"
However, even the siitras do speak of the three groups of creatures [Hearers, Solitary Buddhas, and Buddhas], and use the species of precious gems to exemplify the five types of Families among creatures: [No-Family, Uncertain Family, Hearer, Solitary Buddha, BuddhaJ.
However, even the siitras do speak of the three groups of creatures [Hearers, Solitary Buddhas, and Buddhas], and use the species of precious gems to exemplify the five types of Families among creatures: [No-Family, Uncertain Family, Hearer, Solitary Buddha, BuddhaJ.
Richard-Sherburne-A-Lamp-for-the-Path-and-Commentary-of-Atisha
"21 [296a]
This concludes what I mean by striving to expand fully.
Progress-Thought of Enlightenment
Origin in Sutras
To point out the wider expansion of the Thought in the three degrees22 the Venerable Ones speak of, I wrote:
A RIGHT RESOLVE WILL NOT BE FURTHERED
WITHOUT VOWS THAT HAVE PROGRESS IN MIND; THEREFORE HE WHO SEEKS GROWTH IN THE RESOLVE FOR PERFECT ENLIGHTENMENT, EARNESTLY TAKES THEM. (19]
The words "THAT HAVE PROGRESS IN MIND" refer to the
? THE ENLIGHTENMENT THOUGHT 59 purified Higher Intention, as described in this passage from
the Heavenly Treasure Sutra:
"0 Noble Youth, what virtues comprise the Enlighten- ment Thought so that one keeps it without regressing? And Gaganagaiija replied:
" '0 Noble Youth, two virtues comprise the Enlight- enment Thought so one keeps it without regressing: Intention and Higher Intention. Intention is comprised of sincerity and guilelessness. Higher Intention is com- prised of detachment in its Intention and of superior
behaviour.
" 'In tum, these four virtues are comprised of eight
others. Sincerity is comprised of openness and candour. Guilelessness is GOmprised of artlessness and pure motives. Detachment is comprised of a mind that is not timid and a zeal which is not faint-hearted. Superior behaviour is comprised of the equipment of knowledge and the equipment ofmerit . . . ' "23
And so he continues combining virtues on up to one hundred and eight of them. You should study the siitra itself for the entire description. And again, in the Compendium o f Doctrine Sutra: [296b]
"Higher Intention is the desire for special qualities: Higher Intention is gentleness toward living things. It is love for all creatures. It is reverence for all the Exalted Ones. It is compassion for all worldlings. It is faithful service to the Guru. It is to be a refuge, protector, island, and last resort for all who are without refuge, protector, island or last resort. " 24
And again in the same siitra:
"For bodhisattvas with Pure Intention the Doctrine comes forth even from things like the sky, walls, trees, rivers and forests; counsel and instruction comes forth right from their own practice. "25
And in the A~ayamati Sutra:
? 60 A LAMP FOR THE PATH AND COMMENTARY
"V enerable Sariputra, moreover, the bodhisattvas' Higher Intention is imperishable. Why? Because it is more highly supported by all the basic virtues. Nay more, every single thought a bodhisattva has is supported by his Higher Intention [arising] from his virtuous motivation. The transmigrations which lift him from Level to Level
are because of his Higher Intention. . . . Again I say, Venerable Sariputra, this Higher Intention of? the bodhisattva is imperishable. "26
From these passages it may be seen that just as the best forests and harvests grow from good ground, so you should understand that all virtues of the Buddha will grow and increase from the good ground of Conduct. That is my
analysis of the matter.
Difference between Resolve and Progress
In regard to the meaning of the Resolve-Thought of Enlightenment and the Progress-Thought of Enlighten- ment, great scholars of both past and present have given many different explanations. I do indeed understand their interpretations, but. I omit expounding them here lest I be too wordy. But the meaning of the two kinds of Thought is clear in the siitras themselves. For instance, the Stalks in Array says: [297a]
"0 Noble Youth, rare are the beings who beget the resolution for Supreme Perfect Enlightenment; but rarer still are those who have set out towards it. "27
And Acarya Santideva in his Compendium of Training:
"The Enlightenment Thought is of two kinds: the Thought which resolves upon Enlightenment, and the Thought which progresses towards it. "28
Again in his Progress in Practice:
"Just as one knows the difference Between desiring to go and going;
? THE ENLIGHTENMENT THOUGHT 61 So the wise man should know the difference
Of those two stages in the Thought. " 29 And in the Compendium ofTraining again:
"In this matter, the Resolve-Thought arises from the resolution: 'I must become a Buddha. ' "30
Consequently, Resolve-Thought is the focusing and fixing on Perfect Enlightenment as the goal, as Maitreyanatha says in his Ornament o f Realisations: "This begetting of the Thought is the desire for ? complete and perfect Enlightenment for the sake of others. "31 And Progress- Thought is the focusing and fixing on the virtues of Path, as
he says in the Ornament ofthe Sutras:
"[1] First is begetting the Thought, [2] then: one's own and others' good, [3] Thatness, [4] Power, [5] one's own Buddha-field, [6] the maturing of others, [7] and seventh: the highest Enlightenment. ? m
Therefore, the Thought of Enlightenment itself, both at the time ofits cause and at the time ofits result, is altogether one and the same reality. [29Th] The distinguishing of it into stages shows that this is true. Maitreyanatha explains them in detail in these words:
"Hence, it is like: [1] the Earth, [2] Gold, [3] the Moon, [4] Fire, [5] Treasure, [6] a Jewel Mine, [7] the Ocean, [8] a Diamond, [9] a Mountain, [10] Medicine, [11] a Spiritual Friend, [12] a Wish-granting Gem, [13] the Sun, [14] a Song, [15] a King, [16] a Storehouse, [17] a High- way, [18] a Carriage, [19] a Fountain, [20] a pleasant Sound, [21] a River, and [22] a Cloud. With these, the Thought is of twenty-two kinds. "33
The [first] two are the Enlightenment Thought as cause. The [next] seventeen are the Thought during the Path. The
[last] three are the Thought as fruition.
[Or again] the first two are Resolve-Thought; the
? 62 A LAMP FOR THE PATH AND COMMENTARY
remaining twenty are Progress-Thought. In still another enumeration, the first three are the Thought while it is a cause? the next sixteen during the Path; the last three as the time ~ffruition. For the complete meaning of these [similes for stages], you must study the Ornament of Realisations
itself. 3 4
1 2
Notes to Chapter 2
Ot. 716, Vol. 11:286. 3.
mar 'du-shes. The phrase has the twofold meaning of treating others as a mother treats her child, and also the [Buddhist] recognition that in the cycle of rebirths and the countless destinies one has experienced as a sentient being, every other creature has at some time and place functioned as one's mother in that particular body. The method of developing compassion that Atisa presents here became a very popular Dge-lugs-pa "mind-purification" (blo-sbyong) exercise. known as the "Seven Cause and Effect Instruction'' (rgyu 'bras man-ngag bdun). From Ati5a's four steps, Tsong-kha-pa and later writers created seven:
3
phyag-rgya chen-po: lit. , "Great Seal". This is part of the initiation practice in Union and Supreme Union (yoga, anuttara yoga) Tantra. The powers (dngos-grub/siddhi) are described in Atlsa's final chapter of the Commen- tary.
mar shes: Perceiving as a Mother causes
dr. in dran: Mindfulness of Kindness causes
drin gzo: Repayment of Kindness causes byams-pa: Affectionate Love causes
snying-rje chen-po: Great Compassion causes lhag-bsam rnam-dag: Pure Higher Motive causes byang-sems: the Thought of Enlightenment.
I)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
See Theory and Practice o f Tibetan Buddhism by Geshe Lhundup Sopa, pp. 28-32, for a translation of the Fourth Panchen Lama's presentation of the practice.
4 See Chart 1: The Five Paths. Achievement of the "Highest Mundane Virtue" indicates that a bodhisattva is ready to pass on to his personal direct
5
6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
experience of the Four Truths in the Vision Path.
Atisa refers to his Ritual for Begetting the Thought (Ot. 5364). Ot. 842, Vol. 34:39. 5ff.
Joe. cit.
BCA: I:12.
InSS: p. 5.
In SS: p. 43.
Ot. ' 5536, V ol. 102:196. 3. BCA: V:104.
In SS: pp. 37-8.
In SS: p. 39.
Ot. 5538, Vol. U0:189. 3ff. In SS: p. 10.
SS: p. 10.
? 18 19 20 21 22
23 24
In SS: p. 9.
InSS: pp. 10-11.
Ot. 5403, Vol. 110:204. 4.
Ot. 760(43), Vol. 24:188. 5.
spel-ba rnam-pa gsum. The three degrees of expanding the Enlightenment Thought are the customary three degrees of any attainment as applied here:
THE ENLIGHTENMENT THOUGHT 63
Weak/Inferior (chung): Resolution-Thought; Medium/Mediocre ('bring): Progress-Thought; Strong/Superior (che): Vowed-Thought.
1)
2)
3)
Ot. 815, Vol. 33:28. 3.
In SS: p. 260. The quote is actually from the Surra Set Forth by Ak~ayamati (Ot. 842: Vol. 34:42. 1).
In SS: p. 259.
Ot. 842, Vol. 34:41. 5.
25
26
27 InSS:p. 9.
28 29 30 31 32 33 34
SS: p. 9.
BCA: 1:16.
SS: p. 9.
Ot. 5184, Vol. 88:3. 3.
Ot. 5521, Vol. 108:7. 5.
