[28] As early as 1566, however, the figure of Friar Rush on a
'painted cloth' was a familiar one, and is so mentioned in _Gammer
Gurton's Needle_.
'painted cloth' was a familiar one, and is so mentioned in _Gammer
Gurton's Needle_.
Ben Jonson - The Devil's Association
He is, as Herford has already
pointed out, merely 'the fly upon the engine-wheel, fortunate to
escape with a bruising' (_Studies_, p. 320). He forms, however, the
connecting link between the two plots, and his function in the drama
must be regarded from two different points of view, according as it
shares in the realistic or the supernatural element.
[11] 'A play of his, upon which he was accused, The Divell
is ane Ass; according to _Comedia Vetus_, in England the Divell
was brought in either with one Vice or other: the play done the Divel
caried away the Vice, he brings in the Divel so overcome with the
wickedness of this age that thought himself ane Ass. ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
[incidentally] is discoursed of the Duke of Drounland: the King
desired him to conceal it'. --_Conversations with William Drummond_,
Jonson's _Wks. _ 9. 400-1.
I. THE DEVIL-PLOT
Jonson's title, _The Devil is an Ass_, expresses with perfect adequacy
the familiarity and contempt with which this once terrible personage
had come to be regarded in the later Elizabethan period. The poet, of
course, is deliberately archaizing, and the figures of devil and Vice
are made largely conformable to the purposes of satire. Several years
before, in the Dedication to _The Fox_,[12] Jonson had expressed his
contempt for the introduction of 'fools and devils and those antique
relics of barbarism', characterizing them as 'ridiculous and exploded
follies'. He treats the same subject with biting satire in _The Staple
of News_. [13] Yet with all his devotion to realism in matters of petty
detail, of local color, and of contemporary allusion, he was, as we
have seen, not without an inclination toward allegory. Thus in _Every
Man out of his Humor_ the figure of Macilente is very close to a purely
allegorical expression of envy. In _Cynthia's Revels_ the process was
perfectly conscious, for in the Induction to that play the characters
are spoken of as Virtues and Vices. In _Poetaster_ again we have the
purging of Demetrius and Crispinus. Jonson's return to this field
in _The Devil is an Ass_ is largely prophetic of the future course
of his drama. The allegory of _The Staple of News_ is more closely
woven into the texture of the play than is that of _The Devil is an
Ass_; and the conception of Pecunia and her retinue is worked out with
much elaboration. In the Second Intermean the purpose of this play is
explained as a refinement of method in the use of allegory. For the old
Vice with his wooden dagger to snap at everybody he met, or Iniquity,
appareled 'like Hokos Pokos, in a juggler's jerkin', he substitutes
'vices male and female', 'attired like men and women of the time'. This
of course is only a more philosophical and abstract statement of the
idea which he expresses in _The Devil is an Ass_ (1. 1. 120 f. ) of a
world where the vices are not distinguishable by any outward sign from
the virtues:
They weare the same clothes, eate the same meate,
Sleep i' the self-same beds, ride i' those coaches.
Or very like, foure horses in a coach,
As the best men and women.
_The New Inn_ and _The Magnetic Lady_ are also penetrated
with allegory of a sporadic and trivial nature. Jonson's
use of devil and Vice in the present play is threefold. It
is in part earnestly allegorical, especially in Satan's long
speech in the first scene; it is in part a satire upon the
employment of what he regarded as barbarous devices; and
it is, to no small extent, itself a resort for the sake of comic
effect to the very devices which he ridiculed.
Jonson's conception of the devil was naturally very far from mediaeval,
and he relied for the effectiveness of his portrait upon current
disbelief in this conception. Yet mediaevalism had not wholly died out,
and remnants of the morality-play are to be found in many plays of
the Elizabethan and Jacobean drama. Rev. John Upton, in his _Critical
Observations on Shakespeare_, 1746, was the first to point out the
historical connection between Jonson's Vice and devils and those of
the pre-Shakespearian drama. In modern times the history of the devil
and the Vice as dramatic figures has been thoroughly investigated, the
latest works being those of Dr. L. W. Cushman and Dr. E. Eckhardt,
at whose hands the subject has received exhaustive treatment. The
connection with Machiavelli's novella of _Belfagor_ was pointed out
by Count Baudissin,[14] _Ben Jonson und seine Schule_, Leipzig 1836,
and has been worked out exhaustively by Dr. E. Hollstein in a Halle
dissertation, 1901. Dr. C. H. Herford, however, had already suggested
that the chief source of the devil-plot was to be found in the legend
of Friar Rush.
[12] _Wks. _ 3. 158.
[13] _Wks. _ 5. 105 f. Cf. also Shirley, Prologue to _The Doubtful Heir_.
[14] Count Baudissin translated two of Jonson's comedies into German,
_The Alchemist_ and _The Devil is an Ass_ (_Der Dumme Teufel_).
1. _The Devil in the pre-Shakespearian Drama_
The sources for the conception of the devil in the mediaeval drama
are to be sought in a large body of non-dramatic literature. In this
literature the devil was conceived of as a fallen angel, the enemy of
God and his hierarchy, and the champion of evil. As such he makes his
appearance in the mystery-plays. The mysteries derived their subjects
from Bible history, showed comparatively little pliancy, and dealt
always with serious themes. In them the devil is with few exceptions a
serious figure. Occasionally, however, even at this early date, comedy
and satire find place. The most prominent example is the figure of
Titivillus in the Towneley cycle.
In the early moralities the devil is still of primary importance, and
is always serious. But as the Vice became a more and more prominent
figure, the devil became less and less so, and in the later drama his
part is always subordinate. The play of _Nature_ (c. 1500) is the first
morality without a devil. Out of fifteen moralities of later date
tabulated by Cushman, only four are provided with this character.
The degeneration of the devil as a dramatic figure was inevitable. His
grotesque appearance, at first calculated to inspire terror, by its
very exaggeration produced, when once familiar, a wholly comic effect.
When the active comic parts were assumed by the Vice, he became a mere
butt, and finally disappears.
One of the earliest comic figures in the religious drama
is that of the clumsy or uncouth servant. [15] Closely allied
to him is the under-devil, who appears as early as _The
Harrowing of Hell_, and this figure is constantly employed
as a comic personage in the later drama. [16] The figure of
the servant later developed into that of the clown, and in
this type the character of the devil finally merged. [17]
[15] Eckhardt, p. 42 f. ]
[16] _Ibid. _, p. 67 f. ]
[17] In general the devil is more closely related to the
clown, and the Vice to the fool. In some cases, however, the devil
is to be identified with the fool, and the Vice with the clown.
2. _Jonson's Treatment of the Devil_
In the present play the devil-type is represented by the arch-fiend
Satan and his stupid subordinate, Pug. Of these two Satan received
more of the formal conventional elements of the older drama, while Pug
for the most part represents the later or clownish figure. As in the
morality-play Satan's chief function is the instruction of his emissary
of evil. In no scene does he come into contact with human beings, and
he is always jealously careful for the best interests of his state. In
addition Jonson employs one purely conventional attribute belonging to
the tradition of the church- and morality-plays. This is the cry of
'Ho, ho! ', with which Satan makes his entrance upon the stage in the
first scene. [18] Other expressions of emotion were also used, but 'Ho,
ho! ' came in later days to be recognized as the conventional cry of the
fiend upon making his entrance. [19]
How the character of Satan was to be represented is of course
impossible to determine. The devil in the pre-Shakespearian drama was
always a grotesque figure, often provided with the head of a beast and
a cow's tail. [20] In the presentation of Jonson's play the ancient
tradition was probably followed. Satan's speeches, however, are not
undignified, and too great grotesqueness of costume must have resulted
in considerable incongruity.
