speak. " The
figure of Peter half emerges, and as his voice peals
forth: "Woe! " to all it seems as though the piers of
the dome rocked.
"Peter, dost thou know me? " [asks the Cardinal, to which
Peter answers]: "Thy head at the last supper rested on the
Lord's bosom, and thou didst never die upon this earth. "
And the Cardinal answered: "And now it is bidden me
to dwell among men and shelter the world in my bosom, as
the Lord sheltered my head in His at the last supper. "
Then the mighty building begins to sway to its fall.
The terrified crowds flee. Only the Pope remains. The
Polish knights, commanded by the Cardinal to follow
1 The Lithuanians who were won to Christianity by the self-sacrifice
of Jadwiga, Queen of Poland.
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? Before the Dawn
205
him outside, refuse to leave the Pope to perish alone.
Baring their swords, they surround him where he kneels
at the high altar. The dome crashes in, and the basilica,
the Vatican and the square are a heap of dust. ,
It is the dawn. The Cardinal, otherwise St John,
seats himself on the ruins as on a throne. His purple
garments fall from him, and he is transformed into a
white figure, sparkling with soft light, while his face
breathes love and peace.
I approached him, and at the very moment that the sun
rose I said: "Lord, is it true that yesterday for the last time
Christ was born in that Church which to-day is no more? "
And he, "Henceforth Christ is no more born nor dies on
earth, for henceforth for the ages of the ages He is and will
be on earth. "
And I, hearing this, cast off all fear, and asked: "Lord, and
they, whom I led here yesterday, will they lie for ever beneath
these ruins, all dead around the old dead man? "
And that white holy one answered me: "Fear not for them.
Because they rendered him that last service the Lord will
reward them--for, in their setting even as in their rising, dead,
even as they lived, they are of the Lord. Yea, verily, it will
be better for them and for the sons of their sons. "
And when I had understood I was glad, and my spirit
woke.
We are thus left with the death of Poland and with
nothing more beyond a vague promise that is too in-
definite to convey any certitude of her resurrection.
Count Tarnowski looks upon this work as Krasinski's
greatest swerving from his patriotic and religious faith.
But the allegory that Tarnowski considers as well nigh a
blasphemy against Krasinski's national convictions and
openly hostile to his Church, Dr Kleiner is inclined to
regard as illustrative of the doctrines of development
that at this time began to take hold upon the poet.
The old Poland dies with the old Church. Both will
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? 2o6 The Anonymous Poet of Poland
rise again, but in a completely different form in the
new epoch, which is to be the epoch of love1. We
shall see how Krasinski modified this theory, which in
the Legend is almost too vague to be called a theory,
and, bringing it into far more orthodox lines, worked it
out in Dawn. The contradictions to be found in the
Legend are, Count Tarnowski suggests, not to be in-
vestigated too narrowly. After all the Legend is not a
treatise. It is a dream with the inconsistencies of a
dream2.
As regards the three epochs of the Church or of
humanity, we do not know whether Krasinski had
learnt them directly from the writings of Joachim of
Flora, which is improbable, or through Schelling and
Swedenborg, who both refer to them, or through the
medium of Cieszkowski, or again whether he evolved
them out of his own brain3.
"After the Resurrection," he wrote to Delphina Potocka
who was the constant recipient of his highest philosophical
theories side by side with the outpourings of his love, "Christ
takes not Peter, but John. But Peter is the Roman Church,
the practical militant governing Church, and John, who begins
the gospel from the 'Logos,' signifies the epoch of thought
and of the highest love. This has greatly struck me4. "
This language, as Dr Kleiner remarks, indicates
that the Anonymous Poet reached his point by a
process of his own, and probably only discovered later
that it was several centuries old5.
Krasinski was now rapidly advancing in the forma-
tion of his idea. In 1840 he wrote to the friend
1 St. Tarnowski, op. cit. J. Kleiner, History of'the Thought of' Zygmunt
Krasinski.
2 St. Tarnowski, op. cit. 3 J. Kleiner, op. cit
4 Letters to Delphina Potocka. Rome, Dec. 20, 1839. Tygodnik
Illustrowany, 1899. 6 J. Kleiner, op. cit.
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? Before the Dawn
207
whose life was darkened by the acutest griefs of a
father:
There are certain sufferings of yours about which I never
write to you: both because I do not wish to aggravate them,
and because it is better not to set on paper what has taken
up its abode in the very depths of the heart. But do not
therefore think that I do not think of them and that I do not
feel them together with you.
