To our Aryan forefathers God's power was exhibited in the forces of nature even more
evidently
than to ourselves.
Universal Anthology - v01
Once it was feared we could not live ;
In your reverses then I shared :
CLASSIC CHINESE POEMS.
And now, when fortune smiles on you, To very poison I'm compared.
I have laid by a goodly store, —— For winter's use it was to be ;
Feast on there with your new-found bride,—
I
Rude fits of anger you have shown,
was for use in poverty !
Now left me to be sorely tried. Ah, you forget those days gone by,
When you came nestling to my side !
Comrades in War Time.
How say we have no clothes ? One plaid for both will do.
Let but the king, in raising men, Our spears and pikes renew, — We'll fight as one, we two !
How say we have no clothes ? One skirt our limbs shall hide. Let but the king, in raising men,
Halberd and lance provide, — We'll do side by side
How say we have no clothes My kirtle thou shalt wear.
Let but the king, in raising men, Armor and arms prepare, — The toils of war we'll share.
Trust tht Last Friend against the World.
A babbling current fails — To float a load of thorns away,
Of brothers, few are left us now, Yet we remain, myself and thou
Believe not others' tales, Others will lead thee far astray.
The babbling current fails — To float the firewood fagots far.
Of brothers there are left but few, Yet and thou remain, we two
Believe not others' tales, For verily untrue they are
I
! ! ?
:
:
it,
188 THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN.
THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN. By CONFUCIUS.
(Translated by James Legge, in " Chinese Classics. ")
Chapter I. 1. What Heaven has conferred is called the Nature ; an accordance with this nature is called the path of duty ; the regulation of this path is called instruc tion.
2. The path may not be left for an instant. If it could be left, it would not be the path. On this account, the superior man does not wait till he sees things, to be cautious, nor till he hears things, to be apprehensive.
3. There is nothing more visible than what is secret, and nothing more manifest than what is minute. Therefore the superior man is watchful over himself, when he is alone.
4. While there are no stirrings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, or joy, the mind may be said to be in the state of equilibrium. When those feelings have been stirred, and they act in their due degree, there ensues what may be called the state of Harmony. This Equilibrium is the great root from which grow all the human actings in the world, and this harmony is the universal path which they all should pursue.
5. Let the states of Equilibrium and harmony exist in per fection, and a happy order will prevail throughout heaven and earth, and all things will be nourished and flourish.
Chapter II. 1. Chung-ne said, " The superior man embodies the course of the Mean; the mean man acts contrary to the course of the Mean.
2. " The superior man's embodying the course of the Mean is because he is a superior man, and so always maintains the Mean. The mean man's acting contrary to the course of the Mean is because he is a mean man, and has no caution. "
Chapter III. The Master said : " Perfect is the virtue which is according to the Mean ! Rare have they long been among the people, who could practice it ! "
Chapter IV. 1. The Master said, " I know how it is that the path of the Mean is not walked in : The Knowing go beyond it, and the stupid do not come up to it. I know how it is that the path of the Mean is not understood : The men of
THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN. 189
talents and virtue go beyond it, and the worthless do not come ap to it.
2. " There is no body but eats and drinks. But they are few who can distinguish flavors. " "
Chapter V. The Master said, Alas ! How is the path of the Mean untrodden ! "
Chapter VI. The Master said : " There was Shun : He in deed was greatly wise ! Shun loved to question others, and to study their words, though they might be shallow. He con cealed what was bad in them, and displayed what was good. He took hold of their two extremes, determined the Mean, and employed it in his government of the people. It was by this that he was Shun ! "
Chapter VII. The Master said : " Men all say, ' We are wise ; ' but being driven forward and taken in a net, a trap, or a pitfall, they know not how to escape. Men all say, ' We are wise ; ' but happening to choose the course of the Mean, they are not able to keep it for a round month. "
Chapter VIII. The Master said, " This was the manner of Hwuy : he made choice of the Mean, and whenever he got hold of what was good, he clasped it firmly, as if wearing it on his breast, and did not lose it. " "
Chapter IX. The Master said,
its families may be perfectly ruled ; dignities and emoluments may be declined ; naked weapons may be trampled under the feet; but the course of the Mean cannot be attained to. "
Chapter X. 1. Tsze-loo asked about energy.
2. The Master said, " Do you mean the energy of the South, the energy of the North, or the energy which you should culti vate yourself?
3. " To show forbearance and gentleness in teaching others ; and not to revenge unreasonable conduct : this is the energy of Southern regions, and the good man makes it his study.
4. " To lie under arms ; and meet death without regret : this is the energy of Northern regions, and the forceful make it their study.
5. " Therefore, the superior man cultivates a friendly har mony, without being weak. How firm is he in his energy ! He stands erect in the middle, without inclining to either side. How firm is he in his energy! When good principles prevail in the government of his country, he does not change from what he was in retirement. How firm he is in his energy ! When
The empire, its States, and
190 THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN.
bad principles prevail in the country, he maintains his course to death without changing. How firm is his energy ! "
Chapter XI. 1. The Master said, " To live in obscurity, and yet practice wonders, in order to be mentioned with honor in future ages ; this is what I do not do.
2. " The good man tries to proceed according to the right
path, but when he has gone halfway, he abandons it ; able so to stop.
I am not
8. " The superior man accords with the course of the Mean. Though he may be well unknown, unregarded by the world, he feels no regret. It is only the sage who is able for this. "
Chapter XII. 1. The way which the superior man pur sues, reaches wide and far, and yet is secret.
2. Common men and women, however ignorant, may inter meddle with the knowledge of it ; yet in its utmost reaches, there is that which even the sage does not know. Common men and women, however much below the ordinary standard of character, can carry it into practice ; yet in its utmost reaches there is that which even the sage is not able to carry into practice. Great as heaven and earth are, men still find some things in them with which to be dissatisfied. Thus it is, that were the superior man to speak of his way in all its great ness, nothing in the world would be found able to embrace and were he to speak of in its minuteness, nothing in the world would be found able to split it. "
It said in the Book of Poetry, The hawk flies up to heaven the fishes leap in the deep. " This expresses how this way seen above and below.
4. The way of the superior man may be found, in its simple elements, in the intercourse of common men and women but in its utmost reaches shines brightly through heaven and earth.
Chapter XIII. The Master said " The path not far from man. When men try to pursue course, which far from the common indications of consciousness, this course can not be considered the path.
2. "In the Book of Poetry, said, 'In hewing an ax handle, the pattern not far off. ' We grasp one ax handle to hew the other, and yet, we look askance from the one to the other, we may consider them as apart. Therefore, the supe rior man governs men, according to their nature, with what proper to them and as soon as they change what wrong, he stops.