In the figure of Pug few of the formal elements of the
pre-Shakespearian devil are exhibited. He remains, of course, the
ostensible champion of evil, but is far surpassed by his earthly
associates, both in malice and in intellect. In personal appearance he
is brought by the assumption of the body and dress of a human being
into harmony with his environment. A single conventional episode,
with a reversal of the customary proceeding, is retained from the
morality-play. While Pug is languishing in prison, Iniquity appears,
Pug mounts upon his back, and is carried off to hell. Iniquity comments
upon it:
The Diuell was wont to carry away the euill;
But, now, the Euill out-carries the Diuell.
That the practice above referred to was a regular or even
a frequent feature of the morality-play has been disputed,
but the evidence seems fairly conclusive that it was common
in the later and more degenerate moralities. At any rate,
like the cry of 'Ho, ho! ' it had come to be looked upon
as part of the regular stock in trade, and this was enough
for Jonson's purpose. [21] This motive of the Vice riding the
devil had changed from a passive to an active comic part.
Instead of the devil's prey he had become in the eyes of
the spectators the devil's tormentor. Jonson may be looked
upon as reverting, perhaps unconsciously, to the original
and truer conception.
In other respects Pug exhibits only the characteristics of the
inheritor of the devil's comedy part, the butt or clown. As we have
seen, one of the chief sources, as well as one of the constant modes
of manifestation, of this figure was the servant or man of low social
rank. Pug, too, on coming to earth immediately attaches himself to
Fitzdottrel as a servant, and throughout his brief sojourn on earth he
continues to exhibit the wonted stupidity and clumsy uncouthness of
the clown. He appears, to be sure, in a fine suit of clothes, but he
soon shows himself unfit for the position of gentleman-usher, and his
stupidity appears at every turn. The important element in the clown's
comedy part, of a contrast between intention and accomplishment,
is of course exactly the sort of fun inspired by Pug's repeated
discomfiture. With the clown it often takes the form of blunders
in speech, and his desire to appear fine and say the correct thing
frequently leads him into gross absurdities. This is brought out with
broad humor in 4. 4. 219, where Pug, on being catechized as to what
he should consider 'the height of his employment', stumbles upon the
unfortunate suggestion: 'To find out a good _Corne-cutter_'. His
receiving blows at the hand of his master further distinguishes him
as a clown. The investing of Pug with such attributes was, as we have
seen, no startling innovation on Jonson's part. Moreover, it fell
into line with his purpose in this play, and was the more acceptable
since it allowed him to make use of the methods of realism instead
of forcing him to draw a purely conventional figure. Pug, of course,
even in his character of clown, is not the unrelated stock-figure,
introduced merely for the sake of inconsequent comic dialogue and rough
horse-play. His part is important and definite, though not sufficiently
developed.
[18] In the Digby group of miracle-plays roaring by the devil is a
prominent feature. Stage directions in _Paul_ provide for 'cryeing
and rorying' and Belial enters with the cry, 'Ho, ho, behold me'.
Among the moralities _The Disobedient Child_ may be mentioned.
[19] So in _Gammer Gurton's Needle_, c 1562, we read: 'But
Diccon, Diccon, did not the devil cry ho, ho, ho? ' Cf. also the
translation of Goulart's Histories, 1607 (quoted by Sharp, p. 59):
'The fellow--coming to the stove--sawe the Diuills in horrible
formes, some sitting, some standing, others walking, some ramping
against the walles, but al of them, assoone as they beheld him,
crying Hoh, hoh, what makest thou here? '
[20] Cf. the words of Robin Goodfellow in _Wily Beguiled_
(_O. Pl. _, 4th ed. , 9. 268): 'I'll put me on my great carnation-nose,
and wrap me in a rowsing calf-skin suit and come like some hobgoblin,
or some devil ascended from the grisly pit of hell'.
[21] Cushman points out that it occurs in only one drama,
that of _Like will to Like_. He attributes the currency of the notion
that this mode of exit was the regular one to the famous passage in
Harsnet's _Declaration of Popish Impostures_ (p. 114, 1603): 'It was
a pretty part in the old church-playes, when the nimble Vice would
skip up nimbly like a jackanapes into the devil's necke, and ride the
devil a course, and belabour him with his wooden dagger, till he made
him roare, whereat the people would laugh to see the devil so
vice-haunted'. The moralities and tragedies give no indication of
hostility between Vice and devil. Cushman believes therefore that
Harsnet refers either to some lost morality or to 'Punch and Judy'.
It is significant, however, that in 'Punch and Judy', which gives
indications of being a debased descendant of the morality, the devil
enters with the evident intention of carrying the hero off to hell.
The joke consists as in the present play in a reversal of the usual
proceeding. Eckhardt (p. 85 n. ) points out that the Vice's cudgeling
of the devil was probably a mere mirth-provoking device, and
indicated no enmity between the two. Moreover the motive of the
devil as an animal for riding is not infrequent. In the _Castle of
Perseverance_ the devil carries away the hero, Humanum Genus. The
motive appears also in Greene's _Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay_ and
Lodge and Greene's _Looking Glass for London and England_, and
especially in _Histriomastix_, where the Vice rides a roaring devil
(Eckhardt, pp. 86 f. ). We have also another bit of evidence from
Jonson himself. In _The Staple of News_ Mirth relates her reminiscences
of the old comedy. In speaking of the devil she says: 'He
would carry away the Vice on his back quick to hell in every play'.
3. _The Influence of Robin Goodfellow and of Popular Legend_
A constant element of the popular demonology was the belief in the
kobold or elfish sprite. This figure appears in the mysteries in
the shape of Titivillus, but is not found in the moralities. Robin
Goodfellow, however, makes his appearance in at least three comedies,
_Midsummer Night's Dream_, 1593-4, _Grim, the Collier of Croyden_,
c 1600, and _Wily Beguiled_, 1606. The last of these especially
approaches Jonson's conception. Here Robin Goodfellow is a malicious
intriguer, whose nature, whether human or diabolical, is left somewhat
in doubt. His plans are completely frustrated, he is treated with
contempt, and is beaten by Fortunatus. The character was a favorite
with Jonson. In the masque of _The Satyr_, 1603,[22] that character
is addressed as Pug, which here seems evidently equivalent to Puck or
Robin Goodfellow. Similarly Thomas Heywood makes Kobald, Hobgoblin,
Robin Goodfellow, and Pug practically identical. [23] Butler, in the
_Hudibras_,[24] gives him the combination-title of good 'Pug-Robin'.
Jonson's character of Pug was certainly influenced in some degree both
by the popular and the literary conception of this 'lubber fiend'.
The theme of a stupid or outwitted devil occurred also both in ballad
literature[25] and in popular legend. Roskoff[26] places the change in
attitude toward the devil from a feeling of fear to one of superiority
at about the end of the eleventh century. The idea of a baffled devil
may have been partially due to the legends of the saints, where the
devil is constantly defeated, though he is seldom made to appear stupid
or ridiculous. The notion of a 'stupid devil' is not very common in
English, but occasionally appears. In the Virgilius legend the fiend
is cheated of his reward by stupidly putting himself into the physical
power of the wizard. In the Friar Bacon legend the necromancer delivers
an Oxford gentleman by a trick of sophistry. [27] In the story upon
which the drama of _The Merry Devil of Edmonton_ was founded, the devil
is not only cleverly outwitted, but appears weak and docile in his
indulgence of the wizard's plea for a temporary respite. It may be said
in passing, in spite of Herford's assertion to the contrary, that the
supernatural machinery in this play has considerably less connection
with the plot than in _The Devil is an Ass_. Both show a survival of
a past interest, of which the dramatist himself realizes the obsolete
character.