Ornament ofRealisations, Ot. 5184, Vol. 88:3. 3
The divisions of the twenty-two similes and their corresponding virtues or qualities into stages of Cause-Path-Result are not found explicitly in the Ornament o f Realisations, but rather in the many commentaries on them; e. g. , Maitreyanatha's Ornament of Sutras (Ot. 5521) and Asanga's com-
mentary (bhci~ya) on Maitreyanatha's work (Ot. 5527), and a small text by Sri-jiianakirti, the Instruction in the Steps o f Contemplation in the Perfection Vehicle (Ot. 5456).
? I
II
III IV v
VI
PRATIMOK~A REQUISI1E FOR BODHISATIVA VOW
Stanza Page
20 66
67 67 67
21a 69
69 70 71
71 21b 72 74
75 75 75
76
76 76 77 78 78 78
VII
SUMMA TION OF THE DISCIPLINE
2lb 79
A B c
Fit receptacles for Mahayana Objections concerning Family Middle Way and Mind-Only views
RANKS OF THE COMMUNITY
A B c
Seven Only
Lay Devotee and Novice Monk and Nun
CHAPTER 3
The Monastic Life
THE EIGHTEEN SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM THE GLORIOUS PURE LIFE: THE MONK
ACTS OF THE COMMUNITY
A Persons
B Non-Person
c Ten Ways of Ordination
CONCERNING VOWS
A -D Preparation and Taking E Giving up Vows
F NatureofVows
G Transgression
H Preventing Transgression
I Rising from Transgression
? 3
The Monastic Life
Pratimo~a Requisite for Bodhisattva Vow
Fit receptacles for Mahayana
I have described how the precious Thought of Enlighten- ment should be expanded in its special way, and that one must actually take vows of Conduct in order to increase it. I want to show now what persons constitute the special receptacles for the [Bodhisattva] Vow of Conduct by my verse:
ONLY HE WHO HAS LASTING VOWS IN
ONE OF PRATIMOK~A'S SEVEN RANKS
IS FIT FOR THE VOW OF THE BODHISA TTV A;
THERE IS NO OTHER WAY FOR IT TO BE. (Stanza 20]
But here you may object: "Did you not state at the beginning 'THAT PERSON IS A SUPERIOR' (Stanza 5) and 'FOR THOSE PURJ; BEINGS WHOSE DESIRE IS THE HIGHEST OF ENLIGHTENMENTS' [Stanza 6]? Then how can what you say now [in this stanza] be true? Here you hold that this [Pratimok~a person] is the pure receptacle, and make the earlier [Superior Person] less pure. "
My meaning here has been stated by niy venerable Guru, the glorious Bodhibhadra, in his Commentary on "Twenty Verses on the Vow":
"The vows of the Pratimok~a have become ancillary to the Bodhisattva vow, and they should be understood as part of the whole. Therefore, the meaning of [Asanga's] 'This pledge of [Pratimok~a] training should also be taken' is that the person who has the vows of Pratimok~a is a fit vessel for taking the Bodhisattva vow correctly.
? [298a] For there is simply no other [Buddhist] rule [that binds one] to refrain from killing, stealing, unchastity and so on. Even the fit vessel for taking the Bodhisattva Vow adds no [new rules] of refraining from these [unvirtuous deeds]. " 1
Objections concerning Family
Well now, it is true there are those of "No-Family"/ as yet undisposed toward Mahayana, who have [physical or external] impediments to the PriHimok~a system,3 [and thus are unjustly prevented from taking the Bodhisattva V ow even if they developed the desire]. [And I know] there are those who already have the Bodhisattva Vow but have never taken the Pratimok~a vow, or [have taken it and] were expelled for offences,4 or [just] gave up the training,
or rejected the life of virtue [altogether]. But if it is not the Pratimok~a vow [that binds one to refrain from basic sins], then where you can you possibly look for another?
Hence I say here: Could there be a bodhisattva who does not refrain from killing, stealing, unchastity and so forth? The answer is no. Because the siitras say these are basic failures in a bodhisattva as well. That being so, the Pratimok~a vow is necessary first of all, and is the very prerequisite for the Bodhisattva Vow. Of course, if
someone has practised Mahayana in other births and remains in the Mahayana Family, there is nothing wrong with having taken the Bodhisattva Vow first because his natural state is not to commit sin.
Middle Way and Mind-Only Views
Then again, if you interpret the Mahayana Middle Way system strictly, a vessel for Mahayana does not exist anywhere at all [in the first place]. All creatures are one and the same Family and are "endowed with the essence of a Tathagata". 5 As it is said:
"There is no fitness or unfitness
For higher Levels. All become Buddha. Therefore, to achieve the perfect Awakening, act to [your] capacity. " [298b]
THE MONASTIC LIFE 67
? 68 A LAMP FOR THE PATH AND COMMENTARY And in the Compendium ofThatness: A Major Tantra:
"Yea, I do not try to examine who is and who is not a vessel for entering the great mal). <;lala. And why is that, you ask? . . . "6
And the Acarya Aryadeva says:
"As beginners one gives to creatures Whatever it is they wish, because There is no vessel for Holy Doctrine; It has no existence anywhere at all. " 7
And so, because all creatures are of one and the same Family, Ajitanatha says:
"Because the Ultimate Element8 is undifferentiated, distinct Families are impossible. "
And noble Nagarjuna:
" I f there is no distinguishing a chief Vehicle Becau? se the Ultimate Element is undifferentiated, Then your teaching that there are Three Vehicles Is simply to help creatures progress [on the Path].
"
However, even the siitras do speak of the three groups of creatures [Hearers, Solitary Buddhas, and Buddhas], and use the species of precious gems to exemplify the five types of Families among creatures: [No-Family, Uncertain Family, Hearer, Solitary Buddha, BuddhaJ. But the Com- mentaries say these refer only to temporary stages. To quote the venerable Suvafl). advipa:
"WhenscripturesaystherearetwotypesofFamily,9 the True Nature [dharmata] Family and the Striving Family, it means that one remains in the Striving Family only as a temporary stage, but when it treats of the True Nature Family there are no distinctions whatever. Hence
scholars say that Pratimok~a vows are certainly and
? chiefly necessary [while in the Striving Family]; but [the True Nature Family] is othezwise: [1] the Truth Body pervades all time and all reality; [2] the perfect Enjoy- ment Body remains in its [heavenly] courts, the property of only the Great Lords [Bodhisattvas] of the Ten Levels as they preach the profound and extensive Doctrine of Mahayana exclusively; and [3] the Apparition Body appears only now and then, like the uqumbara fruit; as
the siitras say, 'After this age, there will be sixty ages whenaBuddhadoesnotappear. '"10 [299a]
Hence, the Pratimok~a vow he mentions is also a rare thing because it exists only in our time and is the chief cause that leads to happy destinies. It is the Buddha's teaching that we refrain from sins of killing, stealing, unchastity and the
rest, and since his Teaching endures only as long as the Pratimok~a vows remain- and depends on them- we teach that the vows of the Pratimoksa alone come first.
So, if you are talking about. stages of progress [along the Path], then those previously undisposed toward Mahayana have as their preparation the vows of whichever of the seven Pratimok~a ranks they find suitable. Hence I say correctly in the root text, "ONL Y HE . ? . IS FIT FOR THE VOW OF
THE BODHISATIVA; THERE IS NO OTHER WAY FOR IT TO BE. "
Ranks of the Community
I continue now on the same theme:
THE TATHAGATA HAS SAID THAT OF
THE SEVEN RANKS OF PRATIMOK~A,
THE GLORIOUS PURE LIFE IS HIGHEST;
BY WHICH HE MEANT THE VOWS OF A MONK. (Stanza 21)
What I mean to say here is that the vows of a Monk are unique among the seven ranks.
Seven Only
There may be an objection at the outset that there are eight
THE MONASTIC LIFE 69
? 70 A LAMP FOR THE PATH AND COMMENTARY
Pratimok~a ranks set down in all the basic Discipline texts, and in such Hinayana works as the Progress in Knowledge, the Treasure o f Phenomenology and its useful summaries, and the Major Exposition ofthe "Treasure", therefore how can my saying seven be correct? Well, it is true those texts do propose the number as eight, but noble Asanga establishes it as seven in every section of his Levels ofYoga
Practice and [in particular] in the Chapter on Conduct. [299b] And if we doubt the brilliance of that great man's mind, we are finished. Asanga is a Bodhisattva of the Third Level, who attained a concentration called the "Stream of Truth", and who was prophesied in the Basic Tantra of Maiiju? rf as "that holy man, Asariga, wise in the true meaning of the texts". 11 Does anyone doubt that he heard the entire (siitra] collection directly from Ajitanatha?
In his Commentary on "Twenty Verses on the Vow", the venerable Bodhibhadra says:
"In regard to the vowing of Conduct, vows are taken in the seven ranks of Pratimoksa. That is, the five kinds in the religious life: the Monk and Nun, the Nun-candidate, the male and female Novices; and the two kinds in the Lay state: the male and female Devotees. The practice of One-Day [vows] is not a true ascetical practice, and has not been taught as worthy ofPratimok~a rank since there is no restraint of desires for [any] great length of time. " 12
The Guru who declared this was a great master of the Discipline of the Bodhisattva scriptures. I follow his inter- pretation because he received his instruction in the [Buddhist] trad! tion i~ the unbroken line from noble Nagarjuna and Acarya Santideva.