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THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN. 191
3. " When one cultivates to the utmost the principles of his nature, and exercises them on the principle of reciprocity, he is not far from the path. What you do not like, when done to yourself, do not do to others.
4. " In the way of the superior man there are four things, to not one of which have I as yet attained : To serve my father, as I would require my son to serve me ; to this I have not attained. To serve my prince, as I would require my min ister to serve me ; to this I have not attained. To serve my elder brother, as I would require my younger brother to serve me ; to this I have not attained. To set the example in behav ing to a friend, as I would require him to behave to me ; to this I have not attained. Earnest in practicing the ordinary virtues, and careful in speaking about them, in his practice, he has anything defective, the superior man dares not but ex ert himself and if, in his words, he has any excess, he dares not allow himself such license. Thus his words have respect to his actions, and his actions have respect to his words
not just an entire sincerity which marks the superior man
Chapter XIV. The superior man does what proper to the station in which he he does not desire to go beyond this.
2. In position of wealth and honor, he does what proper to position of wealth and honor. In poor and low position, he does what proper to poor and low position. Situated among barbarous tribes, he does what proper to situation among barbarous tribes. In position of sorrow and difficulty, he does what proper to position of sorrow and difficulty. The superior man can find himself in no situation in which he not himself.
3. In high situation, he does not treat with contempt his inferiors. In low situation, he does not court the favor of his superiors. He rectifies himself, and seeks for nothing from others, so that he has no dissatisfactions. He does not mur mur against heaven, nor grumble against men.
4. Thus that the superior man quiet and calm, wait ing for the appointments of Heaven; while the mean man walks in dangerous paths, looking for lucky occurrences.
The Master said " In archery we have something like the way of the superior man. When the archer misses the center of the target, he turns round and seeks for the cause of his failure in himself. "
Chapter XV. The way of the superior man may bo
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192 THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN.
compared to what takes place in traveling, when to go to a distance we must first traverse the space that is near, and in ascending a height, when we must begin from the lower ground.
2. It is said in the Book of Poetry : " Happy union with wife and children is like the music of lutes and harps. When there is concord among brethren, the harmony is delightful and enduring. Thus may you regulate your family, and enjoy the pleasure of your wife and children. "
3. The Master said, "In such a state of things, parents have entire complacence ! "
Chapter XVI. 1. The Master said, " How abundantly do spiritual beings display the powers that belong to them !
2. " We look for them, but do not see them ; we listen to, but do not hear them ; yet they enter into all things, and there is nothing without them.
3. "They cause all the people in the empire to fast and purify themselves, and array themselves in their richest dresses, in order to attend at their sacrifices. Then, like overflowing water, they seem to be over the heads, and on the right and left of their worshipers.
4. " It is said in the Book of Poetry, ' The approaches of the spirits, you cannot surmise ; and can you treat them with indifference ? '
5. " Such is the manifestness of what is minute ! Such is the impossibility of repressing the outgoings of sincerity ! "
Chapter XVII. 1. The Master said : " How greatly filial was Shun ! His virtue was that of a sage ; his dignity was the imperial throne ; his riches were all within the four seas. He offered his sacrifices in his ancestral temple, and his descend ants preserved the sacrifices to himself.
2. "Therefore having such great virtue, it could not but be that he should obtain the throne, that he should obtain those riches, that he should obtain his fame, that he should at tain to his long life.
3. " Thus it is that Heaven, in the production of things, is surely bountiful to them, according to their qualities. Hence the tree that is flourishing, it nourishes ; while that which is ready to fall, it overthrows.
4. " In the Book of Poetry, it is said, ' The admirable, ami able prince displayed conspicuously his excelling virtue, ad justing his people and adjusting his officers. Therefore, he received from Heaven the emoluments of dignity. It pro
VEDIC HYMNS. 193
tected him, assisted him, decreed him the throne ; sending from heaven these favors, as it were repeatedly. '
5. " We may say, therefore, that he who is greatly virtu ous will be sure to receive the appointment of Heaven. "
VEDIC HYMNS.
By Sib MONIEB MONIER-WILLIAMS.
[Sib Monieb Monier-Williams : A leading Anglo-Indian lexicographer and Orientalist ; born at Bombay, India, November 12, 1819 ; died 1889. From 1860 on he was professor of Sanskrit in Oxford. He published several Sanskrit dictionaries, a Sanskrit and a Hindustani grammar; "Indian Epic Poetry"
(1863), "Indian Wisdom" (1875), "Hinduism" (1877), "Modern India and the Indians" (1878), "Buddhism," etc. , 1889. ]
To what deities were the prayers and hymns of the Vedas addressed? This is an interesting inquiry, for these were probably the very deities worshiped under similar names by our Aryan progenitors in their primeval home. The answer is : They worshiped those physical forces before which all nations, if guided solely by the light of nature, have in the early period of their life instinctively bowed down, and before which even the more civilized and enlightened have always been compelled to bend in awe and reverence if not in adoration.
To our Aryan forefathers God's power was exhibited in the forces of nature even more evidently than to ourselves. Lands, houses, flocks, herds, men, and animals were more frequently than in Western climates at the mercy of winds, fire, and water ; and the sun's rays appeared to be endowed with a potency quite beyond the experience of any European country. We cannot be surprised, then, that these forces were regarded by our Eastern progenitors as actual manifestations, either of one deity in different moods or of separate rival deities con tending for supremacy. Nor is it wonderful that these mighty agencies should have been at first poetically personified, and afterwards, when invested with forms, attributes, and individu ality, worshiped as distinct gods. It was only natural, too, that a varying supremacy and varying honors should have been accorded to each deified force — to the air, the rain, the storm, the sun, or fire — according to the special atmospheric influences to which particular localities were exposed, or according to the
seasons of the year when the dominance of each was to be prayed for or deprecated.
194 VEDIC HYMNS.
This was the leligion represented in the Vedas and the primitive creed of the Indo-Aryans about twelve or thirteen centuries before Christ. The first forces deified seem to have been those manifested in the sky and air. These were at first generalized under one rather vague personification, as was natural in the earliest attempts at giving shape to religious ideas. For it may be observed that all religious systems, even the most polytheistic, have generally grown out of some unde fined original belief in a divine power or powers controlling and regulating the universe. And although innumerable gods and goddesses, gifted with a thousand shapes, now crowd the Hindu Pantheon, appealing to the instincts of the unthinking millions whose capacity for religious ideas is supposed to require the aid of external symbols, it is probable that there existed for the first Aryan worshipers a similar theistic creed ; even as the thoughtful Hindu of the present day looks through the maze of his mythology to the philosophical background of one eternal self-existent Being, one universal Spirit, into whose unity all visible symbols are gathered, and in whose essence all entities are comprehended.