Assuring his friend how the latter's afflictions rend
his heart, he goes on:
Oh, Adam, only, only faith in a higher ordering of the world,
faith that all the happenings and bitternesses of the earth are
discords let loose in the Divine accord, in the accord that as
yet has not reached our hearing but must some time reach it,
can save us. Therefore we believe that we know only one
half of life. I speak incorrectly, we know the whole of life by
thought, but we know by our own experience the half of that
all-life, and because it is only the half it is evil for us. But we are
spirits, not perishable stones. The spirit has its resurrection
from pain; happiness and divine peace are our destiny, for
they are our nature. Thence we came, and there shall we
return. Let this thought be my wish for you in the year that
is now to begin1.
This conception of the half of life being ours, and i
not the perfect whole, was one of the foundations upon
which Krasinski was now raising the solution of un-
explained suffering that gave him the clue to the
mystery of Poland's tragic history.
"Where there is pain," he wrote to Stowacki on a
Roman Easter Eve, "there is life, there is resurrection. "
Death was no more death in his eyes. There is no
death save moral abasement. "Only where there is
abasement shall there be no resurrection2. "
While Krasinski was thus on the highroad to the
vision that brought him hope and joy for his nation he
1 Letters to Sottan. Rome, Dec. 20, 1840.
2 Letters of Krasinski. Vol. 111. To Stowacki, Easter Eve, Rome, 1841.
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? 2o8 The Anonymous Poet of Poland
was passing through the crisis in his private life that
he had greatly dreaded. His father was insisting
that his son should marry the lady whom the elder man
desired to secure for his heir. Krasinski, as we have
seen, had always regarded with aversion the thought of
his marriage, and had indeed, as Count Tarnowski
notes, no inducement to look upon marriage as a happy
lot, considering the experience of the two women he
had known best1. Still more, his heart was bound up
with Delphina Potocka. Just before his departure from
Rome in the summer of 1841 for Germany, where he
was to meet his father and where he knew that the
question would have to be decided, he addressed a
poem to Delphina, breathing grief and eternal love,
praying God, as he goes forth "into a terrible world
where love is not," to grant him, barren of hope and
happiness himself, to be the sweetener of the sorrows
of her whom God had given him as his sister. Three
months later when he and his father had parted company
he tells Sottan:
"You cannot imagine what it is, after having spent two
months in continual wrangling, to regain a little freedom at
last. " He solemnly charges his friend that he shall allow no
other ear ever to hear these confidences, for if he does: "I can-
not pour out to you my breaking heart. . . My father's despair,
his weakened health, have forced me. I had nothing else with
which to give him strength and life2. "
He then tells how for that reason he consented to
his father's will. But the negotiations did not result in
anything immediate. Two years passed before Zyg-
munt's betrothal and marriage. He settled down in
Munich for the winter of 1841 with the friend of his.
1 St. Tarnowski, Zygmunt Krasinski.
2 Letters to Sottan. Munich, Sept. 24, 1841.
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? Before the Dawn
209
heart, Danielewicz. And then the moment came when,
after several weeks of close interchange of ideas with
this beloved companion, he felt a sudden illumination of
vision. An almost rapturous conception of the national
theory for which he had sought with such anguish in-
vaded his soul.
"I spent the winter not in Munich, nor in any place in
space; but in myself--in the spirit," he told Cieszkowski1.
And many weeks later he wrote to Gaszynski:
All through January I was possessed by uncommon in-
spiration. I lived so that the whole of that month was to me
one hour, one dream. I have had to pay the fates dearly for
that delight of the soul [in the death of Danielewicz]. All day I
was at my table, and in the evenings with my dear Konstanty2.
He embodied his ideas in his Treatise of the
Trinity, consisting of three sections: (1) On the trinity
in God and the trinity in man: (2) On the trinity in
time and space: (3) On the position of Poland among
the Slavonic peoples. It was never finished. Krasinski
enclosed extracts from it in his letters from Munich to
Sottan and his friend and cousin, Stanistaw Matachowski.
The rest remained among his manuscripts, and was
after his death sent by his desire to the priests of the
Polish congregation of the Resurrection. He left orders
that nothing in his papers that might be against the
teaching of the Catholic Church should be published.
The Resurrectionists objected to the publication of the
treatise by reason of its want of orthodoxy: and, al-
though part of it was given to the public by the poet's
grandson in 1903, it was only published as fully as
Krasinski left it in the Jubilee edition of 19123.