Lay Devotee and Novice
A few things can be observed here about the sevenfold ranks of Pratimok~a: The [Lay] Devotees are of two types: those who abstain from unlawful sexual activity, and those who abstain even from their own partners. But the training
common to both [types] is: renunciation of the four basic transgressions [killing, stealing, lying, unchastity] and of
? liquor. Some say renunciation of false views [in place of liquor].
In regard to liquor, some Discipline masters interpret it as objectionable by its very nature [300a] but the Phenomenology followers say it is objectionable [only] because its renunciation has been promised. However, I must omit their full presentations here.
For the Devotee, then, there are the five precepts and forty-five rules which [specifically] apply to them. 13 The Novice vows include these fifty practices of the faultless [and celibate] Devotee, [divided] according to whether [their subject matter] must be confessed [when violated] or [whose renunciation) must be vowed [as part of religious life) or are [simply) sinless. 14
Monk and Nun
The training of the Monk is such that of two hundred and fifty-three [rules], twenty-seven must be confessed [when violated], two hundred and thirteen must be vowed, and thirteen pertain to sinless matters [of community governance]. 15
The Nun-candidate correctly observes two hundred and forty rules - that is, all the above, except for the thirteen [rules pertaining to community governance], and including the pure and irreproachable life of the Novice, as well as her Six Basic Rules and Six Rules for Harmony [in the community]. 16
The Nun is pure in her five hundred rules, 17 which include those of the pure Nun-candidate as well as the Monk, together with the training the holy Doctrine and Discipline texts present for the perfecting of the pure Monk.
The Eighteen Schools ofBuddhism
There have been a variety of sects [in the Buddhist Com- munity]: [A] the MahasaJ! lghika, [B] the Sarvastivada, [C] the Sthavira, and [D] the Sammatiya sects. These existed [formerly] in eighteen schools:
[A] The five schools of MahasaiJlghika: the Purvasaila,
THE MONASTIC LIFE 71
? 72 A LAMP FOR THE PATH AND COMMENTARY
the Aparasaila, the Haimavata, the Lokottara-vada, and the Prajfiaptivada. [B] The [seven Sarvastivada]: the Miila, the Kasyapiya, the Dharmagupta, the Mahisasaka, the Vibhajya-vada, [300b] the Bahusrutiya, and TamrasiiFyii.
[C] Three sects of Sthavira: the Mahavihiira-vasina, the Jetavaniya, and the Abhayagiri-vasina. [D] Three sects of Sammatiya: Kaurukullaka, the Avantaka, and the Viitsi- putriya. 18
Some texts differ on this listing, saying that the Vijiiaptiviida belong to Sarvastiviida, but keeping the rest the same. And another text has it:
"[A] Kasyapiya, Dharmagupta, Mahisasaka and Miila-sarvastivada;
[B] Purva, A para, Haimavata,
Prajiiapti, Vibhajya and Lokottaravada; [C] TamrasaFya, Bahusrutiya, Avantaka, Kaurukullaka and Vatsi-putriya;
[D. ] Jetavaniya, Abhaya and Mahavihara.
"In four, six, five and three, They wanted their variety, and Hence the Eighteen Schools.
"The Lion of Sakya's teaching endures Because of the Gurus who went forth of old With the power of his message.
"Though the schools were many,
And great the variety of views,
Due to difference in region and teachers,
Never did they argue about the [Great] Teacher. "19
For their respective differences in the matter of the Rule and views, you must study the great texts on those topics.
The Glorious Pure Life: The Monk
Returning to my root text, the words "THE PURE LIFE" [Stanza 21] refer to renunciation in the matter ofliquor and of women. For the dangers of liquor you can study that subject in the [Discipline] scriptures and the pertinent
? places in the siitra collection. For the danger of women, consult the [Discipline] scriptures also, and the siitras of both Mahayana and Hinayana. For instance, the Hi:nayana siitra The Teaching in Sevens: Sexuality:
[301a] "For example, 0 Brahmin, take a man who promises to live the Pure Life, and never even has an intimate encounter with a woman. But when his eyes behold women's bodies, he is attracted by their shape; he dallies with women and is captivated by their chatter; he becomes absorbed in paying them attentions. Even when he is separated from them by walls and curtains, women's adornments and their singing and dancing and sound of music go right to his heart. And when he sees his neigh- bour indulging his senses with desire, he takes that into
his heart. Y et he still'inakes Bestowal [ofthe merit] of his Pure Life [to gain] a place among the gods! The Pure Life of such a man is altogether impure. "20
And again from the Mahayana siitra, The Seven-fold Way: " I f we ought not cling to Desire even in imagination,
Why mention indulging the senses of sight and touch? " 21
The dangers of Desire in general can be learned from the Questions o f King Udayana-vatsa and the Admonitions on Desire Sutra.
So then, a man who gives a show of living the Pure Life while not [truly] living it, who is proud of the signs and marks of the religious profession, yet treats it con- temptuously thinking "The religious life [simply] means we are bodhisattvas who have the same prerogatives a layman does", thatman is a hypocrite, and like a thief and robber. The sutras say things like "A thief is eating [alms]; a thief is drinking [alms]". Such a sinful Monk or Novice should never have taken up the saffron robe - that shrine to gods
and men. It has been said that "the religious robe burns [the hypocrite]; the begging bowl burns". And the Arrest of Misconduct Sutra:
THE MONASTIC LIFE 73
? 74 A LAMP FOR THE PATH AND COMMENTARY
"The Monk who violates his Rule without so much as a snap of the fingers for the royal mark of the Teacher's saffron robes should not be kept [in the Community]. " 22 [30lb]
The misfortune of this [hypocrisy] can be studied in the pertinent parts of such siitras as the Questions of KiiSyapa. The teaching of Mahayana- and my thought also- on that kind of sinful religious profession is that [such persons] should not enter upon this Great Path. The Pure Life, properly so called, is untouched by such evils and com- pletely pure.
Because it is more perfect than the Lay Devotee or Novice or Nun-candidate, I said:
THE GLORIOUS PURE LIFE IS HIGHEST;
BY WHICH HE MEANT THE VOWS OF THE MONK. (Stanza 21}
And it is the Blessed One himself who held that the pure vow of the Monk is "the perfect foundation for the Great Vehicle, and superior by far".
Acts of the Community
As for wh~t we call "Monk", it is he who has been ordained23 by the Fourfold Motion-with-Acts [of the Community].
Now Acts of the Community are of four kinds:24
[1] a Motion with [single] Act;
[2] a Motion with Two Acts;
[3] a Fourfold: Motion-with-[Three Acts]; and
[4] the Act of Triple Declaration of an Act.
These four kinds of Act are used for two types of matters: [A] personal, and [B] non-personal.
? Persons
Acts that deal with persons are:25 [1] Admission, [2] Ordination, [3] Unity of mind among persons, [4] Release from [penances for] transgressions, [5] Agree- ment on: Dismissal, Banishment, and those in Summer Retreat, [6] Blessing [and permission to leave retreat] for seven, twenty, or forty days, [7] Assistance to persons, and [8] Acts imposing penances.
Non-Person
Acts that do not deal with persons are:26 [1] Consecration of the Robes and Bowl, [2] Consecration of the Cloth, [3] Forfeiture of robes not freely given, [4] Decisions on
[monastery] boundaries, [302a] [5] Unity of mind with the laity, and any other acts of business like these.
The Community Acts are also [grouped as]: those to be passed by an assembly of two, four, five, ten, twenty, forty, or by the unanimous Community. 27 For example, an Act performable by an assembly of two: when a Monk confesses a transgression or sin he has committed, with the Act of Triple Declaration in presence of Community. An Act performable by four: confession in each other's presence of the Four Gross Sins [Intercourse, Theft, Homicide, Lying
to praise self]. An Act performable by ten: Ordination in populated areas. An Act performable by an assembly of five: Ordination in remote areas. By an assembly of twenty monks: Act of removing Suspension. By forty: Act of ordaining a Nun. By the unanimous Community: Acts for [monastic] boundaries, [establishing the date1of Po~adha, and for the Retreat Examination.
Ten Ways o f Ordination
The Discipline masters of the Sarvastivada sect - the Reverends Dharmatrata, Dbyangs-sgrogs, Vasumitra, Buddhadeva, Bsam-rJzogs, the great scholar Vasubandhu, the Elder GuQ. aprabha, and the Reverend Sakyaprabha -
all say that Ordination has been performed in ten ways:28
[1] By self-ordination: Buddhas and Solitary Buddhas.
[2] By conviction: the [First] Five Converts.
THE MONASTIC LIFE 75
? 76 A LAMP FOR THE PA:rH AND COMMENTARY
[3] By the "Come aside, 0 Monk! ": Yasas and others.
[4] By accepting the Teacher: Mahakasyapa and others.
[5] By pleasing [the Buddha] with their questions:
Sudatta and others.
[6] By accepting the Eight Serious Virtues: Maha-
prajapati. [302b]
[7] By messenger: Dhannadinna.
[8] By five Monks, without a Discipline-master: persons in remote areas.
[9] By an assembiy often: persons in populated areas.
[10] By triple repetition of taking the Refuges: the
Ordination of the Sixty Bhadravargas.
Four types of Monk have been [traditionally] described: 29 [1] one who is a Monk in name only; [2] one who [merely] professes [but does not live as a Monk]; [3] one who is called "Monk" because he begs; [4] one who is called "Monk" because he conquers the passions. It is rare in our t,imes to firid a Monk of pure observance; for as the Acarya Santideva said: "The Teaching is rooted in monasticism, although monasticism survives with difficulty. "30 And therefore the Gurus have said repeatedly that the pure Lay Devotee is to be praised as a Mahayana vessel [far] more than the Monk who is weak in his observance and is
diminished, stained, tom, destroyed and impure.