[22] Cf. also _Love Restored_, 1610-11, and the
character of Puck Hairy in _The Sad Shepherd_.
[23] _Hierarchie of the Blessed Angels_ 9.
[24] Part 3. Cant. 1, l. 1415.
[25] Cf. _Devil in Britain and America_, ch. 2.
[26] _Geschichte des Teufels_ 1. 316, 395.
[27] Hazlitt, _Tales_, pp. 39, 83.
4. _Friar Rush and Dekker_
It was the familiar legend of Friar Rush which furnished the groundwork
of Jonson's play. The story seems to be of Danish origin, and first
makes its appearance in England in the form of a prose history
during the latter half of the sixteenth century. It is entered in
the _Stationer's Register_ 1567-8, and mentioned by Reginald Scot in
1584.
[28] As early as 1566, however, the figure of Friar Rush on a
'painted cloth' was a familiar one, and is so mentioned in _Gammer
Gurton's Needle_. [29] The first extant edition dates from 1620, and has
been reprinted by W. J. Thoms. [30] The character had already become
partially identified with that of Robin Goodfellow,[31] and this
identification, as we have seen, Jonson was inclined to accept.
In spite of many variations of detail the kernel of the Rush story is
precisely that of Jonson's play, the visit of a devil to earth with
the purpose of corrupting men. Both Rush and Pug assume human bodies,
the former being 'put in rayment like an earthly creature', while the
latter is made subject 'to all impressions of the flesh'.
Rush, unlike his counterpart, is not otherwise bound to definite
conditions, but he too becomes a servant. The adventure is not of his
own seeking; he is chosen by agreement of the council, and no mention
is made of the emissary's willingness or unwillingness to perform
his part. Later, however, we read that he stood at the gate of the
religious house 'all alone and with a heavie countenance'. In the
beginning, therefore, he has little of Pug's thirst for adventure,
but his object is at bottom the same, 'to goe and dwell among these
religious men for to maintaine them the longer in their ungracious
living'. Like Pug, whose request for a Vice is denied him, he goes
unaccompanied, and presents himself at the priory in the guise of a
young man seeking service: 'Sir, I am a poore young man, and am out of
service, and faine would have a maister'. [32]
Most of the remaining incidents of the Rush story could not be used
in Jonson's play. Two incidents may be mentioned. Rush furthers the
amours of his master, as Pug attempts to do those of his mistress.
In the later history of Rush the motive of demoniacal possession is
worked into the plot. In a very important respect, however, the legend
differs from the play. Up to the time of discovery Rush is popular
and successful. He is nowhere made ridiculous, and his mission of
corruption is in large measure fulfilled. The two stories come together
in their conclusion. The discovery that a real devil has been among
them is the means of the friars' conversion and future right living. A
precisely similar effect takes place in the case of Fitzdottrel.
The legend of Friar Rush had already twice been used
in the drama before it was adopted by Jonson. The play
by Day and Haughton to which Henslowe refers[33] is not
extant; Dekker's drama, _If this be not a good Play, the
Diuell is in it_, appeared in 1612. Jonson in roundabout
fashion acknowledged his indebtedness to this play by the
closing line of his prologue.
If this Play doe not like, the Diuell is in't.
Dekker's play adds few new elements to the story. The first scene is
in the infernal regions; not, however, the Christian hell, as in the
prose history, but the classical Hades. This change seems to have
been adopted from Machiavelli. Three devils are sent to earth with
the object of corrupting men and replenishing hell. They return, on
the whole, successful, though the corrupted king of Naples is finally
redeemed.
In certain respects, however, the play stands closer to Jonson's drama
than the history. In the first place, the doctrine that hell's vices
are both old-fashioned and outdone by men, upon which Satan lays so
much stress in his instructions to Pug in the first scene, receives a
like emphasis in Dekker:
. . . 'tis thought
That men to find hell, now, new waies have sought,
As Spaniards did to the Indies.
and again:
. . . aboue vs dwell,
Diuells brauer, and more subtill then in Hell. [34]
and finally:
They scorne thy hell, hauing better of their owne.
In the second place Lurchall, unlike Rush, but in the same way
as Pug, finds himself inferior to his earthly associates. He
acknowledges himself overreached by Bartervile, and confesses:
I came to teach, but now (me thinkes) must learne.
A single correspondence of lesser importance may be added. Both devils,
when asked whence they come, obscurely intimate their hellish origin.
Pug says that he comes from the Devil's Cavern in Derbyshire. Rufman
asserts that his home is Helvetia. [35]
[28] _Discovery_, p. 522.
[29] _O. Pl. _, 4th ed. , 3. 213.
[30] _Early Eng. Prose Romances_, London 1858.
[31] See Herford's discussion, _Studies_, p. 305; also _Quarterly
Rev. _ 22. 358. The frequently quoted passage from Harsnet's
_Declaration_ (ch. 20, p. 134), is as follows: 'And if that the bowle
of curds and cream were not duly set out for Robin Goodfellow, the
Friar, and Sisse the dairy-maide, why then either the pottage was
burnt the next day, or the cheese would not curdle', etc. Cf. also
Scot, _Discovery_, p. 67: 'Robin could both eate and drinke, as being
a cousening idle frier, or some such roge, that wanted nothing either
belonging to lecherie or knaverie, &c'.
[32] Cf. Pug's words, 1. 3. 1 f.
[33] See Herford, p. 308.
[34] A similar passage is found in Dekker, _Whore of Babylon_,
_Wks. _ 2. 355. The sentiment is not original with Dekker.
Cf. Middleton, _Black Book_, 1604:
. . . And were it number'd well,
There are more devils on earth than are in hell.
[35] Dekker makes a similar pun on Helicon in _News from
Hell_, _Non-dram Wks. _ 2. 95.
5. _The Novella of Belfagor and the Comedy of Grim_
The relation between Jonson's play and the novella attributed to
Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1522) has been treated in much detail by Dr.
Ernst Hollstein. Dr. Hollstein compares the play with the first known
English translation, that by the Marquis of Wharton in 1674. [36] It is
probable, however, that Jonson knew the novella in its Italian shape,
if he knew it at all. [37] The Italian text has therefore been taken as
the basis of the present discussion, while Dr. Hollstein's results, so
far as they have appeared adequate or important, have been freely used.
. . . And were it number'd well,
There are more devils on earth than are in hell.
]
Both novella and play depart from the same idea, the visit of a devil
to earth to lead a human life. Both devils are bound by certain
definite conditions. Belfagor must choose a wife, and live with her ten
years; Pug must return at midnight. Belfagor, like Pug, must be subject
to 'ogni infortunio nel quale gli uomini scorrono'.
In certain important respects Machiavelli's story differs essentially
from Jonson's. Both Dekker and Machiavelli place the opening scene in
the classical Hades instead of in the Christian hell. But Dekker's
treatment of the situation is far more like Jonson's than is the
novella's. Herford makes the distinction clear: 'Macchiavelli's Hades
is the council-chamber of an Italian Senate, Dekker's might pass for
some tavern haunt of Thames watermen. Dekker's fiends are the drudges
of Pluto, abused for their indolence, flogged at will, and peremptorily
sent where he chooses. Machiavelli's are fiends whose advice he
requests with the gravest courtesy and deference, and who give it
with dignity and independence'. Further, the whole object of the
visit, instead of being the corruption of men, is a mere sociological
investigation. Pug is eager to undertake his mission; Belfagor is
chosen by lot, and very loath to go. Pug becomes a servant, Belfagor a
nobleman.