In the Veda this unity soon diverged into various ramifica tions. Only a few of the hymns appear to contain the simple conception of one divine self-existent omnipresent Being, and even in these the idea of one God present in all nature is some what nebulous and undefined.
It is interesting to note how this idea, vaguely stated as it was in the Veda, gradually developed and became more clearly defined in the time of Manu. In the last verses of the twelfth book (123-125) we have the following : "Him some adore as transcendently present in fire ; others in Manu, lord of crea tures ; some as more distinctly present in Indra, others in pure air, others as the most high eternal Spirit. Thus the man who perceives in his own soul, the supreme soul, present in all creatures, acquires equanimity towards them all, and shall be absorbed at last in the highest essence. "
In the Purusha-sukta of the Rig-veda, which is one of the later hymns, — probably not much earlier than the earliest Brahmana, — the one Spirit is called Purusha. The more common name is Atman or Paratman, and in the later system Brahman, neut. (nom. BrahmS), derived from root brih, to expand, and denoting the universally expanding essence or universally diffused substance of the universe. It was thus
VEDIC HYMNS. 195
that the later creed became not so much monotheistic (by which I mean the belief in one God regarded as a personal Being external to the universe, though creating and governing it) as pantheistic : Brahman is the neuter being, " simple infi nite being," — the only real eternal essence, — which, when it passes into universal manifested existence, is called Brahma ; when it manifests itself on the earth, is called Vishnu ; and when it again dissolves itself into simple being, is called Siva ; all the other innumerable gods and demigods being also mere manifestations of the neuter Brahman, who alone is eternal. This, at any rate, appears to be the genuine pantheistic creed of India at the present day. —
To return to the Vedic hymns perhaps the most ancient and beautiful Vedic deification was that of Dyaus, the sky, as Dyaush-pitar, " Heavenly Father " (the Zeus or Jupiter of the Greeks and Romans). Then closely connected with Dyaus was a goddess, Aditi, " the Infinite Expanse," conceived of sub sequently as the mother of all the gods. Next " came a devel opment of the same conception called Varuna, the Investing
Sky," said to answer to Ahura Mazda, the Ormazd of the ancient Persian mythology, and to the Greek Ouranos — but a more spiritual conception, leading to a worship which rose to the nature of a belief in the great Our-Father-who-art-in- Heaven. This Varuna, again, was soon thought of in connec tion with another vague personification called Mitra (= the Persian Mithra), god of day. After a time these impersona tions of the celestial sphere were felt to be too vague to suit the growth of religious ideas in ordinary minds. Soon, there fore, the great investing firmament resolved itself into separate cosmical entities with separate powers and attributes. First, the watery atmosphere, personified under the name of Indra, ever seeking to dispense his dewy treasures (indu), though ever restrained by an opposing force or spirit of evil called Vritra ; and, secondly, the wind, thought of either as a single personality named Vagu, or as a whole assemblage of moving powers coming from every quarter of the compass, and imper sonated as Maruts or " Storm-gods. " At the same time in this process of decentralization — if I may use the term — the once purely celestial Varuna became relegated to a position among seven secondary deities of the heavenly sphere called Adityas (afterwards increased to twelve, and regarded as diversified forms of the sun in the several months of the year), and sub
196 VEDIC HYMNS.
sequently to a dominion over the waters when they had left the air and rested on the earth.
Of these separately deified physical forces, by far the most favorite object of adoration was the deity supposed to yield the dew and rain, longed for by Eastern cultivators of the soil with even greater cravings than by Northern agriculturists. Indra, therefore, — the Jupiter Pluvius of early Indian mythology, — is undoubtedly the principal divinity of Vedic worshipers, in so far at least as the greater number of their prayers and hymns are addressed to him.
What, however, could rain effect without the aid of heat ? a force, the intensity of which must have impressed an Indian mind with awe, and led him to invest the possessor of it with divine attributes. Hence the other great god of Vedic wor shipers, and in some respects the most important in his connec tion with sacrificial rites, is Agni (Latin Ignis), the god of fire. Even Siirya, the sun (Greek Helios), who was probably at first adored as the original source of heat, came to be regarded as only another form of fire. He was merely a manifestation of the same divine energy removed to the heavens and consequently less accessible. Another deity, Ushas, goddess of the dawn, — the Eos of the Greeks, — was naturally connected with the sun, and regarded as daughter of the sky. Two other deities, the Acvins, were fabled as connected with Ushas, as ever young and handsome, traveling in a golden car, and precursors of the dawn. They are sometimes called Dasras, as divine physicians, destroyers of diseases; sometimes Uasatyas, as "never untrue. " They appear to have been personifications of two luminous rays imagined to precede the break of day. These, with Yama, " the God of departed spirits," are the principal deities of the Mantra portion of the Veda.
We find, therefore, no trace in the Mantras of the Trimurti or Triad of deities (Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva), afterwards so popular. Nor does the doctrine of transmigration, afterwards an essential element of the Hindu religion, appear in the Mantra portion of the Veda, though there is a clear declaration of it in the Aranyaka of the Aitareya Brahmana. Nor is caste clearly alluded to, except in the later Purusha-sukta.
But here it may be asked, if sky, air, water, fire, and the sun were thus worshiped as manifestations of the supreme universal God of the universe, was not the earth also an object of adora tion with the early Hindus ? And unquestionably in the earlier
VEDIC HYMNS. 197
system the earth, under the name of Prithivi, " the broad one," does receive divine honors, being thought of as the mother of all beings. Moreover, various deities were regarded as the progeny resulting from the fancied union of earth with Dyaus, heaven. This imaginary marriage of heaven and earth was indeed a most natural idea, and much of the later mythology may be explained by it. But it is remarkable that as religious worship became of a more selfish character, the earth, being more evidently under man's control, and not seeming to need propitiation so urgently as the more uncertain air, fire, and water, lost impor tance among the gods, and was rarely addressed in prayer or hymn.
In all probability the deified forces addressed in the hymns were not represented by images or idols in the Vedic period, though doubtless the early worshipers clothed their gods with human form in their own imaginations.
I now begin my examples with a nearly literal translation of the well-known sixteenth hymn of the fourth book of the Atharva-veda, in praise of Varuna or the Investing Sky : —
HYMN TO THE INVESTING SKY.
The mighty Varuna, who rules above, looks down
Upon these worlds, his kingdom, as if close at hand.
When men imagine they do aught by stealth, he knows it. No one can stand or walk or softly glide along
Or hide in dark recess, or lurk in secret cell,
But Varuna detects him and his movements spies.