Concerning Vows
I continue now with an explanation of the word "vow" [in Stanza 21]. "To vow" means to block and bind the stream of misconduct. This can be treated under several headings: [A] What is gained [by vowing]. [B] How it is gained. [C] Time for taking the vow. [D] How the vow is taken. [E] How it is given up. [F] Its nature. [G] Reasons that transgressions are committed. [H] Conditions that prevent transgression. [I] Rising from failures.
For the interpretation of the first four topics [A-D] one should consult his own Discipline-master and study the basic texts. [Topic E]: How is the vow given up? The ways
? o f g i v i n g u p Pratimok~a v o w s a r e s e v e r a l : o n e g i v e s b a c k h i s precepts, after sincere reflection, in the presence of anyone [capable of] understanding,31 or deserts the suitable environment [for living the religious life],32 or commits an Expulsion offence,33 or becomes hermaphrodite,34 or rejects the life of virtue altogether. How can these be [true] reasons for giving up the vow? [303a] Because the thought of honestly giving it up does occur, or one does forsake the supports [of religious life], or some cause or other of trans- gression does happen, or the [bodily] basis of the vow
changes, or the foundation of it [in virtue] is wrecked. Now Some Discipline-masters say that by committing [just] one transgression, the whole [discipline] is forsaken. Others also say that vows are given up at times when the
Holy Doctrine wanes. But the Sarvastivadin Discipline- masters have this to say:
"By committing one transgression [against the vowed rules] the rest are not forsaken, for a man can be both restrained and unrestrained [at the same time]; just as a man can be rich and [yet have] debts. So if a man with [vowed] conduct confesses his transgression, then it is
[simply] not true that he is [still] unrestrained. "35
In the case of hermaphrodite change, one would not [precisely] be giving up the vow that had been taken [for a particular male/female sex status] since one does not for- sake a vow that never existed [and there are no Pratimok~a vows for this ambiguous state]. The same is true at times when the Holy Doctrine declines [for then the Pratirnok~a simply does not exist]. The vow also ceases in death and transmigration because a different body is involved and one has not promised to practise [Pratimok~a] in that body, and the vows are not recalled [in the new body]. These ex- planations follow (the interpretations of] Acarya Vasubandhu, but I omit here the many adversary opinions [he argues] in his [Treasure ofPhenomenology] text.
[F] For the nature of the vow one should study the basic
THE MONASTIC LIFE 77
? 78 A LAMP FOR THE PATH AND COMMEN. TARY
(G]
(H]
Discipline texts and question the masters of his particular school.
There are two ways of committing transgressions: by not doing what should be done, and by doing what should not be done. And [the reasons are] fourfold: ignorance, irreverence, negligence, and strong
passions.
Conditions that prevent transgression are fivefold: [1] the restraint of the doors of the senses; moderation in food; perseverance in yoga in the early and latter parts of the night, without falling asleep; deliberate be- haviour, mindfulness, vigilance, and thorough aware- ness; a fear of even the slightest infraction. [2] the second condition is to look earnestly to one's [303b] religious practice, and reflect that the Teacher himself, and those who live the Pure Life, and the gods who rejoice in the Teaching, learned men as well as world- lings would condemn [transgression]; and through
self. ? examination [to develop] a sense of shame and embarrassment. [3] The third condition is to have modest goals, modest activity, and modest [concern for the] outcome. [4] The fourth condition is not to live as half-layman, half-religious; and to be well in- structed in what is and is not transgression; and zealous in the pursuit of virtue. [5] The fifth condition [reduces culpability in transgression]: being a begin- ner, insane, sleepy, of distraught mind or tormented
by emotions.
Rising from failings involves three things: begetting five despairs, a five-limbed vigilance, and removing despair in five ways. The five-limbed vigilance can be studied in the Hearers Level [of Asatiga). l6
[I]
The five despairs arise when a person commits some trans- gression or other and thinks: [1] "With this kind ofstart, my observance will [always] be faulty", or [2] "The Teacher [Buddha] and learned men of the Pure Life [surely] con- demn me", or [3] "The gods condemn me [for this]", or [4]
"Sinful men from here to the border know about me, and talk about me indecently", or [5] "With this unvirtuous
? beginning of mine, I will be reborn in the bad destinies after [leaving] this body, and then it will be no use! "
These despairs are removed by five [contrary] ways of thjnking: [1] "The Blessed One taught a Doctrine which has both a foundation and way of deliverance; therefore there [surely] is a means of rising from transgression", or [2] "Because I have not [yet] learned that transgressions are committed through ignorance, irreverence, negligence [304a] and strong passions, they [continue to] increase", or [3] "I now beget the Enlightenment Thought with sincere superior intention so that I will not go on failing", or [4] "I have now properly confessed [my failing] in the presence of learned men of the Pure Life", or [5] "I have entered the religious life of the well-spoken Doctrine-Discipline, and
my despair when I go against its training is not right or proper. The Blessed One condemned the stream of despair with whole lists of the obstructions [it creates]. Now since despair is the thing making the obstacles, then to put up with it and not cleanse it away from the start [can only] mean that I am the one who is not virtuous and right in not removing it! "
Summation of the Discipline
Confession should be made according to the methods found in the proper Discipline of each one's own school. You can also confess [privately] with the more general method I composed in my Ritual for Confession o f Failings. But be earnest about the fortnightly recitation of the Pratimok~a- s f i t r a a n d a b o u t t h e Po~adha [ o b s e r v a n c e ] . T h e m o n k w h o i s earnest about his Discipline training knows what the trans- gressions are and is wise about the [means] of deliverance
[from them]. He does not despair because his nature is to be pure, clean, unsullied, and sinless. Having left the house- holder's state to become homeless and enter religion, his Conduct in the well-spoken Doctrine-Discipline is not dim- inished, stained, tom, destroyed or impure. He guards it well. He stands adorned with the Twelve Qualities of Purifi- cationandtheSeventeenOrnamentsofReligiousPractice. 37
THE MONASTIC LIFE 79
? 80 A LAMP FOR THE PATH AND COMMENTARY
It was as I reflected on how the pure Monk is this kind of man that I wrote:
THE. GLORIOUS PURE LIFE IS HIGHEST;
BY WHICH HE MEANT THE VOWS OF A MONK [304b]
Finally, Ajitanatha says in his Ornament ofthe Sutras:
"The Doctrine of the Discipline is [expressed] in terms of [1] Transgression, [2] its Source, [3] Rising from it, [4] Deliverance, [5] Persons, [6] Promulgation, [7] Distinc- tion, and [8] Determination. "38
This completes the section on the Hearer's Vehicle.
Notes to Chapter 3
1 Ot. 5584, Vol. 114:262. 2.
2 rigs-med-pa/agotraka. In some systems of Mahayana, notably the Yogacara
school, classification of persons into "Families" according to their dis- positions in a particular rebirth became popular. The reference here is to a fivefold division:
l) rigs-med/agotra: No-Family (= no inclination to liberation in one's present rebirth);
2) ma-nges-pa/aniyata: Uncertain Family ( = those who will enter which- ever Family circumstances suggest to them);
3) nyan-thos/Sriivaka: Hearer Family (= Hinayana ideal of the Arhat saint);
4) rang-sangs-rgyas/pratyeka-buddha: Solitary Buddha Family (=the self- made Buddha ideal ofHinayana);
5) de-bzhin-gshegs-pa/tathiigata: Tathagata Family (= the Mahayana ideal of compassionate Enlightenment).
3 bar-chad/antaraya: impediment. The Vinaya (Discipline) specifies many physical and circumstantial impediments which the candidate must be free from for acceptance as a Novice or Monk. The Ordination ceremony itself contains a double inquiry into freedom from these impediments; e. g. , free- dom from deformities, from a variety of specific diseases, from debt, lack of parental consent, and so on. See Matters of Discipline, Ot. 1030, Vol. 41:24. 3ff.
4 pham-pa byung-ba/piiriijika: expulsion offence. The first of the eight classes of offence against the monastic rule (which constitute the divisions of the Priitimolqa-sutra itself (Ot. 1031, Vol. 41:141-9):
1) 2) 3)
Expulsion (see below);
Suspension (dge-'dun lhag-ma/sarrrghiivaie~a); Indeterminate (ma-nges-pa/aniyata);
? 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
Forfeiture (spang-ba/nai! Jsargika);
Transgression (/tung-byed-pa/ptitayantika); Confessable (so-sor-bshag-pa/pratideianiya); Etiquette (bslab-pa'i chos/iaik~a);
Dispute-settling (rtsod-pa'i zhi/adhikararJa-iamatha).
The four Expulsion Offences are the most serious and involve dismissal from the community:
1) Sexual intercourse (mi-tshangs-pa spyod-pa/a-brahma-caryam: lit. , impure life);
2) 3) 4)
Theft (ma-byin-par len-pa/adatttidiinam);
Homicide (gsod-pa/badha);
Lying to praise self (mi'i chos bla-mar smra-ba/uttara-manu~ya-dharma- praltipa: lit. , speaking of self as higher in things of man).