But in one very important matter the stories coincide, that of the
general character and fate of the two devils. As Hollstein points out,
each comes with a firm resolve to do his best, each finds at once that
his opponents are too strong for him, each through his own docility
and stupidity meets repulse after repulse, ending in ruin, and each is
glad to return to hell. This, of course, involves the very essence of
Jonson's drama, and on its resemblance to the novella must be based any
theory that Jonson was familiar with the latter.
Of resemblance of specific details not much can be made. The two
stories have in common the feature of demoniacal possession, but
this, as we have seen, occurs also in the Rush legend. The fact that
the princess speaks Latin, while Fitzdottrel surprises his auditors
by his 'several languages', is of no more significance. This is one
of the stock indications of witchcraft. It is mentioned by Darrel,
and Jonson could not have overlooked a device so obvious. Certain
other resemblances pointed out by Dr. Hollstein are of only the most
superficial nature. On the whole we are not warranted in concluding
with any certainty that Jonson knew the novella at all.
On the other hand, he must have been acquainted with
the comedy of _Grim, the Collier of Croydon_ (c 1600).
Herford makes no allusion to this play, and, though it was
mentioned as a possible source by A. W. Ward,[38] the subject
has never been investigated. The author of _Grim_ uses the
Belfagor legend for the groundwork of his plot, but handles
his material freely. In many respects the play is a close
parallel to _The Devil is an Ass_. The same respect for the
vices of earth is felt as in Dekker's and Jonson's plays.
Belphegor sets out to
. . . make experiment
If hell be not on earth as well as here.
The circumstances of the sending bear a strong resemblance to the
instructions given to Pug:
Thou shalt be subject unto human chance,
So far as common wit cannot relieve thee.
But whatsover happens in that time,
Look not from us for succour or relief.
This shalt thou do, and when the time's expired,
Bring word to us what thou hast seen and done.
So in Jonson:
. . . but become subject
To all impression of the flesh, you take,
So farre as humane frailty: . . .
But as you make your soone at nights relation,
And we shall find, it merits from the State,
You shall haue both trust from vs, and imployment.
Belphegor is described as 'patient, mild, and pitiful'; and during his
sojourn on earth he shows little aptitude for mischief, but becomes
merely a butt and object of abuse. Belphegor's request for a companion,
unlike that of Pug, is granted. He chooses his servant Akercock,
who takes the form of Robin Goodfellow. Robin expresses many of the
sentiments to be found in the mouth of Pug. With the latter's monologue
(Text, 5. 2) compare Robin's exclamation:
Zounds, I had rather be in hell than here.
Neither Pug (Text, 2. 5. 3-4) nor Robin dares to return without
authority:
What shall I do? to hell I dare not go,
Until my master's twelve months be expir'd.
Like Pug (Text, 5. 6. 3-10) Belphegor worries over his reception in
hell:
How shall I give my verdict up to Pluto
Of all these accidents?
Finally Belphegor's sensational disappearance through the
yawning earth comes somewhat nearer to Jonson than does
the Italian original. The English comedy seems, indeed,
to account adequately for all traces of the Belfagor story
to be found in Jonson's play.
[36] A paraphrase of _Belfagor_ occurs in the Conclusion of
Barnaby Riche's _Riche his Farewell to Militarie Profession_, 1581,
published for the Shakespeare Society by J. P. Collier, 1846. The
name is changed to Balthasar, but the main incidents are the same.
[37] Jonson refers to Machiavelli's political writings in
_Timber_ (ed. Schelling, p. 38).
[38] _Eng. Dram. Lit. _ 2. 606.
6. _Summary_
It is certain that of the two leading ideas of Jonson's comedy, the
sending of a devil to earth with the object of corrupting men is
derived from the Rush legend. It is probable that the no less important
motive of a baffled devil, happy to make his return to hell, is due
either directly or indirectly to Machiavelli's influence. This motive,
as we have seen, was strengthened by a body of legend and by the
treatment of the devil in the morality play.
7. _The Figure of the Vice_
It is the figure of the Vice which makes Jonson's satire on the
out-of-date moralities most unmistakable. This character has been
the subject of much study and discussion, and there is to-day no
universally accepted theory as to his origin and development. In the
literature of Jonson's day the term Vice is almost equivalent to
harlequin. But whether this element of buffoonery is the fundamental
trait of the character, and that of intrigue is due to a confusion
in the meaning of the word, or whether the element of intrigue is
original, and that of buffoonery has taken its place by a process of
degeneration in the Vice himself, is still a disputed question.
The theory of Cushman and of Eckhardt is substantially the same,
and may be stated as follows. Whether or not the Vice be a direct
descendant of the devil, it is certain that he falls heir to his
predecessor's position in the drama, and that his development is
strongly influenced by that character. Originally, like the devil, he
represents the principle of evil and may be regarded as the summation
of the seven deadly sins. From the beginning, however, he possessed
more comic elements, much being ready made for him through the partial
degeneration of the devil, while the material of the moralities was
by no means so limited in scope as that of the mysteries. This comic
element, comparatively slight at first, soon began to be cultivated
intentionally, and gradually assumed the chief function, while the
allegorical element was largely displaced. In course of time the
transformation from the intriguer to the buffoon became complete. [39]
Moreover, the rapidity of the transformation was hastened by the
influence of the fool, a new dramatic figure of independent origin,
but the partial successor upon the stage of the Vice's comedy part. As
early as 1570 the union of fool and Vice is plainly visible. [40] In
1576 we find express stage directions given for the Vice to fill in
the pauses with improvised jests. [41] Two years later a Vice plays the
leading role for the last time. [42] By 1584 the Vice has completely
lost his character of intriguer[43], and in the later drama he appears
only as an antiquated figure, where he is usually considered as
identical with the fool or jester. [44] Cushman enumerates the three
chief roles of the Vice as the opponent of the Good; the corrupter of
man; and the buffoon.
The Vice, however, is not confined to the moralities, but appears
frequently in the comic interludes. According to the theory of Cushman,
the name Vice stands in the beginning for a moral and abstract idea,
that of the principle of evil in the world, and must have originated
in the moralities; and since it is applied to a comic personage in
the interludes, this borrowing must have taken place after the period
of degeneration had already begun. To this theory Chambers[45] offers
certain important objections. He points out that, although 'vices in
the ordinary sense of the word are of course familiar personages in the
morals', the term Vice is not applied specifically to a character in
'any pre-Elizabethan moral interlude except the Marian _Respublica_',
1553. Furthermore, 'as a matter of fact, he comes into the interlude
through the avenue of the farce'. The term is first applied to the
leading comic characters in the farces of John Heywood, _Love_ and
_The Weather_, 1520-30. These characters have traits more nearly
resembling those of the fool and clown than those of the intriguer of
the moralities. Chambers concludes therefore that 'the character of the
vice is derived from that of the domestic fool or jester', and that
the term was borrowed by the authors of the moralities from the comic
interludes.