1 Letters to Cieszkowski. Munich, Feb. 25, 1842.
2 Letters to Gaszynski. Basle, April 9, 1842.
3 It is printed there under the title: On the position of Polandfrom the
Divine and human standpoint.
G. 14
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? 2io The Anonymous Poet of Poland
As Krasinski repeated and developed much of the
matter of the treatise, and with greater beauty, in Dawn
and the Psalms, we will resist the temptation to do
more than summarize its main thesis and quote a few
of the more striking or illuminating passages.
In part influenced by his studies in Hegel and
Schelling, and still more by Cieszkowski's theories,
Krasinski found in the trinity or threefold a solution to
his difficulties. The first Person of the Blessed Trinity
corresponds to Being. His relation to man is that
of Grace inasmuch as He created him. The second
Person is that of Thought or Understanding, from
whom we receive the consciousness of Being and the
knowledge of its conditions. The third Person is that
of Love, who unites Being with Thought. "In the
image of this Divine Trinity each of us is likewise a
trinity each moment. . . each of us is simultaneously being,
thought, life. " To the three elements of the Divine
Trinity correspond the three elements or epochs in the
life of the soul, of the nation, of humanity.
In the beginning is grace, and in the end love. Grace
[shown to man in the act of his creation] can only be for those
who are not yet. Love can only be for those who are, but who
are worthy of it, who have merited it. But the intermediary
and the necessary transition from grace to love, from the first
being [or existence] to the highest life, is understanding. In
relation to us the Divine Understanding signifies the logic of
our life, its work, its toil, together with its suffering and its
martyrdom, in a word, its merit. And obviously in order to
lead those created by grace to the sanctity of heavenly spirits,
to eternal life, their merit and gradual progress were absolutely
necessary: that is, it was necessary that the Divine Under-
standing should manifest to and enjoin upon them this
indispensable necessity, for otherwise grace would be uncom-
prehended, and in the end love would likewise be blind, likewise
uncomprehended, and therefore would be no love but again
only grace. Therefore there would be no change or develop-
ment from first to last.
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? Before the Dawn
211
Upon this idea of development Krasinski founded
his hopes for both his country and humanity. The
travail of transition explains to him the riddle of our
suffering. This transition is the second stage of our
trinity leading to the third, that of love, of the Holy
Ghost who as All Love unites the first and second
Persons of the Trinity, unites being with thought.
The intermediary in that transition between grace and love,
Eden and Heaven, the ages of Jehovah and of the Holy Ghost,
between the state of bodily being and the state of the fulness
of life and spirituality, had to be the Divine Understanding
which, taking flesh and manifested in the human race, woke
the soul and understanding of man. Hence Christ is the
Saviour. . . the intermediary, and only passing by Him can we
reach redemption. . . He is. . . in the highest sense the way, as
He said of Himself. By that way only can we attain to the
final love: and because as far as we are concerned that way
is toil, suffering, merit, therefore Christ had to reflect it, express
it, put it into action, as it were throw it into bas-relief by His
life and by His death. All the labour and pain of transition is
represented in Him. . . Therefore not by victory but by constant
defeats He conquered everywhere. . . In Him always, in each
moment and deed and word of His we see the union of both
natures, the continual inflow of one into the other--in a word,
we see the transition of which we are speaking, the transition
from the flesh to the fulness of the spirit, or from the human
nature to the Divine.
The life and death of Christ manifest the road by
which man and humanity must pass: and this close
likeness of the lot of man and the human race to that
of their pattern, Christ, becomes one of Krasinski's
master arguments.
Again, from the reciprocal overflowing between the
Persons of the Blessed Trinity, Krasinski deduces that
of each soul, fashioned in the image of the Blessed
Trinity, upon one another. This, too, plays a consider-
able part in his mystic theories of Poland's apostolate.
14--2
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? 212 The Anonymous Poet of Poland
In humanity the social state, the sanctification and raising
of which is the aim of humanity, is precisely that reciprocal
imparting to each other of human spirits. Everywhere and
always who gives receives, who loves is multiplied, who pours
out of himself or creates something external, is in that very
moment created higher himself. . . To impart self on earth to
others is in outward seeming to lose something of self, even to
be utterly destroyed--but that is only a delusion. That destruc-
tion is itself destroyed, for in truth only by that means does
the living spirit grow and immortalize itself. . . By what it gives
out from itself it becomes more powerful.
? Before the Dawn 199
Pantheism, Hegelianism, metempsychosis have all -
influenced the difficult poem, The Son of Darkness.