Two persons may devise some plot, together sitting
In private and alone ; but he, the king, is there —
A third — and sees it all. This boundless earth is his,
His the vast sky, whose depth no mortal e'er can fathom. Both oceans [air and sea] find a place within his body, yet In that small pool he lies contained. Whoe'er should flee Far, far beyond the sky, would not escape the grasp
Of Varuna, the king. His messengers descend
Countless from his abode — forever traversing
This world and scanning with a thousand eyes its inmates. Whate'er exists within this earth, and all within the sky, Yea, all that is beyond, King Varuna perceives.
The winking of men's eyes are numbered all by him.
He wields the universe, as gamesters handle dice.
May thy destroying snares cast sevenfold round the wicked, Entangle liars, but the truthful spare, O king !
198 VEDIC HYMNS.
I pass from the ancient Aryan deity Varuna to the more thoroughly Indian god Indra.
The following metrical lines bring together various scattered texts relating to this Hindu Jupiter Pluvius : —
TO THE RAIN GOD.
Indra, twin brother of the god of fire,
When thou wast born, thy mother Aditi
Gave thee, her lusty child, the thrilling draught
Of mountain-growing Soma — source of life
And never-dying vigor to thy frame.
Then at the Thunderer's birth, appalled with fear, Dreading the hundred-jointed thunderbolt —
Forged by the cunning Trastivri — mountain rocked, Earth shook, and heaven trembled. Thou wast born Without a rival, king of gods and men —
The eye of living and terrestrial things.
Immortal Indra, unrelenting foe
Of drought and darkness, infinitely wise,
Terrific crusher of thy enemies,
Heroic, irresistible in might,
Wall of defense to us thy worshipers,
We sing thy praises, and our ardent hymns
Embrace thee, as a loving wife her lord.
Thou art our guardian, advocate, and friend,
A brother, father, mother, all combined.
Most fatherly of fathers, we are thine,
And thou art ours ; oh ! let thy pitying soul
Turn to us in compassion, when we praise thee,
And slay us not for one sin or for many.
Deliver us to-day, to-morrow, every day. — Armed for the conflict, see ! the demons come
Ahi and Vritra and a long array
Of darksome spirits. Quick, then, quaff the draught That stimulates thy martial energy,
And dashing onward in thy golden car,
Drawn by thy ruddy, Ribhu-fashioned steeds,
Speed to the charge, escorted by the Maruts.
Vainly the demons dare thy might ; in vain
Strive to deprive us of thy watery treasures.
Earth quakes beneath the crashing of thy bolts. Pierced, shattered, lies the foe — his cities crushed, His armies overthrown, his fortresses
Shivered to fragments; then the pent-up waters,
VEDIC HYMNS. 199
Released from long imprisonment, descend In torrents to the earth, and swollen rivers, Foaming and rolling to their ocean home, Proclaim the triumph of the Thunderer.
Let us proceed next to the all-important Vedic deity Agni, " god of fire," especially of sacrificial fire. I propose now to paraphrase a few of the texts which relate to him : —
TO THE FIRE GOD.
Agni, thou art a sage, a priest, a king, Protector, father of the sacrifice. Commissioned by us men thou dost ascend A messenger, conveying to the sky
Our hymns and offerings. Though thy origin
Be threefold, now from air and now from water, Now from the mystic double Arani,
Thou art thyself a mighty god, a lord,
Giver of life and immortality,
One in thy essence, but to mortals three ;
Displaying thine eternal triple form,
As fire on earth, as lightning in the air,
As sun in heaven. Thou art a cherished guest
In every household — father, brother, son,
Friend, benefactor, guardian, all in one.
Bright, seven-rayed god ! how manifold thy shapes Revealed to us thy votaries ! now we see thee,
With body all of gold, and radiant hair,
Flaming from three terrific heads, and mouths Whose burning jaws and teeth devour all things. Now with a thousand glowing horns, and now Flashing thy luster from a thousand eyes,
Thou'rt borne towards us in a golden chariot, Impelled by winds, and drawn by ruddy steeds, Marking thy car's destructive course with blackness. Deliver, mighty lord, thy worshipers.
Purge us from taint of sin, and when we die,
Deal mercifully with us on the pyre,
Burning our bodies with their load of guilt,
But bearing our eternal part on high
To luminous abodes and realms of bliss,
Forever there to dwell with righteous men.
The next deity is Surya, the sun, who, with reference to the variety of his functions, has various names, — such as Savitri,
200 VEDIC HYMNS.
Aryaman, Mitra, Varuna, Pushan, sometimes ranking as dis tinct deities of the celestial sphere. As already explained, he is associated in the minds of Vedic worshipers with Fire, and is frequently described as sitting in a chariot drawn by seven ruddy horses (representing the seven days of the week), pre ceded by the Dawn. Here is an example of a hymn addressed to this deity, translated almost literally : —
HYMN TO THE SUN.
Behold the rays of dawn, like heralds, lead on high
The sun, that men may see the great all-knowing god.
The stars slink off like thieves, in company with Night, Before the all-seeing eye, whose beams reveal his presence, Gleaming like brilliant flames, to nation after nation.
With speed beyond the ken of mortals, thou, O Sun,
Dost ever travel on, conspicuous to all.
Thou dost create the light, and with it dost illume
The universe entire ; thou risest in the sight
Of all the race of men, and all the host of heaven. Light-giving Varuna ! thy piercing glance doth scan
in quick succession all this stirring, active world,
And penetrateth, too, the broad ethereal space,
Measuring our days and nights and spying out all creatures. Surya with flaming locks, clear-sighted, god of day,
Thy seven ruddy mares bear on thy rushing car.
With these thy self-yoked steeds, seven daughters of thy
chariot.
Onward thou dost advance. To thy refulgent orb Beyond this lower gloom and upward to the light Would we ascend, O Sun, thou god among the gods.
As an accompaniment to this hymn may here be mentioned the celebrated Gayatri. It is a short prayer to the Sun in his character of Savitri or the Vivifier, and is the most sacred of all Vedic texts. Though not always understood, it is to this very day used by every Brahman throughout India in his daily devotions. It occurs in the Rig-veda, and can be literally translated as follows : —
" Let us meditate [or, We meditate] on that excellent glory of the divine Vivifier. May he enlighten [or, stimulate] our understandings. "
May we not conjecture, with Sir William Jones, that the great veneration in which this text has ever been held by the
VEDIC HYMNS. 201
Hindus from time immemorial, indicates that the more enlight ened worshipers adored, under the type of the visible sun, that divine light which alone could illumine their intellects ?
I may here also fitly offer a short paraphrase descriptive of the Vedic Ushas, the Greek E5s, or Dawn : —
HYMN TO THE DAWN.