These two views are widely divergent, and seem at first wholly
irreconcilable. The facts of the case, however, are, I believe,
sufficiently clear to warrant the following conclusions: (1) The early
moralities possessed many allegorical characters representing vices
in the ordinary sense of the word. (2) From among these vices we may
distinguish in nearly every play a single character as in a preeminent
degree the embodiment of evil. (3) To this chief character the name of
Vice was applied about 1553, and with increasing frequency after that
date.
pointed out, merely 'the fly upon the engine-wheel, fortunate to
escape with a bruising' (_Studies_, p. 320). He forms, however, the
connecting link between the two plots, and his function in the drama
must be regarded from two different points of view, according as it
shares in the realistic or the supernatural element.
[11] 'A play of his, upon which he was accused, The Divell
is ane Ass; according to _Comedia Vetus_, in England the Divell
was brought in either with one Vice or other: the play done the Divel
caried away the Vice, he brings in the Divel so overcome with the
wickedness of this age that thought himself ane Ass. ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
[incidentally] is discoursed of the Duke of Drounland: the King
desired him to conceal it'. --_Conversations with William Drummond_,
Jonson's _Wks. _ 9. 400-1.
I. THE DEVIL-PLOT
Jonson's title, _The Devil is an Ass_, expresses with perfect adequacy
the familiarity and contempt with which this once terrible personage
had come to be regarded in the later Elizabethan period. The poet, of
course, is deliberately archaizing, and the figures of devil and Vice
are made largely conformable to the purposes of satire. Several years
before, in the Dedication to _The Fox_,[12] Jonson had expressed his
contempt for the introduction of 'fools and devils and those antique
relics of barbarism', characterizing them as 'ridiculous and exploded
follies'. He treats the same subject with biting satire in _The Staple
of News_. [13] Yet with all his devotion to realism in matters of petty
detail, of local color, and of contemporary allusion, he was, as we
have seen, not without an inclination toward allegory. Thus in _Every
Man out of his Humor_ the figure of Macilente is very close to a purely
allegorical expression of envy. In _Cynthia's Revels_ the process was
perfectly conscious, for in the Induction to that play the characters
are spoken of as Virtues and Vices. In _Poetaster_ again we have the
purging of Demetrius and Crispinus. Jonson's return to this field
in _The Devil is an Ass_ is largely prophetic of the future course
of his drama. The allegory of _The Staple of News_ is more closely
woven into the texture of the play than is that of _The Devil is an
Ass_; and the conception of Pecunia and her retinue is worked out with
much elaboration. In the Second Intermean the purpose of this play is
explained as a refinement of method in the use of allegory. For the old
Vice with his wooden dagger to snap at everybody he met, or Iniquity,
appareled 'like Hokos Pokos, in a juggler's jerkin', he substitutes
'vices male and female', 'attired like men and women of the time'. This
of course is only a more philosophical and abstract statement of the
idea which he expresses in _The Devil is an Ass_ (1. 1. 120 f. ) of a
world where the vices are not distinguishable by any outward sign from
the virtues:
They weare the same clothes, eate the same meate,
Sleep i' the self-same beds, ride i' those coaches.
Or very like, foure horses in a coach,
As the best men and women.
_The New Inn_ and _The Magnetic Lady_ are also penetrated
with allegory of a sporadic and trivial nature. Jonson's
use of devil and Vice in the present play is threefold. It
is in part earnestly allegorical, especially in Satan's long
speech in the first scene; it is in part a satire upon the
employment of what he regarded as barbarous devices; and
it is, to no small extent, itself a resort for the sake of comic
effect to the very devices which he ridiculed.
Jonson's conception of the devil was naturally very far from mediaeval,
and he relied for the effectiveness of his portrait upon current
disbelief in this conception. Yet mediaevalism had not wholly died out,
and remnants of the morality-play are to be found in many plays of
the Elizabethan and Jacobean drama. Rev. John Upton, in his _Critical
Observations on Shakespeare_, 1746, was the first to point out the
historical connection between Jonson's Vice and devils and those of
the pre-Shakespearian drama. In modern times the history of the devil
and the Vice as dramatic figures has been thoroughly investigated, the
latest works being those of Dr. L. W. Cushman and Dr. E. Eckhardt,
at whose hands the subject has received exhaustive treatment. The
connection with Machiavelli's novella of _Belfagor_ was pointed out
by Count Baudissin,[14] _Ben Jonson und seine Schule_, Leipzig 1836,
and has been worked out exhaustively by Dr. E. Hollstein in a Halle
dissertation, 1901. Dr. C. H. Herford, however, had already suggested
that the chief source of the devil-plot was to be found in the legend
of Friar Rush.
[12] _Wks. _ 3. 158.
[13] _Wks. _ 5. 105 f. Cf. also Shirley, Prologue to _The Doubtful Heir_.
[14] Count Baudissin translated two of Jonson's comedies into German,
_The Alchemist_ and _The Devil is an Ass_ (_Der Dumme Teufel_).
1. _The Devil in the pre-Shakespearian Drama_
The sources for the conception of the devil in the mediaeval drama
are to be sought in a large body of non-dramatic literature. In this
literature the devil was conceived of as a fallen angel, the enemy of
God and his hierarchy, and the champion of evil. As such he makes his
appearance in the mystery-plays. The mysteries derived their subjects
from Bible history, showed comparatively little pliancy, and dealt
always with serious themes. In them the devil is with few exceptions a
serious figure. Occasionally, however, even at this early date, comedy
and satire find place. The most prominent example is the figure of
Titivillus in the Towneley cycle.
In the early moralities the devil is still of primary importance, and
is always serious. But as the Vice became a more and more prominent
figure, the devil became less and less so, and in the later drama his
part is always subordinate. The play of _Nature_ (c. 1500) is the first
morality without a devil. Out of fifteen moralities of later date
tabulated by Cushman, only four are provided with this character.
The degeneration of the devil as a dramatic figure was inevitable. His
grotesque appearance, at first calculated to inspire terror, by its
very exaggeration produced, when once familiar, a wholly comic effect.
When the active comic parts were assumed by the Vice, he became a mere
butt, and finally disappears.
One of the earliest comic figures in the religious drama
is that of the clumsy or uncouth servant. [15] Closely allied
to him is the under-devil, who appears as early as _The
Harrowing of Hell_, and this figure is constantly employed
as a comic personage in the later drama. [16] The figure of
the servant later developed into that of the clown, and in
this type the character of the devil finally merged. [17]
[15] Eckhardt, p. 42 f. ]
[16] _Ibid. _, p. 67 f. ]
[17] In general the devil is more closely related to the
clown, and the Vice to the fool. In some cases, however, the devil
is to be identified with the fool, and the Vice with the clown.
2. _Jonson's Treatment of the Devil_
In the present play the devil-type is represented by the arch-fiend
Satan and his stupid subordinate, Pug. Of these two Satan received
more of the formal conventional elements of the older drama, while Pug
for the most part represents the later or clownish figure. As in the
morality-play Satan's chief function is the instruction of his emissary
of evil. In no scene does he come into contact with human beings, and
he is always jealously careful for the best interests of his state. In
addition Jonson employs one purely conventional attribute belonging to
the tradition of the church- and morality-plays. This is the cry of
'Ho, ho! ', with which Satan makes his entrance upon the stage in the
first scene. [18] Other expressions of emotion were also used, but 'Ho,
ho! ' came in later days to be recognized as the conventional cry of the
fiend upon making his entrance. [19]
How the character of Satan was to be represented is of course
impossible to determine. The devil in the pre-Shakespearian drama was
always a grotesque figure, often provided with the head of a beast and
a cow's tail. [20] In the presentation of Jonson's play the ancient
tradition was probably followed. Satan's speeches, however, are not
undignified, and too great grotesqueness of costume must have resulted
in considerable incongruity.