Polish critics differ considerably as to its literary merits:
we will therefore leave that side of it alone. Upon
the value of its matter opinions are also at variance1.
The theme is highly complicated and obscure, so that
as the present study is not a philosophical work perhaps
the writer may be excused for dealing with it some-
what cursorily.
The poem sets forth the origin of the human spirit
and its journey back to its last end. Some "unknown
power" cast it forth from darkness to the earth. "Half
slumbering," it wanders and gropes to the dimly dis-
cerned light, struggling with Titanic tortures, till it
clothes itself "in the garments of humanity," and,
becoming man, recognizes its own consciousness. In
its beginning it knows God only as the " lord of wrath. "
It endures suffering, yearning after God, by which it
advances to a higher life. Its throes are crowned by
the union of the Word with flesh, of God with man,
by the victory over evil and the "clay of the heart,"
which is the triumph of love2. Again returns a period
of longing, doubt and torment: but "the evil is only a
transition, only the highway's dust"; and the son of
darkness ascends, the son of light, to the stars.
Step ever further then, oh, son of light! Step to the
boundaries of the undiscovered worlds! . . . What thou didst
grasp with thought thou shalt with thy hand attain. What
thou didst feel by inspiration with thine eyes shalt thou behold.
There is no death. Before the spirit stretches cycle
1 Compare St. Tarnowski, op. cit. , with J. Kleiner, History of the
Thought of Zygmunt Krasinski, and Prof. Zdziechowski's Vision oj
Krasinski. Cracow, 1912 (Polish).
2 M. Zdziechowski, op. cit. J. Kleiner, op. cit.
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? 200 The Anonymous Poet of Poland
after cycle of life: and it passes through successive
transmigrations till at last more or less pantheistically
it is fused in the All Spirit of the Divinity, and hence-
forth through eternity must "think, love, create a
heaven in heaven1. "
The Dream of Cesara is once more national,
though the distinction between what we call Krasinski's
national writings and those in which he occupies him-
self with universal spiritual problems is more apparent
than real. Krasinski was led to the great interests of
humanity by the desire that they might throw light on
, the problem of his country. One enigma was the
complement of the other.
Neither The Dream of Cesara nor the Legend is
comparable to Krasinski's greater works. They are
written in his most highly decorated manner. Related
in the style of apocalyptic vision, they convey to the
reader's mind a strange sense of things seen in the
confusion of a dream. And, in fact, we have the testi-
mony of Mickiewicz who knew it from a friend of
Krasinski--Gaszynski, Dr Kleiner conjectures2--that
The Dream and the Legend were the poet's actual
dreams3.
A voice [Delphina's] called me by my name, "Cesara!
Cesara! " And I went forth I know not where, but that voice
will I follow, if needs be even to the end of the world.
1 Dr Kleiner gives an interpretation of the poem as referring to the
history of humanity in general. The allusion to the spirit's conception of
God as the "lord of wrath" is explainable by the Judaism that preceded
the Incarnation of Christ. The fresh sufferings that befall the spirit of
humanity after the time of Christ depict Krasinski's own epoch which he
hoped was to be merely the transition to the third and last epoch of
humanity. The spirit in the poem ascends to the other world: and here i
ends the earthly development of the human race. J. Kleiner, op. cit.
2 J. Kleiner, op. cit. 3 Adam Mickiewicz, Les Slaves.
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? Before the Dawn
201
The voice leads him to a mighty cathedral. Its
elaborate description is modelled on Krasinski's remem-
brances of Freiburg cathedral where he had wandered,
surrounded, it seemed to him, by invisible spirits of
those who had died for their faith, and asking himself
if they would rise again1. Against a mysterious back-
ground of moonlight and music Cesara sees the hosts
of the nations, and among them the last Poles left on
earth, advancing in chains and mourning garb to the
tomb.
And grief encompassed my heart, and tears flowed to my
eyes. And the voice cried to me as the wind: "Cesara, Cesara,
behold the people who are going from the earth, and will return
no more. ". . . I heard the voices of multitudes crying: "Live and
be our slaves. "
The Poles prefer death. The floor of the cathe-
dral yawns before them and, accompanied by the
figure of Christ, they go down to their grave amidst
sorrowful music. Over their tomb lies a great stone
marked by the inscription written in blood: The Nation.
No trace of them remains: but a beautiful mourning
woman rises before the poet's eyes, the sister, says the
voice, of those who have fallen. "Like a dream though
ever visible," she, who Count Tarnowski hazards may
be the memory of his country, or the love of her or
hope for her, floats before him through nights and days,
through the mists of his vision, whither he knows not:
but whither she goes I go, and where she pauses there will I
halt, and where she disappears there will I disappear with her.