5 de-bzhin-gshegs-pa'i snying-po-can = Tathtigata-garbha. A term of the YogiicaraNijfliinaviida school of Mahiiyiina referring to ultimate reality under the aspect of the potential for Buddhahood within every "vessel" Such a reality would be rejected by strict Miidhya111ika as holding to a position of reality, and therefore false both by reason of holding to a position
and by establishing a reality. See Atisa's Chapter VI of the Commentary; also A. K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, pp. 404-S.
Ot. 112.
6
7 Unidentified.
8
9
10 11 12 13
chos-kyi dbyings! dharma-dhiitu. The term for ultimate reality when con- sidered under the aspect of its own proper nature, indescribable, incon- ceivable.
The two types of Family [rigs/gotra1presented here differ from the fivefold distinction mentioned earlier [see note 21.
This concludes what I mean by striving to expand fully.
Progress-Thought of Enlightenment
Origin in Sutras
To point out the wider expansion of the Thought in the three degrees22 the Venerable Ones speak of, I wrote:
A RIGHT RESOLVE WILL NOT BE FURTHERED
WITHOUT VOWS THAT HAVE PROGRESS IN MIND; THEREFORE HE WHO SEEKS GROWTH IN THE RESOLVE FOR PERFECT ENLIGHTENMENT, EARNESTLY TAKES THEM. (19]
The words "THAT HAVE PROGRESS IN MIND" refer to the
? THE ENLIGHTENMENT THOUGHT 59 purified Higher Intention, as described in this passage from
the Heavenly Treasure Sutra:
"0 Noble Youth, what virtues comprise the Enlighten- ment Thought so that one keeps it without regressing? And Gaganagaiija replied:
" '0 Noble Youth, two virtues comprise the Enlight- enment Thought so one keeps it without regressing: Intention and Higher Intention. Intention is comprised of sincerity and guilelessness. Higher Intention is com- prised of detachment in its Intention and of superior
behaviour.
" 'In tum, these four virtues are comprised of eight
others. Sincerity is comprised of openness and candour. Guilelessness is GOmprised of artlessness and pure motives. Detachment is comprised of a mind that is not timid and a zeal which is not faint-hearted. Superior behaviour is comprised of the equipment of knowledge and the equipment ofmerit . . . ' "23
And so he continues combining virtues on up to one hundred and eight of them. You should study the siitra itself for the entire description. And again, in the Compendium o f Doctrine Sutra: [296b]
"Higher Intention is the desire for special qualities: Higher Intention is gentleness toward living things. It is love for all creatures. It is reverence for all the Exalted Ones. It is compassion for all worldlings. It is faithful service to the Guru. It is to be a refuge, protector, island, and last resort for all who are without refuge, protector, island or last resort. " 24
And again in the same siitra:
"For bodhisattvas with Pure Intention the Doctrine comes forth even from things like the sky, walls, trees, rivers and forests; counsel and instruction comes forth right from their own practice. "25
And in the A~ayamati Sutra:
? 60 A LAMP FOR THE PATH AND COMMENTARY
"V enerable Sariputra, moreover, the bodhisattvas' Higher Intention is imperishable. Why? Because it is more highly supported by all the basic virtues. Nay more, every single thought a bodhisattva has is supported by his Higher Intention [arising] from his virtuous motivation. The transmigrations which lift him from Level to Level
are because of his Higher Intention. . . . Again I say, Venerable Sariputra, this Higher Intention of? the bodhisattva is imperishable. "26
From these passages it may be seen that just as the best forests and harvests grow from good ground, so you should understand that all virtues of the Buddha will grow and increase from the good ground of Conduct. That is my
analysis of the matter.
Difference between Resolve and Progress
In regard to the meaning of the Resolve-Thought of Enlightenment and the Progress-Thought of Enlighten- ment, great scholars of both past and present have given many different explanations. I do indeed understand their interpretations, but. I omit expounding them here lest I be too wordy. But the meaning of the two kinds of Thought is clear in the siitras themselves. For instance, the Stalks in Array says: [297a]
"0 Noble Youth, rare are the beings who beget the resolution for Supreme Perfect Enlightenment; but rarer still are those who have set out towards it. "27
And Acarya Santideva in his Compendium of Training:
"The Enlightenment Thought is of two kinds: the Thought which resolves upon Enlightenment, and the Thought which progresses towards it. "28
Again in his Progress in Practice:
"Just as one knows the difference Between desiring to go and going;
? THE ENLIGHTENMENT THOUGHT 61 So the wise man should know the difference
Of those two stages in the Thought. " 29 And in the Compendium ofTraining again:
"In this matter, the Resolve-Thought arises from the resolution: 'I must become a Buddha. ' "30
Consequently, Resolve-Thought is the focusing and fixing on Perfect Enlightenment as the goal, as Maitreyanatha says in his Ornament o f Realisations: "This begetting of the Thought is the desire for ? complete and perfect Enlightenment for the sake of others. "31 And Progress- Thought is the focusing and fixing on the virtues of Path, as
he says in the Ornament ofthe Sutras:
"[1] First is begetting the Thought, [2] then: one's own and others' good, [3] Thatness, [4] Power, [5] one's own Buddha-field, [6] the maturing of others, [7] and seventh: the highest Enlightenment. ? m
Therefore, the Thought of Enlightenment itself, both at the time ofits cause and at the time ofits result, is altogether one and the same reality. [29Th] The distinguishing of it into stages shows that this is true. Maitreyanatha explains them in detail in these words:
"Hence, it is like: [1] the Earth, [2] Gold, [3] the Moon, [4] Fire, [5] Treasure, [6] a Jewel Mine, [7] the Ocean, [8] a Diamond, [9] a Mountain, [10] Medicine, [11] a Spiritual Friend, [12] a Wish-granting Gem, [13] the Sun, [14] a Song, [15] a King, [16] a Storehouse, [17] a High- way, [18] a Carriage, [19] a Fountain, [20] a pleasant Sound, [21] a River, and [22] a Cloud. With these, the Thought is of twenty-two kinds. "33
The [first] two are the Enlightenment Thought as cause. The [next] seventeen are the Thought during the Path. The
[last] three are the Thought as fruition.
[Or again] the first two are Resolve-Thought; the
? 62 A LAMP FOR THE PATH AND COMMENTARY
remaining twenty are Progress-Thought. In still another enumeration, the first three are the Thought while it is a cause? the next sixteen during the Path; the last three as the time ~ffruition. For the complete meaning of these [similes for stages], you must study the Ornament of Realisations
itself. 3 4
1 2
Notes to Chapter 2
Ot. 716, Vol. 11:286. 3.
mar 'du-shes. The phrase has the twofold meaning of treating others as a mother treats her child, and also the [Buddhist] recognition that in the cycle of rebirths and the countless destinies one has experienced as a sentient being, every other creature has at some time and place functioned as one's mother in that particular body. The method of developing compassion that Atisa presents here became a very popular Dge-lugs-pa "mind-purification" (blo-sbyong) exercise. known as the "Seven Cause and Effect Instruction'' (rgyu 'bras man-ngag bdun). From Ati5a's four steps, Tsong-kha-pa and later writers created seven:
3
phyag-rgya chen-po: lit. , "Great Seal". This is part of the initiation practice in Union and Supreme Union (yoga, anuttara yoga) Tantra. The powers (dngos-grub/siddhi) are described in Atlsa's final chapter of the Commen- tary.
mar shes: Perceiving as a Mother causes
dr. in dran: Mindfulness of Kindness causes
drin gzo: Repayment of Kindness causes byams-pa: Affectionate Love causes
snying-rje chen-po: Great Compassion causes lhag-bsam rnam-dag: Pure Higher Motive causes byang-sems: the Thought of Enlightenment.
I)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
See Theory and Practice o f Tibetan Buddhism by Geshe Lhundup Sopa, pp. 28-32, for a translation of the Fourth Panchen Lama's presentation of the practice.
4 See Chart 1: The Five Paths. Achievement of the "Highest Mundane Virtue" indicates that a bodhisattva is ready to pass on to his personal direct
5
6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
experience of the Four Truths in the Vision Path.
Atisa refers to his Ritual for Begetting the Thought (Ot. 5364). Ot. 842, Vol. 34:39. 5ff.
Joe. cit.
BCA: I:12.
InSS: p. 5.
In SS: p. 43.
Ot. ' 5536, V ol. 102:196. 3. BCA: V:104.
In SS: pp. 37-8.
In SS: p. 39.
Ot. 5538, Vol. U0:189. 3ff. In SS: p. 10.
SS: p. 10.
? 18 19 20 21 22
23 24
In SS: p. 9.
InSS: pp. 10-11.
Ot. 5403, Vol. 110:204. 4.
Ot. 760(43), Vol. 24:188. 5.
spel-ba rnam-pa gsum. The three degrees of expanding the Enlightenment Thought are the customary three degrees of any attainment as applied here:
THE ENLIGHTENMENT THOUGHT 63
Weak/Inferior (chung): Resolution-Thought; Medium/Mediocre ('bring): Progress-Thought; Strong/Superior (che): Vowed-Thought.
1)
2)
3)
Ot. 815, Vol. 33:28. 3.
In SS: p. 260. The quote is actually from the Surra Set Forth by Ak~ayamati (Ot. 842: Vol. 34:42. 1).
In SS: p. 259.
Ot. 842, Vol. 34:41. 5.
25
26
27 InSS:p. 9.
28 29 30 31 32 33 34
SS: p. 9.
BCA: 1:16.
SS: p. 9.
Ot. 5184, Vol. 88:3. 3.
Ot. 5521, Vol. 108:7. 5.