In the figure of Pug few of the formal elements of the
pre-Shakespearian devil are exhibited. He remains, of course, the
ostensible champion of evil, but is far surpassed by his earthly
associates, both in malice and in intellect. In personal appearance he
is brought by the assumption of the body and dress of a human being
into harmony with his environment. A single conventional episode,
with a reversal of the customary proceeding, is retained from the
morality-play. While Pug is languishing in prison, Iniquity appears,
Pug mounts upon his back, and is carried off to hell. Iniquity comments
upon it:
The Diuell was wont to carry away the euill;
But, now, the Euill out-carries the Diuell.
That the practice above referred to was a regular or even
a frequent feature of the morality-play has been disputed,
but the evidence seems fairly conclusive that it was common
in the later and more degenerate moralities. At any rate,
like the cry of 'Ho, ho! ' it had come to be looked upon
as part of the regular stock in trade, and this was enough
for Jonson's purpose. [21] This motive of the Vice riding the
devil had changed from a passive to an active comic part.
Instead of the devil's prey he had become in the eyes of
the spectators the devil's tormentor. Jonson may be looked
upon as reverting, perhaps unconsciously, to the original
and truer conception.
In other respects Pug exhibits only the characteristics of the
inheritor of the devil's comedy part, the butt or clown. As we have
seen, one of the chief sources, as well as one of the constant modes
of manifestation, of this figure was the servant or man of low social
rank. Pug, too, on coming to earth immediately attaches himself to
Fitzdottrel as a servant, and throughout his brief sojourn on earth he
continues to exhibit the wonted stupidity and clumsy uncouthness of
the clown. He appears, to be sure, in a fine suit of clothes, but he
soon shows himself unfit for the position of gentleman-usher, and his
stupidity appears at every turn. The important element in the clown's
comedy part, of a contrast between intention and accomplishment,
is of course exactly the sort of fun inspired by Pug's repeated
discomfiture. With the clown it often takes the form of blunders
in speech, and his desire to appear fine and say the correct thing
frequently leads him into gross absurdities. This is brought out with
broad humor in 4. 4. 219, where Pug, on being catechized as to what
he should consider 'the height of his employment', stumbles upon the
unfortunate suggestion: 'To find out a good _Corne-cutter_'. His
receiving blows at the hand of his master further distinguishes him
as a clown. The investing of Pug with such attributes was, as we have
seen, no startling innovation on Jonson's part. Moreover, it fell
into line with his purpose in this play, and was the more acceptable
since it allowed him to make use of the methods of realism instead
of forcing him to draw a purely conventional figure. Pug, of course,
even in his character of clown, is not the unrelated stock-figure,
introduced merely for the sake of inconsequent comic dialogue and rough
horse-play. His part is important and definite, though not sufficiently
developed.
[18] In the Digby group of miracle-plays roaring by the devil is a
prominent feature. Stage directions in _Paul_ provide for 'cryeing
and rorying' and Belial enters with the cry, 'Ho, ho, behold me'.
Among the moralities _The Disobedient Child_ may be mentioned.
[19] So in _Gammer Gurton's Needle_, c 1562, we read: 'But
Diccon, Diccon, did not the devil cry ho, ho, ho? ' Cf. also the
translation of Goulart's Histories, 1607 (quoted by Sharp, p. 59):
'The fellow--coming to the stove--sawe the Diuills in horrible
formes, some sitting, some standing, others walking, some ramping
against the walles, but al of them, assoone as they beheld him,
crying Hoh, hoh, what makest thou here? '
[20] Cf. the words of Robin Goodfellow in _Wily Beguiled_
(_O. Pl. _, 4th ed. , 9. 268): 'I'll put me on my great carnation-nose,
and wrap me in a rowsing calf-skin suit and come like some hobgoblin,
or some devil ascended from the grisly pit of hell'.
[21] Cushman points out that it occurs in only one drama,
that of _Like will to Like_. He attributes the currency of the notion
that this mode of exit was the regular one to the famous passage in
Harsnet's _Declaration of Popish Impostures_ (p. 114, 1603): 'It was
a pretty part in the old church-playes, when the nimble Vice would
skip up nimbly like a jackanapes into the devil's necke, and ride the
devil a course, and belabour him with his wooden dagger, till he made
him roare, whereat the people would laugh to see the devil so
vice-haunted'. The moralities and tragedies give no indication of
hostility between Vice and devil. Cushman believes therefore that
Harsnet refers either to some lost morality or to 'Punch and Judy'.
It is significant, however, that in 'Punch and Judy', which gives
indications of being a debased descendant of the morality, the devil
enters with the evident intention of carrying the hero off to hell.
The joke consists as in the present play in a reversal of the usual
proceeding. Eckhardt (p. 85 n. ) points out that the Vice's cudgeling
of the devil was probably a mere mirth-provoking device, and
indicated no enmity between the two. Moreover the motive of the
devil as an animal for riding is not infrequent. In the _Castle of
Perseverance_ the devil carries away the hero, Humanum Genus. The
motive appears also in Greene's _Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay_ and
Lodge and Greene's _Looking Glass for London and England_, and
especially in _Histriomastix_, where the Vice rides a roaring devil
(Eckhardt, pp. 86 f. ). We have also another bit of evidence from
Jonson himself. In _The Staple of News_ Mirth relates her reminiscences
of the old comedy. In speaking of the devil she says: 'He
would carry away the Vice on his back quick to hell in every play'.
3. _The Influence of Robin Goodfellow and of Popular Legend_
A constant element of the popular demonology was the belief in the
kobold or elfish sprite. This figure appears in the mysteries in
the shape of Titivillus, but is not found in the moralities. Robin
Goodfellow, however, makes his appearance in at least three comedies,
_Midsummer Night's Dream_, 1593-4, _Grim, the Collier of Croyden_,
c 1600, and _Wily Beguiled_, 1606. The last of these especially
approaches Jonson's conception. Here Robin Goodfellow is a malicious
intriguer, whose nature, whether human or diabolical, is left somewhat
in doubt. His plans are completely frustrated, he is treated with
contempt, and is beaten by Fortunatus. The character was a favorite
with Jonson. In the masque of _The Satyr_, 1603,[22] that character
is addressed as Pug, which here seems evidently equivalent to Puck or
Robin Goodfellow. Similarly Thomas Heywood makes Kobald, Hobgoblin,
Robin Goodfellow, and Pug practically identical. [23] Butler, in the
_Hudibras_,[24] gives him the combination-title of good 'Pug-Robin'.
Jonson's character of Pug was certainly influenced in some degree both
by the popular and the literary conception of this 'lubber fiend'.
The theme of a stupid or outwitted devil occurred also both in ballad
literature[25] and in popular legend. Roskoff[26] places the change in
attitude toward the devil from a feeling of fear to one of superiority
at about the end of the eleventh century. The idea of a baffled devil
may have been partially due to the legends of the saints, where the
devil is constantly defeated, though he is seldom made to appear stupid
or ridiculous. The notion of a 'stupid devil' is not very common in
English, but occasionally appears. In the Virgilius legend the fiend
is cheated of his reward by stupidly putting himself into the physical
power of the wizard. In the Friar Bacon legend the necromancer delivers
an Oxford gentleman by a trick of sophistry. [27] In the story upon
which the drama of _The Merry Devil of Edmonton_ was founded, the devil
is not only cleverly outwitted, but appears weak and docile in his
indulgence of the wizard's plea for a temporary respite. It may be said
in passing, in spite of Herford's assertion to the contrary, that the
supernatural machinery in this play has considerably less connection
with the plot than in _The Devil is an Ass_. Both show a survival of
a past interest, of which the dramatist himself realizes the obsolete
character.