As they pass on they reach a spirit in the guise of
an old man seated on a rock above the mists, playing
a harp on which there is only one string left. In this
1 Letters to Sattan. Freiburg, Sept. 20, 1839.
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? 202 The Anonymous Poet of Poland
obscure allegory where, according to Dr Kleiner, it is
not clearness that is aimed at, but the mystery of a
vision, we can only conjecture for whom the different
symbols stand. Count Tarnowski suggests that the
harpist may represent Time or Satan or Brute Force1.
Whoever he may be, he conjures the poet to "forsake
her who will never live again. "
And the figure halted and turned her face upon me. All
the unfulfilled dreams, all the slain hopes of her race, all their
life, all their pride and their death and now their slumber in
the grave, together at one moment were reflected on that face. . .
And again the spirit sang: "Return and live among the living
peoples. And I will remain here with her and will sing to her
my song without hope on this last string. For the others have
played their music away and are shattered. All together were
once called faith, courage, love. This only one left to-day is
called Nothingness. "
He calls to the poet: "Choose. " The voice of the
woman calls: "Cesara! "
And I followed her who will never return, to the cemetery
of death. She whom I loved has vanished in whirlwinds of
snow. And I felt all the pains of parting, all the emptiness of
void. I thought that the figure of" Christ had deceived them,
descending with them into the grave, for they shall wake no
more, and that she whom I defended had deceived me likewise,
for she had left me among those who were dead for ever.
And I sat on the shores of that sea and besought my soul to
leave me.
"What now? " is the mocking reiteration of the
harper: and it must be remembered that the temptation
to despair of Poland's resurrection was to the mind of
Krasinski and the great Polish patriot mystics as the
direct assault of the Evil One. And again, "either in
the depths of my heart or beyond the clouds," the voice
that had led Cesara calls.
1 St. Tarnowski, Zygmunt Krasinski.
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? Before the Dawn
203
And I started up and cried: "Save me, for I die: and I
die because thou didst deceive me. "
She answers:
"Cesara, Cesara, wherefore dost thou grieve, because thou hast
sacrificed thy life for her who is dead? Knowest thou not that
there is a resurrection? She who took away thy life shall give
it back to thee, for her death was only an illusion. "
I beheld the figure, rising as a new-born star from the
bounds of the horizon. . . and around me were men being raised
up from the dust, and the vision of Christ flashed white above
them in the sky. I closed my eyes, and fell with my face to
the earth among those who were rising from the dead.
This is the pith of The Dream of Cesara, taken
from a crowd of details, some of which appear wholly
extraneous to the matter. Although its general impres-
sion is that of a bewildered despair, yet it ends on the
note of resurrection, and contains Krasinski's favourite
moral of the "test of the grave. "
The Legend opens in the Roman Campagna, in the
twilight of the last Christmas Eve that is ever to be.
A boat comes across the sea, and lands "the last left
of the Polish knighthood," bound for the midnight Mass
in St Peter's. The dreamer leads them across the
Campagna and through the streets of Rome. The
description of the crowds of pilgrims, carrying flaring
torches, hastening to St Peter's, where the last Mass
on earth is to be sung, the clashing of all the bells of
Rome, lights flaming on towers and gates, have the
feverish effect of a nightmare and lend credence to the
story that Krasinski was writing down what he had
dreamed. With the sorrow of death imprinted on their
countenances, the Polish knights pass. The citizens
of Rome try to withhold them from entering the basilica
that seems on fire with light. A cardinal clad in purple
appears on the balcony, and bids the Romans "let enter
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? 204 The Anonymous Poet of Poland
those who erst redeemed a strange nation from death1,
and later for that same faith died themselves. Let the
dead enter. "
They enter, and kneel at the tomb of St Peter,
swords in hand. The eye' and ear are wearied by the
ornate vision of the interior of the church, filled with
countless throngs: how it is dim with "silver smoke"
from the thuribles, how the marble columns flash as
brilliant snows, how the Pope in golden vestments comes
in, surrounded by a glittering retinue, and for the last
time in the history of the world celebrates Mass. The
Cardinal summons all to "pray, for the time is short,
and to-day prayers are needed on earth and in heaven. "
There is throughout the premonition of a terrible
approaching cataclysm. At the moment of the Elevation
the form of Christ with bleeding Hands and Feet is
seen raised in the air. The chalice trembles in the
Pontiff's fingers. The Cardinal cries out, "The time
is fulfilled," and, stretching out his hands to St Peter's
tomb, conjures the apostle to "arise and speak. " The
figure of Peter half emerges, and as his voice peals
forth: "Woe! " to all it seems as though the piers of
the dome rocked.