Hail, ruddy Ushas, golden goddess, borne Upon thy shining car, thou comest like A lovely maiden by her mother decked, Disclosing coyly all thy hidden graces
To our admiring eyes ; or like a wife
Unveiling to her lord, with conscious pride, Beauties which, as he gazes lovingly,
Seem fresher, fairer, each succeeding morn. Through years on years thou hast lived on, and yet Thou'rt ever young. Thou art the breath and life Of all that breathes and lives, awaking day by day Myriads of prostrate sleepers, as from death, Causing the birds to flutter from their nests,
And rousing men to ply with busy feet
Their daily duties and appointed tasks,
Toiling for wealth, or pleasure, or renown.
Before leaving the subject of the Vedic deities, I add a few words about Yama, the god of departed spirits. It appears tolerably certain that the doctrine of metempsychosis has no place in the Mantra portion of the Veda ; nor do the authors of the hymns evince any sympathy with the desire to get rid of all action and personal existence, which became so remarkable a feature of the theology and philosophy of the Brahmans in later times. But there are many indirect references to the immortality of man's spirit and a future life, and these become more marked and decided towards the end of the Rig-veda. One of the hymns in the last Mandala is addressed to the Pitris or fathers, that is to say, the spirits of departed ances tors who have attained to a state of heavenly bliss, and are supposed to occupy three different stages of blessedness ; the highest inhabiting the upper sky, the middle the intermediate air, and the lowest the regions of the atmosphere near the earth. Reverence and adoration are always to be offered them, and they are presided over by the god Yama, the ruler of all the spirits of the dead, whether good or bad. The earlier legends repre
202 VEDIC HYMNS.
sent this god as a kind of first man (his twin sister being Yami), and also as the first of men that died. Hence he is described as guiding the spirits of other men who die, to the same world. In some passages, however, Death is said to be his messenger, he himself dwelling in celestial light, to which the departed are brought, and where they enjoy his society and that of the fathers. In the Veda he has nothing to do with judging or punishing the departed (as in the later mythology), but he has two terrific dogs, with four eyes, which guard the way to his abode. Here are a few thoughts about him from various hymns in the tenth Mandala of the Rig-veda : —
HYMN TO DEATH.
To Yama, mighty king, be gifts and homage paid.
He was the first of men that died, the first to brave
Death's rapid, rushing stream, the first to point the road
To heaven, and welcome others to that bright abode.
No power can rob us of the home thus won by thee.
O king, we come ; the born must die, must tread the path That thou hast trod — the path by which each race of men, In long succession, and our fathers too, have passed. —
Soul of the dead ! depart ; fear not to take the road
The ancient road — by which thy ancestors have gone ; Ascend to meet the god — to meet thy happy fathers, — Who dwell in bliss with him. Fear not to pass the guards The four-eyed brindled dogs — that watch for the departed. Return unto thy home, O soul ! Thy sin and shame—
Leave thou behind on earth ; assume a shining form
Thy ancient shape — refined and from all taint set free.
Let me now endeavor, by slightly amplified translations, to convey some idea of two of the most remarkable hymns in the Rig-veda. The first, which may be compared with some parts of the thirty-eighth chapter of Job, attempts to describe the mystery of creation, thus : —
THE MYSTERY OP CREATION.
In the beginning there was neither naught nor aught; Then there was neither sky nor atmosphere above. What then enshrouded all this teeming Universe ?
In the receptacle of what was it contained ?
Was it enveloped in the gulf profound of water ? Then was there neither death nor immortality,
VEDIC HYMNS. 203
Then was there neither day, nor night, nor light, nor darkness, Only the existent One breathed calmly, self-contained.
Naught else than him there was — naught else above, beyond. Then first came darkness hid in darkness, gloom in gloom. Next all was water, all a chaos indiscrete,
In which the One lay void, shrouded in nothingness. Then turning inwards, he by self-developed force
Of inner fervor and intense abstraction, grew.
And now in him Desire, the primal germ of mind, Arose, which learned men, profoundly searching, say Is the first subtle bond, connecting Entity
With Nullity. This ray that kindled dormant life, Where was it then ? before ? or was it found above ? Were there parturient powers and latent qualities,
And fecund principles beneath, and active forces
That energized aloft ? Who knows ? Who can declare ? How and from what has sprung this Universe ? the gods Themselves are subsequent to its development.
Who then can penetrate the secret of its rise ?
Whether 'twas framed or not, made or not made, he only Who in the highest heaven sits, the omniscient lord, Assuredly knows all, or haply knows he not.
The next example is from the first Mandala of the Rig-veda. Like the preceding, it furnishes a good argument for those who maintain that the purer faith of the Hindus is properly mono theistic.
THE ONE GOD.
What god shall we adore with sacrifice ?
Him let us praise, the golden child that rose
In the beginning, who was born the lord —
The one sole lord of all that is — who made
The earth, and formed the sky, who giveth life, Who giveth strength, whose bidding gods revere, Whose hiding place is immortality,
Whose shadow, death ; who by his might is king Of all the breathing, sleeping, waking world— Who governs men and beasts, whose majesty These snowy hills, this ocean with its rivers, Declare ; of whom these spreading regions form The arms ; by whom the firmament is strong, Earth firmly planted, and the highest heavens Supported, and the clouds that fill the air Distributed and measured out ; to whom
Both earth and heaven, established by his will,
204
VEDIC HYMNS.
Look up with trembling mind ; in whom revealed The rising sun shines forth above the world. Where'er let loose in space, the mighty waters Have gone, depositing a fruitful seed.
And generating fire, there he arose,
Who is the breath and life of all the gods,
Whose mighty glance looks round the vast expanse Of watery vapor — source of energy,
Cause of the sacrifice — the only God
Above the gods. May he not injure us!
He the Creator of the earth — the righteous
Creator of the sky, Creator too
Of oceans bright, and far-extending waters.
Let me now give a few verses (not in regular order and not quite literally translated) from the celebrated Purusha-sukta, one of the most recent hymns of the Rig-veda. It will serve to illustrate the gradual sliding of Hindu monotheism into pantheism, and the first foreshadowing of the institution of caste, which for so many centuries has held India in bond age : —
The embodied spirit has a thousand heads, A thousand eyes, a thousand feet around, On every side enveloping the earth,
Yet filling space no larger than a span.
He is himself this very universe,
He is whatever is, has been, and shall be.
He is the lord of immortality.
All creatures are one fourth of him, three fourths
Are that which is immortal in the sky.
From him called Purusha, was born Viraj,
And from Viraj was Purusha produced,
Whom gods and holy men made their oblation.