[22] Cf. also _Love Restored_, 1610-11, and the
character of Puck Hairy in _The Sad Shepherd_.
[23] _Hierarchie of the Blessed Angels_ 9.
[24] Part 3. Cant. 1, l. 1415.
[25] Cf. _Devil in Britain and America_, ch. 2.
[26] _Geschichte des Teufels_ 1. 316, 395.
[27] Hazlitt, _Tales_, pp. 39, 83.
4. _Friar Rush and Dekker_
It was the familiar legend of Friar Rush which furnished the groundwork
of Jonson's play. The story seems to be of Danish origin, and first
makes its appearance in England in the form of a prose history
during the latter half of the sixteenth century. It is entered in
the _Stationer's Register_ 1567-8, and mentioned by Reginald Scot in
1584.
[28] As early as 1566, however, the figure of Friar Rush on a
'painted cloth' was a familiar one, and is so mentioned in _Gammer
Gurton's Needle_. [29] The first extant edition dates from 1620, and has
been reprinted by W. J. Thoms. [30] The character had already become
partially identified with that of Robin Goodfellow,[31] and this
identification, as we have seen, Jonson was inclined to accept.
In spite of many variations of detail the kernel of the Rush story is
precisely that of Jonson's play, the visit of a devil to earth with
the purpose of corrupting men. Both Rush and Pug assume human bodies,
the former being 'put in rayment like an earthly creature', while the
latter is made subject 'to all impressions of the flesh'.
Rush, unlike his counterpart, is not otherwise bound to definite
conditions, but he too becomes a servant. The adventure is not of his
own seeking; he is chosen by agreement of the council, and no mention
is made of the emissary's willingness or unwillingness to perform
his part. Later, however, we read that he stood at the gate of the
religious house 'all alone and with a heavie countenance'. In the
beginning, therefore, he has little of Pug's thirst for adventure,
but his object is at bottom the same, 'to goe and dwell among these
religious men for to maintaine them the longer in their ungracious
living'. Like Pug, whose request for a Vice is denied him, he goes
unaccompanied, and presents himself at the priory in the guise of a
young man seeking service: 'Sir, I am a poore young man, and am out of
service, and faine would have a maister'. [32]
Most of the remaining incidents of the Rush story could not be used
in Jonson's play. Two incidents may be mentioned. Rush furthers the
amours of his master, as Pug attempts to do those of his mistress.
In the later history of Rush the motive of demoniacal possession is
worked into the plot. In a very important respect, however, the legend
differs from the play. Up to the time of discovery Rush is popular
and successful. He is nowhere made ridiculous, and his mission of
corruption is in large measure fulfilled. The two stories come together
in their conclusion. The discovery that a real devil has been among
them is the means of the friars' conversion and future right living. A
precisely similar effect takes place in the case of Fitzdottrel.
The legend of Friar Rush had already twice been used
in the drama before it was adopted by Jonson. The play
by Day and Haughton to which Henslowe refers[33] is not
extant; Dekker's drama, _If this be not a good Play, the
Diuell is in it_, appeared in 1612. Jonson in roundabout
fashion acknowledged his indebtedness to this play by the
closing line of his prologue.
If this Play doe not like, the Diuell is in't.
Dekker's play adds few new elements to the story. The first scene is
in the infernal regions; not, however, the Christian hell, as in the
prose history, but the classical Hades. This change seems to have
been adopted from Machiavelli. Three devils are sent to earth with
the object of corrupting men and replenishing hell. They return, on
the whole, successful, though the corrupted king of Naples is finally
redeemed.
In certain respects, however, the play stands closer to Jonson's drama
than the history. In the first place, the doctrine that hell's vices
are both old-fashioned and outdone by men, upon which Satan lays so
much stress in his instructions to Pug in the first scene, receives a
like emphasis in Dekker:
. . . 'tis thought
That men to find hell, now, new waies have sought,
As Spaniards did to the Indies.
and again:
. . . aboue vs dwell,
Diuells brauer, and more subtill then in Hell. [34]
and finally:
They scorne thy hell, hauing better of their owne.
In the second place Lurchall, unlike Rush, but in the same way
as Pug, finds himself inferior to his earthly associates. He
acknowledges himself overreached by Bartervile, and confesses:
I came to teach, but now (me thinkes) must learne.
A single correspondence of lesser importance may be added. Both devils,
when asked whence they come, obscurely intimate their hellish origin.
Pug says that he comes from the Devil's Cavern in Derbyshire. Rufman
asserts that his home is Helvetia. [35]
[28] _Discovery_, p. 522.
[29] _O. Pl. _, 4th ed. , 3. 213.
[30] _Early Eng. Prose Romances_, London 1858.
[31] See Herford's discussion, _Studies_, p. 305; also _Quarterly
Rev. _ 22. 358. The frequently quoted passage from Harsnet's
_Declaration_ (ch. 20, p. 134), is as follows: 'And if that the bowle
of curds and cream were not duly set out for Robin Goodfellow, the
Friar, and Sisse the dairy-maide, why then either the pottage was
burnt the next day, or the cheese would not curdle', etc. Cf. also
Scot, _Discovery_, p. 67: 'Robin could both eate and drinke, as being
a cousening idle frier, or some such roge, that wanted nothing either
belonging to lecherie or knaverie, &c'.
[32] Cf. Pug's words, 1. 3. 1 f.
[33] See Herford, p. 308.
[34] A similar passage is found in Dekker, _Whore of Babylon_,
_Wks. _ 2. 355. The sentiment is not original with Dekker.
Cf. Middleton, _Black Book_, 1604:
. . . And were it number'd well,
There are more devils on earth than are in hell.
[35] Dekker makes a similar pun on Helicon in _News from
Hell_, _Non-dram Wks. _ 2. 95.
5. _The Novella of Belfagor and the Comedy of Grim_
The relation between Jonson's play and the novella attributed to
Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1522) has been treated in much detail by Dr.
Ernst Hollstein. Dr. Hollstein compares the play with the first known
English translation, that by the Marquis of Wharton in 1674. [36] It is
probable, however, that Jonson knew the novella in its Italian shape,
if he knew it at all. [37] The Italian text has therefore been taken as
the basis of the present discussion, while Dr. Hollstein's results, so
far as they have appeared adequate or important, have been freely used.
. . . And were it number'd well,
There are more devils on earth than are in hell.
]
Both novella and play depart from the same idea, the visit of a devil
to earth to lead a human life. Both devils are bound by certain
definite conditions. Belfagor must choose a wife, and live with her ten
years; Pug must return at midnight. Belfagor, like Pug, must be subject
to 'ogni infortunio nel quale gli uomini scorrono'.
In certain important respects Machiavelli's story differs essentially
from Jonson's. Both Dekker and Machiavelli place the opening scene in
the classical Hades instead of in the Christian hell. But Dekker's
treatment of the situation is far more like Jonson's than is the
novella's. Herford makes the distinction clear: 'Macchiavelli's Hades
is the council-chamber of an Italian Senate, Dekker's might pass for
some tavern haunt of Thames watermen. Dekker's fiends are the drudges
of Pluto, abused for their indolence, flogged at will, and peremptorily
sent where he chooses. Machiavelli's are fiends whose advice he
requests with the gravest courtesy and deference, and who give it
with dignity and independence'. Further, the whole object of the
visit, instead of being the corruption of men, is a mere sociological
investigation. Pug is eager to undertake his mission; Belfagor is
chosen by lot, and very loath to go. Pug becomes a servant, Belfagor a
nobleman.