"Peter, dost thou know me? " [asks the Cardinal, to which
Peter answers]: "Thy head at the last supper rested on the
Lord's bosom, and thou didst never die upon this earth. "
And the Cardinal answered: "And now it is bidden me
to dwell among men and shelter the world in my bosom, as
the Lord sheltered my head in His at the last supper. "
Then the mighty building begins to sway to its fall.
The terrified crowds flee. Only the Pope remains. The
Polish knights, commanded by the Cardinal to follow
1 The Lithuanians who were won to Christianity by the self-sacrifice
of Jadwiga, Queen of Poland.
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? Before the Dawn
205
him outside, refuse to leave the Pope to perish alone.
Baring their swords, they surround him where he kneels
at the high altar. The dome crashes in, and the basilica,
the Vatican and the square are a heap of dust. ,
It is the dawn. The Cardinal, otherwise St John,
seats himself on the ruins as on a throne. His purple
garments fall from him, and he is transformed into a
white figure, sparkling with soft light, while his face
breathes love and peace.
I approached him, and at the very moment that the sun
rose I said: "Lord, is it true that yesterday for the last time
Christ was born in that Church which to-day is no more? "
And he, "Henceforth Christ is no more born nor dies on
earth, for henceforth for the ages of the ages He is and will
be on earth. "
And I, hearing this, cast off all fear, and asked: "Lord, and
they, whom I led here yesterday, will they lie for ever beneath
these ruins, all dead around the old dead man? "
And that white holy one answered me: "Fear not for them.
Because they rendered him that last service the Lord will
reward them--for, in their setting even as in their rising, dead,
even as they lived, they are of the Lord. Yea, verily, it will
be better for them and for the sons of their sons. "
And when I had understood I was glad, and my spirit
woke.
We are thus left with the death of Poland and with
nothing more beyond a vague promise that is too in-
definite to convey any certitude of her resurrection.
Count Tarnowski looks upon this work as Krasinski's
greatest swerving from his patriotic and religious faith.
But the allegory that Tarnowski considers as well nigh a
blasphemy against Krasinski's national convictions and
openly hostile to his Church, Dr Kleiner is inclined to
regard as illustrative of the doctrines of development
that at this time began to take hold upon the poet.
The old Poland dies with the old Church. Both will
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? 2o6 The Anonymous Poet of Poland
rise again, but in a completely different form in the
new epoch, which is to be the epoch of love1. We
shall see how Krasinski modified this theory, which in
the Legend is almost too vague to be called a theory,
and, bringing it into far more orthodox lines, worked it
out in Dawn. The contradictions to be found in the
Legend are, Count Tarnowski suggests, not to be in-
vestigated too narrowly. After all the Legend is not a
treatise. It is a dream with the inconsistencies of a
dream2.
As regards the three epochs of the Church or of
humanity, we do not know whether Krasinski had
learnt them directly from the writings of Joachim of
Flora, which is improbable, or through Schelling and
Swedenborg, who both refer to them, or through the
medium of Cieszkowski, or again whether he evolved
them out of his own brain3.
"After the Resurrection," he wrote to Delphina Potocka
who was the constant recipient of his highest philosophical
theories side by side with the outpourings of his love, "Christ
takes not Peter, but John. But Peter is the Roman Church,
the practical militant governing Church, and John, who begins
the gospel from the 'Logos,' signifies the epoch of thought
and of the highest love. This has greatly struck me4. "
This language, as Dr Kleiner remarks, indicates
that the Anonymous Poet reached his point by a
process of his own, and probably only discovered later
that it was several centuries old5.
Krasinski was now rapidly advancing in the forma-
tion of his idea. In 1840 he wrote to the friend
1 St. Tarnowski, op. cit. J. Kleiner, History of'the Thought of' Zygmunt
Krasinski.
2 St. Tarnowski, op. cit. 3 J. Kleiner, op. cit
4 Letters to Delphina Potocka. Rome, Dec. 20, 1839. Tygodnik
Illustrowany, 1899. 6 J. Kleiner, op. cit.