With Purusha as victim they performed
A sacrifice. When they divided him,
How did they cut him up ? what was his mouth ? What were his arms ? And what his thighs and feet ? The Brahman was his mouth, the kingly soldier
Was made his arms, the husbandman his thighs,
The servile Sudra issued from his feet.
I close my examples of the Mantras with slightly amplified versions of two hymns — one in praise of Time, personified as the source of all things, taken from the Atharva-veda ; the other addressed to Night, from the Rig-veda.
VEDIC HYMNS. 205
Hymn to Time.
Time, like a brilliant steed with seven rays,
And with a thousand eyes, imperishable,
Full of fecundity, bears all things onward.
On him ascend the learned and the wise.
Time, like a seven-wheeled, seven-naved car, moves on. His rolling wheels are all the worlds, his axle
Is immortality. He is the first of gods.
We see him like an overflowing jar ;
We see him multiplied in various forms.
He draws forth and encompasses the worlds ; He is all future worlds ; he is their father ; He is their son ; there is no power like him. The past and future issue out of Time,
All sacred knowledge and austerity.
From Time the earth and waters were produced ;
From Time, the rising, setting, burning sun ;
From Time, the wind ; through Time the earth is vast Through Time the eye perceives ; mind, breath, and name In him are comprehended. All rejoice
When Time arrives — the monarch who has conquered This world, the highest world, the holy worlds,
Yea, all the worlds — and ever marches on.
The hymn to Night is my last example.
In your reverses then I shared :
CLASSIC CHINESE POEMS.
And now, when fortune smiles on you, To very poison I'm compared.
I have laid by a goodly store, —— For winter's use it was to be ;
Feast on there with your new-found bride,—
I
Rude fits of anger you have shown,
was for use in poverty !
Now left me to be sorely tried. Ah, you forget those days gone by,
When you came nestling to my side !
Comrades in War Time.
How say we have no clothes ? One plaid for both will do.
Let but the king, in raising men, Our spears and pikes renew, — We'll fight as one, we two !
How say we have no clothes ? One skirt our limbs shall hide. Let but the king, in raising men,
Halberd and lance provide, — We'll do side by side
How say we have no clothes My kirtle thou shalt wear.
Let but the king, in raising men, Armor and arms prepare, — The toils of war we'll share.
Trust tht Last Friend against the World.
A babbling current fails — To float a load of thorns away,
Of brothers, few are left us now, Yet we remain, myself and thou
Believe not others' tales, Others will lead thee far astray.
The babbling current fails — To float the firewood fagots far.
Of brothers there are left but few, Yet and thou remain, we two
Believe not others' tales, For verily untrue they are
I
! ! ?
:
:
it,
188 THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN.
THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN. By CONFUCIUS.
(Translated by James Legge, in " Chinese Classics. ")
Chapter I. 1. What Heaven has conferred is called the Nature ; an accordance with this nature is called the path of duty ; the regulation of this path is called instruc tion.
2. The path may not be left for an instant. If it could be left, it would not be the path. On this account, the superior man does not wait till he sees things, to be cautious, nor till he hears things, to be apprehensive.
3. There is nothing more visible than what is secret, and nothing more manifest than what is minute. Therefore the superior man is watchful over himself, when he is alone.
4. While there are no stirrings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, or joy, the mind may be said to be in the state of equilibrium. When those feelings have been stirred, and they act in their due degree, there ensues what may be called the state of Harmony. This Equilibrium is the great root from which grow all the human actings in the world, and this harmony is the universal path which they all should pursue.
5. Let the states of Equilibrium and harmony exist in per fection, and a happy order will prevail throughout heaven and earth, and all things will be nourished and flourish.
Chapter II. 1. Chung-ne said, " The superior man embodies the course of the Mean; the mean man acts contrary to the course of the Mean.
2. " The superior man's embodying the course of the Mean is because he is a superior man, and so always maintains the Mean. The mean man's acting contrary to the course of the Mean is because he is a mean man, and has no caution. "
Chapter III. The Master said : " Perfect is the virtue which is according to the Mean ! Rare have they long been among the people, who could practice it ! "
Chapter IV. 1. The Master said, " I know how it is that the path of the Mean is not walked in : The Knowing go beyond it, and the stupid do not come up to it. I know how it is that the path of the Mean is not understood : The men of
THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN. 189
talents and virtue go beyond it, and the worthless do not come ap to it.
2. " There is no body but eats and drinks. But they are few who can distinguish flavors. " "
Chapter V. The Master said, Alas ! How is the path of the Mean untrodden ! "
Chapter VI. The Master said : " There was Shun : He in deed was greatly wise ! Shun loved to question others, and to study their words, though they might be shallow. He con cealed what was bad in them, and displayed what was good. He took hold of their two extremes, determined the Mean, and employed it in his government of the people. It was by this that he was Shun ! "
Chapter VII. The Master said : " Men all say, ' We are wise ; ' but being driven forward and taken in a net, a trap, or a pitfall, they know not how to escape. Men all say, ' We are wise ; ' but happening to choose the course of the Mean, they are not able to keep it for a round month. "
Chapter VIII. The Master said, " This was the manner of Hwuy : he made choice of the Mean, and whenever he got hold of what was good, he clasped it firmly, as if wearing it on his breast, and did not lose it. " "
Chapter IX. The Master said,
its families may be perfectly ruled ; dignities and emoluments may be declined ; naked weapons may be trampled under the feet; but the course of the Mean cannot be attained to. "
Chapter X. 1. Tsze-loo asked about energy.
2. The Master said, " Do you mean the energy of the South, the energy of the North, or the energy which you should culti vate yourself?
3. " To show forbearance and gentleness in teaching others ; and not to revenge unreasonable conduct : this is the energy of Southern regions, and the good man makes it his study.
4. " To lie under arms ; and meet death without regret : this is the energy of Northern regions, and the forceful make it their study.
5. " Therefore, the superior man cultivates a friendly har mony, without being weak. How firm is he in his energy ! He stands erect in the middle, without inclining to either side. How firm is he in his energy! When good principles prevail in the government of his country, he does not change from what he was in retirement. How firm he is in his energy ! When
The empire, its States, and
190 THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN.
bad principles prevail in the country, he maintains his course to death without changing. How firm is his energy ! "
Chapter XI. 1. The Master said, " To live in obscurity, and yet practice wonders, in order to be mentioned with honor in future ages ; this is what I do not do.
2. " The good man tries to proceed according to the right
path, but when he has gone halfway, he abandons it ; able so to stop.
I am not
8. " The superior man accords with the course of the Mean. Though he may be well unknown, unregarded by the world, he feels no regret. It is only the sage who is able for this. "
Chapter XII. 1. The way which the superior man pur sues, reaches wide and far, and yet is secret.