Ornament ofRealisations, Ot. 5184, Vol. 88:3. 3
The divisions of the twenty-two similes and their corresponding virtues or qualities into stages of Cause-Path-Result are not found explicitly in the Ornament o f Realisations, but rather in the many commentaries on them; e. g. , Maitreyanatha's Ornament of Sutras (Ot. 5521) and Asanga's com-
mentary (bhci~ya) on Maitreyanatha's work (Ot. 5527), and a small text by Sri-jiianakirti, the Instruction in the Steps o f Contemplation in the Perfection Vehicle (Ot. 5456).
? I
II
III IV v
VI
PRATIMOK~A REQUISI1E FOR BODHISATIVA VOW
Stanza Page
20 66
67 67 67
21a 69
69 70 71
71 21b 72 74
75 75 75
76
76 76 77 78 78 78
VII
SUMMA TION OF THE DISCIPLINE
2lb 79
A B c
Fit receptacles for Mahayana Objections concerning Family Middle Way and Mind-Only views
RANKS OF THE COMMUNITY
A B c
Seven Only
Lay Devotee and Novice Monk and Nun
CHAPTER 3
The Monastic Life
THE EIGHTEEN SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM THE GLORIOUS PURE LIFE: THE MONK
ACTS OF THE COMMUNITY
A Persons
B Non-Person
c Ten Ways of Ordination
CONCERNING VOWS
A -D Preparation and Taking E Giving up Vows
F NatureofVows
G Transgression
H Preventing Transgression
I Rising from Transgression
? 3
The Monastic Life
Pratimo~a Requisite for Bodhisattva Vow
Fit receptacles for Mahayana
I have described how the precious Thought of Enlighten- ment should be expanded in its special way, and that one must actually take vows of Conduct in order to increase it. I want to show now what persons constitute the special receptacles for the [Bodhisattva] Vow of Conduct by my verse:
ONLY HE WHO HAS LASTING VOWS IN
ONE OF PRATIMOK~A'S SEVEN RANKS
IS FIT FOR THE VOW OF THE BODHISA TTV A;
THERE IS NO OTHER WAY FOR IT TO BE. (Stanza 20]
But here you may object: "Did you not state at the beginning 'THAT PERSON IS A SUPERIOR' (Stanza 5) and 'FOR THOSE PURJ; BEINGS WHOSE DESIRE IS THE HIGHEST OF ENLIGHTENMENTS' [Stanza 6]? Then how can what you say now [in this stanza] be true? Here you hold that this [Pratimok~a person] is the pure receptacle, and make the earlier [Superior Person] less pure. "
My meaning here has been stated by niy venerable Guru, the glorious Bodhibhadra, in his Commentary on "Twenty Verses on the Vow":
"The vows of the Pratimok~a have become ancillary to the Bodhisattva vow, and they should be understood as part of the whole. Therefore, the meaning of [Asanga's] 'This pledge of [Pratimok~a] training should also be taken' is that the person who has the vows of Pratimok~a is a fit vessel for taking the Bodhisattva vow correctly.
? [298a] For there is simply no other [Buddhist] rule [that binds one] to refrain from killing, stealing, unchastity and so on. Even the fit vessel for taking the Bodhisattva Vow adds no [new rules] of refraining from these [unvirtuous deeds]. " 1
Objections concerning Family
Well now, it is true there are those of "No-Family"/ as yet undisposed toward Mahayana, who have [physical or external] impediments to the PriHimok~a system,3 [and thus are unjustly prevented from taking the Bodhisattva V ow even if they developed the desire]. [And I know] there are those who already have the Bodhisattva Vow but have never taken the Pratimok~a vow, or [have taken it and] were expelled for offences,4 or [just] gave up the training,
or rejected the life of virtue [altogether]. But if it is not the Pratimok~a vow [that binds one to refrain from basic sins], then where you can you possibly look for another?
Hence I say here: Could there be a bodhisattva who does not refrain from killing, stealing, unchastity and so forth? The answer is no. Because the siitras say these are basic failures in a bodhisattva as well. That being so, the Pratimok~a vow is necessary first of all, and is the very prerequisite for the Bodhisattva Vow. Of course, if
someone has practised Mahayana in other births and remains in the Mahayana Family, there is nothing wrong with having taken the Bodhisattva Vow first because his natural state is not to commit sin.
Middle Way and Mind-Only Views
Then again, if you interpret the Mahayana Middle Way system strictly, a vessel for Mahayana does not exist anywhere at all [in the first place]. All creatures are one and the same Family and are "endowed with the essence of a Tathagata". 5 As it is said:
"There is no fitness or unfitness
For higher Levels. All become Buddha. Therefore, to achieve the perfect Awakening, act to [your] capacity. " [298b]
THE MONASTIC LIFE 67
? 68 A LAMP FOR THE PATH AND COMMENTARY And in the Compendium ofThatness: A Major Tantra:
"Yea, I do not try to examine who is and who is not a vessel for entering the great mal). <;lala. And why is that, you ask? . . . "6
And the Acarya Aryadeva says:
"As beginners one gives to creatures Whatever it is they wish, because There is no vessel for Holy Doctrine; It has no existence anywhere at all. " 7
And so, because all creatures are of one and the same Family, Ajitanatha says:
"Because the Ultimate Element8 is undifferentiated, distinct Families are impossible. "
And noble Nagarjuna:
" I f there is no distinguishing a chief Vehicle Becau? se the Ultimate Element is undifferentiated, Then your teaching that there are Three Vehicles Is simply to help creatures progress [on the Path].
"
However, even the siitras do speak of the three groups of creatures [Hearers, Solitary Buddhas, and Buddhas], and use the species of precious gems to exemplify the five types of Families among creatures: [No-Family, Uncertain Family, Hearer, Solitary Buddha, BuddhaJ. But the Com- mentaries say these refer only to temporary stages. To quote the venerable Suvafl). advipa:
"WhenscripturesaystherearetwotypesofFamily,9 the True Nature [dharmata] Family and the Striving Family, it means that one remains in the Striving Family only as a temporary stage, but when it treats of the True Nature Family there are no distinctions whatever. Hence
scholars say that Pratimok~a vows are certainly and
? chiefly necessary [while in the Striving Family]; but [the True Nature Family] is othezwise: [1] the Truth Body pervades all time and all reality; [2] the perfect Enjoy- ment Body remains in its [heavenly] courts, the property of only the Great Lords [Bodhisattvas] of the Ten Levels as they preach the profound and extensive Doctrine of Mahayana exclusively; and [3] the Apparition Body appears only now and then, like the uqumbara fruit; as
the siitras say, 'After this age, there will be sixty ages whenaBuddhadoesnotappear. '"10 [299a]
Hence, the Pratimok~a vow he mentions is also a rare thing because it exists only in our time and is the chief cause that leads to happy destinies. It is the Buddha's teaching that we refrain from sins of killing, stealing, unchastity and the
rest, and since his Teaching endures only as long as the Pratimok~a vows remain- and depends on them- we teach that the vows of the Pratimoksa alone come first.
So, if you are talking about. stages of progress [along the Path], then those previously undisposed toward Mahayana have as their preparation the vows of whichever of the seven Pratimok~a ranks they find suitable. Hence I say correctly in the root text, "ONL Y HE . ? . IS FIT FOR THE VOW OF
THE BODHISATIVA; THERE IS NO OTHER WAY FOR IT TO BE. "
Ranks of the Community
I continue now on the same theme:
THE TATHAGATA HAS SAID THAT OF
THE SEVEN RANKS OF PRATIMOK~A,
THE GLORIOUS PURE LIFE IS HIGHEST;
BY WHICH HE MEANT THE VOWS OF A MONK. (Stanza 21)
What I mean to say here is that the vows of a Monk are unique among the seven ranks.
Seven Only
There may be an objection at the outset that there are eight
THE MONASTIC LIFE 69
? 70 A LAMP FOR THE PATH AND COMMENTARY
Pratimok~a ranks set down in all the basic Discipline texts, and in such Hinayana works as the Progress in Knowledge, the Treasure o f Phenomenology and its useful summaries, and the Major Exposition ofthe "Treasure", therefore how can my saying seven be correct? Well, it is true those texts do propose the number as eight, but noble Asanga establishes it as seven in every section of his Levels ofYoga
Practice and [in particular] in the Chapter on Conduct. [299b] And if we doubt the brilliance of that great man's mind, we are finished. Asanga is a Bodhisattva of the Third Level, who attained a concentration called the "Stream of Truth", and who was prophesied in the Basic Tantra of Maiiju? rf as "that holy man, Asariga, wise in the true meaning of the texts". 11 Does anyone doubt that he heard the entire (siitra] collection directly from Ajitanatha?
In his Commentary on "Twenty Verses on the Vow", the venerable Bodhibhadra says:
"In regard to the vowing of Conduct, vows are taken in the seven ranks of Pratimoksa. That is, the five kinds in the religious life: the Monk and Nun, the Nun-candidate, the male and female Novices; and the two kinds in the Lay state: the male and female Devotees. The practice of One-Day [vows] is not a true ascetical practice, and has not been taught as worthy ofPratimok~a rank since there is no restraint of desires for [any] great length of time. " 12
The Guru who declared this was a great master of the Discipline of the Bodhisattva scriptures. I follow his inter- pretation because he received his instruction in the [Buddhist] trad! tion i~ the unbroken line from noble Nagarjuna and Acarya Santideva.