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? Before the Dawn
207
whose life was darkened by the acutest griefs of a
father:
There are certain sufferings of yours about which I never
write to you: both because I do not wish to aggravate them,
and because it is better not to set on paper what has taken
up its abode in the very depths of the heart. But do not
therefore think that I do not think of them and that I do not
feel them together with you.
Assuring his friend how the latter's afflictions rend
his heart, he goes on:
Oh, Adam, only, only faith in a higher ordering of the world,
faith that all the happenings and bitternesses of the earth are
discords let loose in the Divine accord, in the accord that as
yet has not reached our hearing but must some time reach it,
can save us. Therefore we believe that we know only one
half of life. I speak incorrectly, we know the whole of life by
thought, but we know by our own experience the half of that
all-life, and because it is only the half it is evil for us. But we are
spirits, not perishable stones. The spirit has its resurrection
from pain; happiness and divine peace are our destiny, for
they are our nature. Thence we came, and there shall we
return. Let this thought be my wish for you in the year that
is now to begin1.
This conception of the half of life being ours, and i
not the perfect whole, was one of the foundations upon
which Krasinski was now raising the solution of un-
explained suffering that gave him the clue to the
mystery of Poland's tragic history.
"Where there is pain," he wrote to Stowacki on a
Roman Easter Eve, "there is life, there is resurrection. "
Death was no more death in his eyes. There is no
death save moral abasement. "Only where there is
abasement shall there be no resurrection2. "
While Krasinski was thus on the highroad to the
vision that brought him hope and joy for his nation he
1 Letters to Sottan. Rome, Dec. 20, 1840.
2 Letters of Krasinski. Vol. 111. To Stowacki, Easter Eve, Rome, 1841.
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? 2o8 The Anonymous Poet of Poland
was passing through the crisis in his private life that
he had greatly dreaded. His father was insisting
that his son should marry the lady whom the elder man
desired to secure for his heir. Krasinski, as we have
seen, had always regarded with aversion the thought of
his marriage, and had indeed, as Count Tarnowski
notes, no inducement to look upon marriage as a happy
lot, considering the experience of the two women he
had known best1. Still more, his heart was bound up
with Delphina Potocka. Just before his departure from
Rome in the summer of 1841 for Germany, where he
was to meet his father and where he knew that the
question would have to be decided, he addressed a
poem to Delphina, breathing grief and eternal love,
praying God, as he goes forth "into a terrible world
where love is not," to grant him, barren of hope and
happiness himself, to be the sweetener of the sorrows
of her whom God had given him as his sister. Three
months later when he and his father had parted company
he tells Sottan:
"You cannot imagine what it is, after having spent two
months in continual wrangling, to regain a little freedom at
last. " He solemnly charges his friend that he shall allow no
other ear ever to hear these confidences, for if he does: "I can-
not pour out to you my breaking heart. . . My father's despair,
his weakened health, have forced me. I had nothing else with
which to give him strength and life2. "
He then tells how for that reason he consented to
his father's will. But the negotiations did not result in
anything immediate. Two years passed before Zyg-
munt's betrothal and marriage. He settled down in
Munich for the winter of 1841 with the friend of his.
1 St. Tarnowski, Zygmunt Krasinski.
2 Letters to Sottan. Munich, Sept. 24, 1841.
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? Before the Dawn
209
heart, Danielewicz. And then the moment came when,
after several weeks of close interchange of ideas with
this beloved companion, he felt a sudden illumination of
vision. An almost rapturous conception of the national
theory for which he had sought with such anguish in-
vaded his soul.
"I spent the winter not in Munich, nor in any place in
space; but in myself--in the spirit," he told Cieszkowski1.
And many weeks later he wrote to Gaszynski:
All through January I was possessed by uncommon in-
spiration. I lived so that the whole of that month was to me
one hour, one dream. I have had to pay the fates dearly for
that delight of the soul [in the death of Danielewicz]. All day I
was at my table, and in the evenings with my dear Konstanty2.
He embodied his ideas in his Treatise of the
Trinity, consisting of three sections: (1) On the trinity
in God and the trinity in man: (2) On the trinity in
time and space: (3) On the position of Poland among
the Slavonic peoples. It was never finished. Krasinski
enclosed extracts from it in his letters from Munich to
Sottan and his friend and cousin, Stanistaw Matachowski.
The rest remained among his manuscripts, and was
after his death sent by his desire to the priests of the
Polish congregation of the Resurrection. He left orders
that nothing in his papers that might be against the
teaching of the Catholic Church should be published.
The Resurrectionists objected to the publication of the
treatise by reason of its want of orthodoxy: and, al-
though part of it was given to the public by the poet's
grandson in 1903, it was only published as fully as
Krasinski left it in the Jubilee edition of 19123.