2. Common men and women, however ignorant, may inter meddle with the knowledge of it ; yet in its utmost reaches, there is that which even the sage does not know. Common men and women, however much below the ordinary standard of character, can carry it into practice ; yet in its utmost reaches there is that which even the sage is not able to carry into practice. Great as heaven and earth are, men still find some things in them with which to be dissatisfied. Thus it is, that were the superior man to speak of his way in all its great ness, nothing in the world would be found able to embrace and were he to speak of in its minuteness, nothing in the world would be found able to split it. "
It said in the Book of Poetry, The hawk flies up to heaven the fishes leap in the deep. " This expresses how this way seen above and below.
4. The way of the superior man may be found, in its simple elements, in the intercourse of common men and women but in its utmost reaches shines brightly through heaven and earth.
Chapter XIII. The Master said " The path not far from man. When men try to pursue course, which far from the common indications of consciousness, this course can not be considered the path.
2. "In the Book of Poetry, said, 'In hewing an ax handle, the pattern not far off. ' We grasp one ax handle to hew the other, and yet, we look askance from the one to the other, we may consider them as apart. Therefore, the supe rior man governs men, according to their nature, with what proper to them and as soon as they change what wrong, he stops.
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THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN. 191
3. " When one cultivates to the utmost the principles of his nature, and exercises them on the principle of reciprocity, he is not far from the path. What you do not like, when done to yourself, do not do to others.
4. " In the way of the superior man there are four things, to not one of which have I as yet attained : To serve my father, as I would require my son to serve me ; to this I have not attained. To serve my prince, as I would require my min ister to serve me ; to this I have not attained. To serve my elder brother, as I would require my younger brother to serve me ; to this I have not attained. To set the example in behav ing to a friend, as I would require him to behave to me ; to this I have not attained. Earnest in practicing the ordinary virtues, and careful in speaking about them, in his practice, he has anything defective, the superior man dares not but ex ert himself and if, in his words, he has any excess, he dares not allow himself such license. Thus his words have respect to his actions, and his actions have respect to his words
not just an entire sincerity which marks the superior man
Chapter XIV. The superior man does what proper to the station in which he he does not desire to go beyond this.
2. In position of wealth and honor, he does what proper to position of wealth and honor. In poor and low position, he does what proper to poor and low position. Situated among barbarous tribes, he does what proper to situation among barbarous tribes. In position of sorrow and difficulty, he does what proper to position of sorrow and difficulty. The superior man can find himself in no situation in which he not himself.
3. In high situation, he does not treat with contempt his inferiors. In low situation, he does not court the favor of his superiors. He rectifies himself, and seeks for nothing from others, so that he has no dissatisfactions. He does not mur mur against heaven, nor grumble against men.
4. Thus that the superior man quiet and calm, wait ing for the appointments of Heaven; while the mean man walks in dangerous paths, looking for lucky occurrences.
The Master said " In archery we have something like the way of the superior man. When the archer misses the center of the target, he turns round and seeks for the cause of his failure in himself. "
Chapter XV. The way of the superior man may bo
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192 THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN.
compared to what takes place in traveling, when to go to a distance we must first traverse the space that is near, and in ascending a height, when we must begin from the lower ground.
2. It is said in the Book of Poetry : " Happy union with wife and children is like the music of lutes and harps. When there is concord among brethren, the harmony is delightful and enduring. Thus may you regulate your family, and enjoy the pleasure of your wife and children. "
3. The Master said, "In such a state of things, parents have entire complacence ! "
Chapter XVI. 1. The Master said, " How abundantly do spiritual beings display the powers that belong to them !
2. " We look for them, but do not see them ; we listen to, but do not hear them ; yet they enter into all things, and there is nothing without them.
3. "They cause all the people in the empire to fast and purify themselves, and array themselves in their richest dresses, in order to attend at their sacrifices. Then, like overflowing water, they seem to be over the heads, and on the right and left of their worshipers.
4. " It is said in the Book of Poetry, ' The approaches of the spirits, you cannot surmise ; and can you treat them with indifference ? '
5. " Such is the manifestness of what is minute ! Such is the impossibility of repressing the outgoings of sincerity ! "
Chapter XVII. 1. The Master said : " How greatly filial was Shun ! His virtue was that of a sage ; his dignity was the imperial throne ; his riches were all within the four seas. He offered his sacrifices in his ancestral temple, and his descend ants preserved the sacrifices to himself.
2. "Therefore having such great virtue, it could not but be that he should obtain the throne, that he should obtain those riches, that he should obtain his fame, that he should at tain to his long life.
3. " Thus it is that Heaven, in the production of things, is surely bountiful to them, according to their qualities. Hence the tree that is flourishing, it nourishes ; while that which is ready to fall, it overthrows.
4. " In the Book of Poetry, it is said, ' The admirable, ami able prince displayed conspicuously his excelling virtue, ad justing his people and adjusting his officers. Therefore, he received from Heaven the emoluments of dignity. It pro
VEDIC HYMNS. 193
tected him, assisted him, decreed him the throne ; sending from heaven these favors, as it were repeatedly. '
5. " We may say, therefore, that he who is greatly virtu ous will be sure to receive the appointment of Heaven. "
VEDIC HYMNS.
By Sib MONIEB MONIER-WILLIAMS.
[Sib Monieb Monier-Williams : A leading Anglo-Indian lexicographer and Orientalist ; born at Bombay, India, November 12, 1819 ; died 1889. From 1860 on he was professor of Sanskrit in Oxford. He published several Sanskrit dictionaries, a Sanskrit and a Hindustani grammar; "Indian Epic Poetry"
(1863), "Indian Wisdom" (1875), "Hinduism" (1877), "Modern India and the Indians" (1878), "Buddhism," etc. , 1889. ]
To what deities were the prayers and hymns of the Vedas addressed? This is an interesting inquiry, for these were probably the very deities worshiped under similar names by our Aryan progenitors in their primeval home. The answer is : They worshiped those physical forces before which all nations, if guided solely by the light of nature, have in the early period of their life instinctively bowed down, and before which even the more civilized and enlightened have always been compelled to bend in awe and reverence if not in adoration.