But in one very important matter the stories coincide, that of the
general character and fate of the two devils. As Hollstein points out,
each comes with a firm resolve to do his best, each finds at once that
his opponents are too strong for him, each through his own docility
and stupidity meets repulse after repulse, ending in ruin, and each is
glad to return to hell. This, of course, involves the very essence of
Jonson's drama, and on its resemblance to the novella must be based any
theory that Jonson was familiar with the latter.
Of resemblance of specific details not much can be made. The two
stories have in common the feature of demoniacal possession, but
this, as we have seen, occurs also in the Rush legend. The fact that
the princess speaks Latin, while Fitzdottrel surprises his auditors
by his 'several languages', is of no more significance. This is one
of the stock indications of witchcraft. It is mentioned by Darrel,
and Jonson could not have overlooked a device so obvious. Certain
other resemblances pointed out by Dr. Hollstein are of only the most
superficial nature. On the whole we are not warranted in concluding
with any certainty that Jonson knew the novella at all.
On the other hand, he must have been acquainted with
the comedy of _Grim, the Collier of Croydon_ (c 1600).
Herford makes no allusion to this play, and, though it was
mentioned as a possible source by A. W. Ward,[38] the subject
has never been investigated. The author of _Grim_ uses the
Belfagor legend for the groundwork of his plot, but handles
his material freely. In many respects the play is a close
parallel to _The Devil is an Ass_. The same respect for the
vices of earth is felt as in Dekker's and Jonson's plays.
Belphegor sets out to
. . . make experiment
If hell be not on earth as well as here.
The circumstances of the sending bear a strong resemblance to the
instructions given to Pug:
Thou shalt be subject unto human chance,
So far as common wit cannot relieve thee.
But whatsover happens in that time,
Look not from us for succour or relief.
This shalt thou do, and when the time's expired,
Bring word to us what thou hast seen and done.
So in Jonson:
. . . but become subject
To all impression of the flesh, you take,
So farre as humane frailty: . . .
But as you make your soone at nights relation,
And we shall find, it merits from the State,
You shall haue both trust from vs, and imployment.
Belphegor is described as 'patient, mild, and pitiful'; and during his
sojourn on earth he shows little aptitude for mischief, but becomes
merely a butt and object of abuse. Belphegor's request for a companion,
unlike that of Pug, is granted. He chooses his servant Akercock,
who takes the form of Robin Goodfellow. Robin expresses many of the
sentiments to be found in the mouth of Pug. With the latter's monologue
(Text, 5. 2) compare Robin's exclamation:
Zounds, I had rather be in hell than here.
Neither Pug (Text, 2. 5. 3-4) nor Robin dares to return without
authority:
What shall I do? to hell I dare not go,
Until my master's twelve months be expir'd.
Like Pug (Text, 5. 6. 3-10) Belphegor worries over his reception in
hell:
How shall I give my verdict up to Pluto
Of all these accidents?
Finally Belphegor's sensational disappearance through the
yawning earth comes somewhat nearer to Jonson than does
the Italian original. The English comedy seems, indeed,
to account adequately for all traces of the Belfagor story
to be found in Jonson's play.
[36] A paraphrase of _Belfagor_ occurs in the Conclusion of
Barnaby Riche's _Riche his Farewell to Militarie Profession_, 1581,
published for the Shakespeare Society by J. P. Collier, 1846. The
name is changed to Balthasar, but the main incidents are the same.
[37] Jonson refers to Machiavelli's political writings in
_Timber_ (ed. Schelling, p. 38).
[38] _Eng. Dram. Lit. _ 2. 606.
6. _Summary_
It is certain that of the two leading ideas of Jonson's comedy, the
sending of a devil to earth with the object of corrupting men is
derived from the Rush legend. It is probable that the no less important
motive of a baffled devil, happy to make his return to hell, is due
either directly or indirectly to Machiavelli's influence. This motive,
as we have seen, was strengthened by a body of legend and by the
treatment of the devil in the morality play.
7. _The Figure of the Vice_
It is the figure of the Vice which makes Jonson's satire on the
out-of-date moralities most unmistakable. This character has been
the subject of much study and discussion, and there is to-day no
universally accepted theory as to his origin and development. In the
literature of Jonson's day the term Vice is almost equivalent to
harlequin. But whether this element of buffoonery is the fundamental
trait of the character, and that of intrigue is due to a confusion
in the meaning of the word, or whether the element of intrigue is
original, and that of buffoonery has taken its place by a process of
degeneration in the Vice himself, is still a disputed question.
The theory of Cushman and of Eckhardt is substantially the same,
and may be stated as follows. Whether or not the Vice be a direct
descendant of the devil, it is certain that he falls heir to his
predecessor's position in the drama, and that his development is
strongly influenced by that character. Originally, like the devil, he
represents the principle of evil and may be regarded as the summation
of the seven deadly sins. From the beginning, however, he possessed
more comic elements, much being ready made for him through the partial
degeneration of the devil, while the material of the moralities was
by no means so limited in scope as that of the mysteries. This comic
element, comparatively slight at first, soon began to be cultivated
intentionally, and gradually assumed the chief function, while the
allegorical element was largely displaced. In course of time the
transformation from the intriguer to the buffoon became complete. [39]
Moreover, the rapidity of the transformation was hastened by the
influence of the fool, a new dramatic figure of independent origin,
but the partial successor upon the stage of the Vice's comedy part. As
early as 1570 the union of fool and Vice is plainly visible. [40] In
1576 we find express stage directions given for the Vice to fill in
the pauses with improvised jests. [41] Two years later a Vice plays the
leading role for the last time. [42] By 1584 the Vice has completely
lost his character of intriguer[43], and in the later drama he appears
only as an antiquated figure, where he is usually considered as
identical with the fool or jester. [44] Cushman enumerates the three
chief roles of the Vice as the opponent of the Good; the corrupter of
man; and the buffoon.
The Vice, however, is not confined to the moralities, but appears
frequently in the comic interludes. According to the theory of Cushman,
the name Vice stands in the beginning for a moral and abstract idea,
that of the principle of evil in the world, and must have originated
in the moralities; and since it is applied to a comic personage in
the interludes, this borrowing must have taken place after the period
of degeneration had already begun. To this theory Chambers[45] offers
certain important objections. He points out that, although 'vices in
the ordinary sense of the word are of course familiar personages in the
morals', the term Vice is not applied specifically to a character in
'any pre-Elizabethan moral interlude except the Marian _Respublica_',
1553. Furthermore, 'as a matter of fact, he comes into the interlude
through the avenue of the farce'. The term is first applied to the
leading comic characters in the farces of John Heywood, _Love_ and
_The Weather_, 1520-30. These characters have traits more nearly
resembling those of the fool and clown than those of the intriguer of
the moralities. Chambers concludes therefore that 'the character of the
vice is derived from that of the domestic fool or jester', and that
the term was borrowed by the authors of the moralities from the comic
interludes.
These two views are widely divergent, and seem at first wholly
irreconcilable. The facts of the case, however, are, I believe,
sufficiently clear to warrant the following conclusions: (1) The early
moralities possessed many allegorical characters representing vices
in the ordinary sense of the word. (2) From among these vices we may
distinguish in nearly every play a single character as in a preeminent
degree the embodiment of evil. (3) To this chief character the name of
Vice was applied about 1553, and with increasing frequency after that
date.