1 Letters to Cieszkowski. Munich, Feb. 25, 1842.
2 Letters to Gaszynski. Basle, April 9, 1842.
3 It is printed there under the title: On the position of Polandfrom the
Divine and human standpoint.
G. 14
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? 2io The Anonymous Poet of Poland
As Krasinski repeated and developed much of the
matter of the treatise, and with greater beauty, in Dawn
and the Psalms, we will resist the temptation to do
more than summarize its main thesis and quote a few
of the more striking or illuminating passages.
In part influenced by his studies in Hegel and
Schelling, and still more by Cieszkowski's theories,
Krasinski found in the trinity or threefold a solution to
his difficulties. The first Person of the Blessed Trinity
corresponds to Being. His relation to man is that
of Grace inasmuch as He created him. The second
Person is that of Thought or Understanding, from
whom we receive the consciousness of Being and the
knowledge of its conditions. The third Person is that
of Love, who unites Being with Thought. "In the
image of this Divine Trinity each of us is likewise a
trinity each moment. . . each of us is simultaneously being,
thought, life. " To the three elements of the Divine
Trinity correspond the three elements or epochs in the
life of the soul, of the nation, of humanity.
In the beginning is grace, and in the end love. Grace
[shown to man in the act of his creation] can only be for those
who are not yet. Love can only be for those who are, but who
are worthy of it, who have merited it. But the intermediary
and the necessary transition from grace to love, from the first
being [or existence] to the highest life, is understanding. In
relation to us the Divine Understanding signifies the logic of
our life, its work, its toil, together with its suffering and its
martyrdom, in a word, its merit. And obviously in order to
lead those created by grace to the sanctity of heavenly spirits,
to eternal life, their merit and gradual progress were absolutely
necessary: that is, it was necessary that the Divine Under-
standing should manifest to and enjoin upon them this
indispensable necessity, for otherwise grace would be uncom-
prehended, and in the end love would likewise be blind, likewise
uncomprehended, and therefore would be no love but again
only grace. Therefore there would be no change or develop-
ment from first to last.
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? Before the Dawn
211
Upon this idea of development Krasinski founded
his hopes for both his country and humanity. The
travail of transition explains to him the riddle of our
suffering. This transition is the second stage of our
trinity leading to the third, that of love, of the Holy
Ghost who as All Love unites the first and second
Persons of the Trinity, unites being with thought.
The intermediary in that transition between grace and love,
Eden and Heaven, the ages of Jehovah and of the Holy Ghost,
between the state of bodily being and the state of the fulness
of life and spirituality, had to be the Divine Understanding
which, taking flesh and manifested in the human race, woke
the soul and understanding of man. Hence Christ is the
Saviour. . . the intermediary, and only passing by Him can we
reach redemption. . . He is. . . in the highest sense the way, as
He said of Himself. By that way only can we attain to the
final love: and because as far as we are concerned that way
is toil, suffering, merit, therefore Christ had to reflect it, express
it, put it into action, as it were throw it into bas-relief by His
life and by His death. All the labour and pain of transition is
represented in Him. . . Therefore not by victory but by constant
defeats He conquered everywhere. . . In Him always, in each
moment and deed and word of His we see the union of both
natures, the continual inflow of one into the other--in a word,
we see the transition of which we are speaking, the transition
from the flesh to the fulness of the spirit, or from the human
nature to the Divine.
The life and death of Christ manifest the road by
which man and humanity must pass: and this close
likeness of the lot of man and the human race to that
of their pattern, Christ, becomes one of Krasinski's
master arguments.
Again, from the reciprocal overflowing between the
Persons of the Blessed Trinity, Krasinski deduces that
of each soul, fashioned in the image of the Blessed
Trinity, upon one another. This, too, plays a consider-
able part in his mystic theories of Poland's apostolate.
14--2
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? 212 The Anonymous Poet of Poland
In humanity the social state, the sanctification and raising
of which is the aim of humanity, is precisely that reciprocal
imparting to each other of human spirits. Everywhere and
always who gives receives, who loves is multiplied, who pours
out of himself or creates something external, is in that very
moment created higher himself. . . To impart self on earth to
others is in outward seeming to lose something of self, even to
be utterly destroyed--but that is only a delusion. That destruc-
tion is itself destroyed, for in truth only by that means does
the living spirit grow and immortalize itself. . . By what it gives
out from itself it becomes more powerful.