Lay Devotee and Novice
A few things can be observed here about the sevenfold ranks of Pratimok~a: The [Lay] Devotees are of two types: those who abstain from unlawful sexual activity, and those who abstain even from their own partners. But the training
common to both [types] is: renunciation of the four basic transgressions [killing, stealing, lying, unchastity] and of
? liquor. Some say renunciation of false views [in place of liquor].
In regard to liquor, some Discipline masters interpret it as objectionable by its very nature [300a] but the Phenomenology followers say it is objectionable [only] because its renunciation has been promised. However, I must omit their full presentations here.
For the Devotee, then, there are the five precepts and forty-five rules which [specifically] apply to them. 13 The Novice vows include these fifty practices of the faultless [and celibate] Devotee, [divided] according to whether [their subject matter] must be confessed [when violated] or [whose renunciation) must be vowed [as part of religious life) or are [simply) sinless. 14
Monk and Nun
The training of the Monk is such that of two hundred and fifty-three [rules], twenty-seven must be confessed [when violated], two hundred and thirteen must be vowed, and thirteen pertain to sinless matters [of community governance]. 15
The Nun-candidate correctly observes two hundred and forty rules - that is, all the above, except for the thirteen [rules pertaining to community governance], and including the pure and irreproachable life of the Novice, as well as her Six Basic Rules and Six Rules for Harmony [in the community]. 16
The Nun is pure in her five hundred rules, 17 which include those of the pure Nun-candidate as well as the Monk, together with the training the holy Doctrine and Discipline texts present for the perfecting of the pure Monk.
The Eighteen Schools ofBuddhism
There have been a variety of sects [in the Buddhist Com- munity]: [A] the MahasaJ! lghika, [B] the Sarvastivada, [C] the Sthavira, and [D] the Sammatiya sects. These existed [formerly] in eighteen schools:
[A] The five schools of MahasaiJlghika: the Purvasaila,
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the Aparasaila, the Haimavata, the Lokottara-vada, and the Prajfiaptivada. [B] The [seven Sarvastivada]: the Miila, the Kasyapiya, the Dharmagupta, the Mahisasaka, the Vibhajya-vada, [300b] the Bahusrutiya, and TamrasiiFyii.
[C] Three sects of Sthavira: the Mahavihiira-vasina, the Jetavaniya, and the Abhayagiri-vasina. [D] Three sects of Sammatiya: Kaurukullaka, the Avantaka, and the Viitsi- putriya. 18
Some texts differ on this listing, saying that the Vijiiaptiviida belong to Sarvastiviida, but keeping the rest the same. And another text has it:
"[A] Kasyapiya, Dharmagupta, Mahisasaka and Miila-sarvastivada;
[B] Purva, A para, Haimavata,
Prajiiapti, Vibhajya and Lokottaravada; [C] TamrasaFya, Bahusrutiya, Avantaka, Kaurukullaka and Vatsi-putriya;
[D. ] Jetavaniya, Abhaya and Mahavihara.
"In four, six, five and three, They wanted their variety, and Hence the Eighteen Schools.
"The Lion of Sakya's teaching endures Because of the Gurus who went forth of old With the power of his message.
"Though the schools were many,
And great the variety of views,
Due to difference in region and teachers,
Never did they argue about the [Great] Teacher. "19
For their respective differences in the matter of the Rule and views, you must study the great texts on those topics.
The Glorious Pure Life: The Monk
Returning to my root text, the words "THE PURE LIFE" [Stanza 21] refer to renunciation in the matter ofliquor and of women. For the dangers of liquor you can study that subject in the [Discipline] scriptures and the pertinent
? places in the siitra collection. For the danger of women, consult the [Discipline] scriptures also, and the siitras of both Mahayana and Hinayana. For instance, the Hi:nayana siitra The Teaching in Sevens: Sexuality:
[301a] "For example, 0 Brahmin, take a man who promises to live the Pure Life, and never even has an intimate encounter with a woman. But when his eyes behold women's bodies, he is attracted by their shape; he dallies with women and is captivated by their chatter; he becomes absorbed in paying them attentions. Even when he is separated from them by walls and curtains, women's adornments and their singing and dancing and sound of music go right to his heart. And when he sees his neigh- bour indulging his senses with desire, he takes that into
his heart. Y et he still'inakes Bestowal [ofthe merit] of his Pure Life [to gain] a place among the gods! The Pure Life of such a man is altogether impure. "20
And again from the Mahayana siitra, The Seven-fold Way: " I f we ought not cling to Desire even in imagination,
Why mention indulging the senses of sight and touch? " 21
The dangers of Desire in general can be learned from the Questions o f King Udayana-vatsa and the Admonitions on Desire Sutra.
So then, a man who gives a show of living the Pure Life while not [truly] living it, who is proud of the signs and marks of the religious profession, yet treats it con- temptuously thinking "The religious life [simply] means we are bodhisattvas who have the same prerogatives a layman does", thatman is a hypocrite, and like a thief and robber. The sutras say things like "A thief is eating [alms]; a thief is drinking [alms]". Such a sinful Monk or Novice should never have taken up the saffron robe - that shrine to gods
and men. It has been said that "the religious robe burns [the hypocrite]; the begging bowl burns". And the Arrest of Misconduct Sutra:
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"The Monk who violates his Rule without so much as a snap of the fingers for the royal mark of the Teacher's saffron robes should not be kept [in the Community]. " 22 [30lb]
The misfortune of this [hypocrisy] can be studied in the pertinent parts of such siitras as the Questions of KiiSyapa. The teaching of Mahayana- and my thought also- on that kind of sinful religious profession is that [such persons] should not enter upon this Great Path. The Pure Life, properly so called, is untouched by such evils and com- pletely pure.
Because it is more perfect than the Lay Devotee or Novice or Nun-candidate, I said:
THE GLORIOUS PURE LIFE IS HIGHEST;
BY WHICH HE MEANT THE VOWS OF THE MONK. (Stanza 21}
And it is the Blessed One himself who held that the pure vow of the Monk is "the perfect foundation for the Great Vehicle, and superior by far".
Acts of the Community
As for wh~t we call "Monk", it is he who has been ordained23 by the Fourfold Motion-with-Acts [of the Community].
Now Acts of the Community are of four kinds:24
[1] a Motion with [single] Act;
[2] a Motion with Two Acts;
[3] a Fourfold: Motion-with-[Three Acts]; and
[4] the Act of Triple Declaration of an Act.
These four kinds of Act are used for two types of matters: [A] personal, and [B] non-personal.
? Persons
Acts that deal with persons are:25 [1] Admission, [2] Ordination, [3] Unity of mind among persons, [4] Release from [penances for] transgressions, [5] Agree- ment on: Dismissal, Banishment, and those in Summer Retreat, [6] Blessing [and permission to leave retreat] for seven, twenty, or forty days, [7] Assistance to persons, and [8] Acts imposing penances.
Non-Person
Acts that do not deal with persons are:26 [1] Consecration of the Robes and Bowl, [2] Consecration of the Cloth, [3] Forfeiture of robes not freely given, [4] Decisions on
[monastery] boundaries, [302a] [5] Unity of mind with the laity, and any other acts of business like these.
The Community Acts are also [grouped as]: those to be passed by an assembly of two, four, five, ten, twenty, forty, or by the unanimous Community. 27 For example, an Act performable by an assembly of two: when a Monk confesses a transgression or sin he has committed, with the Act of Triple Declaration in presence of Community. An Act performable by four: confession in each other's presence of the Four Gross Sins [Intercourse, Theft, Homicide, Lying
to praise self]. An Act performable by ten: Ordination in populated areas. An Act performable by an assembly of five: Ordination in remote areas. By an assembly of twenty monks: Act of removing Suspension. By forty: Act of ordaining a Nun. By the unanimous Community: Acts for [monastic] boundaries, [establishing the date1of Po~adha, and for the Retreat Examination.
Ten Ways o f Ordination
The Discipline masters of the Sarvastivada sect - the Reverends Dharmatrata, Dbyangs-sgrogs, Vasumitra, Buddhadeva, Bsam-rJzogs, the great scholar Vasubandhu, the Elder GuQ. aprabha, and the Reverend Sakyaprabha -
all say that Ordination has been performed in ten ways:28
[1] By self-ordination: Buddhas and Solitary Buddhas.
[2] By conviction: the [First] Five Converts.
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[3] By the "Come aside, 0 Monk! ": Yasas and others.
[4] By accepting the Teacher: Mahakasyapa and others.
[5] By pleasing [the Buddha] with their questions:
Sudatta and others.
[6] By accepting the Eight Serious Virtues: Maha-
prajapati. [302b]
[7] By messenger: Dhannadinna.
[8] By five Monks, without a Discipline-master: persons in remote areas.
[9] By an assembiy often: persons in populated areas.
[10] By triple repetition of taking the Refuges: the
Ordination of the Sixty Bhadravargas.
Four types of Monk have been [traditionally] described: 29 [1] one who is a Monk in name only; [2] one who [merely] professes [but does not live as a Monk]; [3] one who is called "Monk" because he begs; [4] one who is called "Monk" because he conquers the passions. It is rare in our t,imes to firid a Monk of pure observance; for as the Acarya Santideva said: "The Teaching is rooted in monasticism, although monasticism survives with difficulty. "30 And therefore the Gurus have said repeatedly that the pure Lay Devotee is to be praised as a Mahayana vessel [far] more than the Monk who is weak in his observance and is
diminished, stained, tom, destroyed and impure.
Concerning Vows
I continue now with an explanation of the word "vow" [in Stanza 21]. "To vow" means to block and bind the stream of misconduct. This can be treated under several headings: [A] What is gained [by vowing]. [B] How it is gained. [C] Time for taking the vow. [D] How the vow is taken. [E] How it is given up. [F] Its nature. [G] Reasons that transgressions are committed. [H] Conditions that prevent transgression. [I] Rising from failures.
For the interpretation of the first four topics [A-D] one should consult his own Discipline-master and study the basic texts. [Topic E]: How is the vow given up? The ways
? o f g i v i n g u p Pratimok~a v o w s a r e s e v e r a l : o n e g i v e s b a c k h i s precepts, after sincere reflection, in the presence of anyone [capable of] understanding,31 or deserts the suitable environment [for living the religious life],32 or commits an Expulsion offence,33 or becomes hermaphrodite,34 or rejects the life of virtue altogether. How can these be [true] reasons for giving up the vow? [303a] Because the thought of honestly giving it up does occur, or one does forsake the supports [of religious life], or some cause or other of trans- gression does happen, or the [bodily] basis of the vow
changes, or the foundation of it [in virtue] is wrecked. Now Some Discipline-masters say that by committing [just] one transgression, the whole [discipline] is forsaken. Others also say that vows are given up at times when the
Holy Doctrine wanes. But the Sarvastivadin Discipline- masters have this to say:
"By committing one transgression [against the vowed rules] the rest are not forsaken, for a man can be both restrained and unrestrained [at the same time]; just as a man can be rich and [yet have] debts. So if a man with [vowed] conduct confesses his transgression, then it is
[simply] not true that he is [still] unrestrained. "35
In the case of hermaphrodite change, one would not [precisely] be giving up the vow that had been taken [for a particular male/female sex status] since one does not for- sake a vow that never existed [and there are no Pratimok~a vows for this ambiguous state]. The same is true at times when the Holy Doctrine declines [for then the Pratirnok~a simply does not exist]. The vow also ceases in death and transmigration because a different body is involved and one has not promised to practise [Pratimok~a] in that body, and the vows are not recalled [in the new body]. These ex- planations follow (the interpretations of] Acarya Vasubandhu, but I omit here the many adversary opinions [he argues] in his [Treasure ofPhenomenology] text.
[F] For the nature of the vow one should study the basic
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(G]
(H]
Discipline texts and question the masters of his particular school.
There are two ways of committing transgressions: by not doing what should be done, and by doing what should not be done. And [the reasons are] fourfold: ignorance, irreverence, negligence, and strong
passions.
Conditions that prevent transgression are fivefold: [1] the restraint of the doors of the senses; moderation in food; perseverance in yoga in the early and latter parts of the night, without falling asleep; deliberate be- haviour, mindfulness, vigilance, and thorough aware- ness; a fear of even the slightest infraction. [2] the second condition is to look earnestly to one's [303b] religious practice, and reflect that the Teacher himself, and those who live the Pure Life, and the gods who rejoice in the Teaching, learned men as well as world- lings would condemn [transgression]; and through
self. ? examination [to develop] a sense of shame and embarrassment. [3] The third condition is to have modest goals, modest activity, and modest [concern for the] outcome. [4] The fourth condition is not to live as half-layman, half-religious; and to be well in- structed in what is and is not transgression; and zealous in the pursuit of virtue. [5] The fifth condition [reduces culpability in transgression]: being a begin- ner, insane, sleepy, of distraught mind or tormented
by emotions.
Rising from failings involves three things: begetting five despairs, a five-limbed vigilance, and removing despair in five ways. The five-limbed vigilance can be studied in the Hearers Level [of Asatiga). l6
[I]
The five despairs arise when a person commits some trans- gression or other and thinks: [1] "With this kind ofstart, my observance will [always] be faulty", or [2] "The Teacher [Buddha] and learned men of the Pure Life [surely] con- demn me", or [3] "The gods condemn me [for this]", or [4]
"Sinful men from here to the border know about me, and talk about me indecently", or [5] "With this unvirtuous
? beginning of mine, I will be reborn in the bad destinies after [leaving] this body, and then it will be no use! "
These despairs are removed by five [contrary] ways of thjnking: [1] "The Blessed One taught a Doctrine which has both a foundation and way of deliverance; therefore there [surely] is a means of rising from transgression", or [2] "Because I have not [yet] learned that transgressions are committed through ignorance, irreverence, negligence [304a] and strong passions, they [continue to] increase", or [3] "I now beget the Enlightenment Thought with sincere superior intention so that I will not go on failing", or [4] "I have now properly confessed [my failing] in the presence of learned men of the Pure Life", or [5] "I have entered the religious life of the well-spoken Doctrine-Discipline, and
my despair when I go against its training is not right or proper. The Blessed One condemned the stream of despair with whole lists of the obstructions [it creates]. Now since despair is the thing making the obstacles, then to put up with it and not cleanse it away from the start [can only] mean that I am the one who is not virtuous and right in not removing it! "
Summation of the Discipline
Confession should be made according to the methods found in the proper Discipline of each one's own school. You can also confess [privately] with the more general method I composed in my Ritual for Confession o f Failings. But be earnest about the fortnightly recitation of the Pratimok~a- s f i t r a a n d a b o u t t h e Po~adha [ o b s e r v a n c e ] . T h e m o n k w h o i s earnest about his Discipline training knows what the trans- gressions are and is wise about the [means] of deliverance
[from them]. He does not despair because his nature is to be pure, clean, unsullied, and sinless. Having left the house- holder's state to become homeless and enter religion, his Conduct in the well-spoken Doctrine-Discipline is not dim- inished, stained, tom, destroyed or impure. He guards it well. He stands adorned with the Twelve Qualities of Purifi- cationandtheSeventeenOrnamentsofReligiousPractice. 37
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It was as I reflected on how the pure Monk is this kind of man that I wrote:
THE. GLORIOUS PURE LIFE IS HIGHEST;
BY WHICH HE MEANT THE VOWS OF A MONK [304b]
Finally, Ajitanatha says in his Ornament ofthe Sutras:
"The Doctrine of the Discipline is [expressed] in terms of [1] Transgression, [2] its Source, [3] Rising from it, [4] Deliverance, [5] Persons, [6] Promulgation, [7] Distinc- tion, and [8] Determination. "38
This completes the section on the Hearer's Vehicle.
Notes to Chapter 3
1 Ot. 5584, Vol. 114:262. 2.
2 rigs-med-pa/agotraka. In some systems of Mahayana, notably the Yogacara
school, classification of persons into "Families" according to their dis- positions in a particular rebirth became popular. The reference here is to a fivefold division:
l) rigs-med/agotra: No-Family (= no inclination to liberation in one's present rebirth);
2) ma-nges-pa/aniyata: Uncertain Family ( = those who will enter which- ever Family circumstances suggest to them);
3) nyan-thos/Sriivaka: Hearer Family (= Hinayana ideal of the Arhat saint);
4) rang-sangs-rgyas/pratyeka-buddha: Solitary Buddha Family (=the self- made Buddha ideal ofHinayana);
5) de-bzhin-gshegs-pa/tathiigata: Tathagata Family (= the Mahayana ideal of compassionate Enlightenment).
3 bar-chad/antaraya: impediment. The Vinaya (Discipline) specifies many physical and circumstantial impediments which the candidate must be free from for acceptance as a Novice or Monk. The Ordination ceremony itself contains a double inquiry into freedom from these impediments; e. g. , free- dom from deformities, from a variety of specific diseases, from debt, lack of parental consent, and so on. See Matters of Discipline, Ot. 1030, Vol. 41:24. 3ff.
4 pham-pa byung-ba/piiriijika: expulsion offence. The first of the eight classes of offence against the monastic rule (which constitute the divisions of the Priitimolqa-sutra itself (Ot. 1031, Vol. 41:141-9):
1) 2) 3)
Expulsion (see below);
Suspension (dge-'dun lhag-ma/sarrrghiivaie~a); Indeterminate (ma-nges-pa/aniyata);
? 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
Forfeiture (spang-ba/nai! Jsargika);
Transgression (/tung-byed-pa/ptitayantika); Confessable (so-sor-bshag-pa/pratideianiya); Etiquette (bslab-pa'i chos/iaik~a);
Dispute-settling (rtsod-pa'i zhi/adhikararJa-iamatha).
The four Expulsion Offences are the most serious and involve dismissal from the community:
1) Sexual intercourse (mi-tshangs-pa spyod-pa/a-brahma-caryam: lit. , impure life);
2) 3) 4)
Theft (ma-byin-par len-pa/adatttidiinam);
Homicide (gsod-pa/badha);
Lying to praise self (mi'i chos bla-mar smra-ba/uttara-manu~ya-dharma- praltipa: lit. , speaking of self as higher in things of man).
5 de-bzhin-gshegs-pa'i snying-po-can = Tathtigata-garbha. A term of the YogiicaraNijfliinaviida school of Mahiiyiina referring to ultimate reality under the aspect of the potential for Buddhahood within every "vessel" Such a reality would be rejected by strict Miidhya111ika as holding to a position of reality, and therefore false both by reason of holding to a position
and by establishing a reality. See Atisa's Chapter VI of the Commentary; also A. K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, pp. 404-S.
Ot. 112.
6
7 Unidentified.
8
9
10 11 12 13
chos-kyi dbyings! dharma-dhiitu. The term for ultimate reality when con- sidered under the aspect of its own proper nature, indescribable, incon- ceivable.
The two types of Family [rigs/gotra1presented here differ from the fivefold distinction mentioned earlier [see note 21.