To our Aryan forefathers God's power was exhibited in the forces of nature even more evidently than to ourselves. Lands, houses, flocks, herds, men, and animals were more frequently than in Western climates at the mercy of winds, fire, and water ; and the sun's rays appeared to be endowed with a potency quite beyond the experience of any European country. We cannot be surprised, then, that these forces were regarded by our Eastern progenitors as actual manifestations, either of one deity in different moods or of separate rival deities con tending for supremacy. Nor is it wonderful that these mighty agencies should have been at first poetically personified, and afterwards, when invested with forms, attributes, and individu ality, worshiped as distinct gods. It was only natural, too, that a varying supremacy and varying honors should have been accorded to each deified force — to the air, the rain, the storm, the sun, or fire — according to the special atmospheric influences to which particular localities were exposed, or according to the
seasons of the year when the dominance of each was to be prayed for or deprecated.
194 VEDIC HYMNS.
This was the leligion represented in the Vedas and the primitive creed of the Indo-Aryans about twelve or thirteen centuries before Christ. The first forces deified seem to have been those manifested in the sky and air. These were at first generalized under one rather vague personification, as was natural in the earliest attempts at giving shape to religious ideas. For it may be observed that all religious systems, even the most polytheistic, have generally grown out of some unde fined original belief in a divine power or powers controlling and regulating the universe. And although innumerable gods and goddesses, gifted with a thousand shapes, now crowd the Hindu Pantheon, appealing to the instincts of the unthinking millions whose capacity for religious ideas is supposed to require the aid of external symbols, it is probable that there existed for the first Aryan worshipers a similar theistic creed ; even as the thoughtful Hindu of the present day looks through the maze of his mythology to the philosophical background of one eternal self-existent Being, one universal Spirit, into whose unity all visible symbols are gathered, and in whose essence all entities are comprehended.
In the Veda this unity soon diverged into various ramifica tions. Only a few of the hymns appear to contain the simple conception of one divine self-existent omnipresent Being, and even in these the idea of one God present in all nature is some what nebulous and undefined.
It is interesting to note how this idea, vaguely stated as it was in the Veda, gradually developed and became more clearly defined in the time of Manu. In the last verses of the twelfth book (123-125) we have the following : "Him some adore as transcendently present in fire ; others in Manu, lord of crea tures ; some as more distinctly present in Indra, others in pure air, others as the most high eternal Spirit. Thus the man who perceives in his own soul, the supreme soul, present in all creatures, acquires equanimity towards them all, and shall be absorbed at last in the highest essence. "
In the Purusha-sukta of the Rig-veda, which is one of the later hymns, — probably not much earlier than the earliest Brahmana, — the one Spirit is called Purusha. The more common name is Atman or Paratman, and in the later system Brahman, neut. (nom. BrahmS), derived from root brih, to expand, and denoting the universally expanding essence or universally diffused substance of the universe. It was thus
VEDIC HYMNS. 195
that the later creed became not so much monotheistic (by which I mean the belief in one God regarded as a personal Being external to the universe, though creating and governing it) as pantheistic : Brahman is the neuter being, " simple infi nite being," — the only real eternal essence, — which, when it passes into universal manifested existence, is called Brahma ; when it manifests itself on the earth, is called Vishnu ; and when it again dissolves itself into simple being, is called Siva ; all the other innumerable gods and demigods being also mere manifestations of the neuter Brahman, who alone is eternal. This, at any rate, appears to be the genuine pantheistic creed of India at the present day. —
To return to the Vedic hymns perhaps the most ancient and beautiful Vedic deification was that of Dyaus, the sky, as Dyaush-pitar, " Heavenly Father " (the Zeus or Jupiter of the Greeks and Romans). Then closely connected with Dyaus was a goddess, Aditi, " the Infinite Expanse," conceived of sub sequently as the mother of all the gods. Next " came a devel opment of the same conception called Varuna, the Investing
Sky," said to answer to Ahura Mazda, the Ormazd of the ancient Persian mythology, and to the Greek Ouranos — but a more spiritual conception, leading to a worship which rose to the nature of a belief in the great Our-Father-who-art-in- Heaven. This Varuna, again, was soon thought of in connec tion with another vague personification called Mitra (= the Persian Mithra), god of day. After a time these impersona tions of the celestial sphere were felt to be too vague to suit the growth of religious ideas in ordinary minds. Soon, there fore, the great investing firmament resolved itself into separate cosmical entities with separate powers and attributes. First, the watery atmosphere, personified under the name of Indra, ever seeking to dispense his dewy treasures (indu), though ever restrained by an opposing force or spirit of evil called Vritra ; and, secondly, the wind, thought of either as a single personality named Vagu, or as a whole assemblage of moving powers coming from every quarter of the compass, and imper sonated as Maruts or " Storm-gods. " At the same time in this process of decentralization — if I may use the term — the once purely celestial Varuna became relegated to a position among seven secondary deities of the heavenly sphere called Adityas (afterwards increased to twelve, and regarded as diversified forms of the sun in the several months of the year), and sub
196 VEDIC HYMNS.
sequently to a dominion over the waters when they had left the air and rested on the earth.
Of these separately deified physical forces, by far the most favorite object of adoration was the deity supposed to yield the dew and rain, longed for by Eastern cultivators of the soil with even greater cravings than by Northern agriculturists. Indra, therefore, — the Jupiter Pluvius of early Indian mythology, — is undoubtedly the principal divinity of Vedic worshipers, in so far at least as the greater number of their prayers and hymns are addressed to him.
What, however, could rain effect without the aid of heat ? a force, the intensity of which must have impressed an Indian mind with awe, and led him to invest the possessor of it with divine attributes. Hence the other great god of Vedic wor shipers, and in some respects the most important in his connec tion with sacrificial rites, is Agni (Latin Ignis), the god of fire. Even Siirya, the sun (Greek Helios), who was probably at first adored as the original source of heat, came to be regarded as only another form of fire. He was merely a manifestation of the same divine energy removed to the heavens and consequently less accessible. Another deity, Ushas, goddess of the dawn, — the Eos of the Greeks, — was naturally connected with the sun, and regarded as daughter of the sky. Two other deities, the Acvins, were fabled as connected with Ushas, as ever young and handsome, traveling in a golden car, and precursors of the dawn. They are sometimes called Dasras, as divine physicians, destroyers of diseases; sometimes Uasatyas, as "never untrue. " They appear to have been personifications of two luminous rays imagined to precede the break of day. These, with Yama, " the God of departed spirits," are the principal deities of the Mantra portion of the Veda.
We find, therefore, no trace in the Mantras of the Trimurti or Triad of deities (Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva), afterwards so popular. Nor does the doctrine of transmigration, afterwards an essential element of the Hindu religion, appear in the Mantra portion of the Veda, though there is a clear declaration of it in the Aranyaka of the Aitareya Brahmana. Nor is caste clearly alluded to, except in the later Purusha-sukta.
But here it may be asked, if sky, air, water, fire, and the sun were thus worshiped as manifestations of the supreme universal God of the universe, was not the earth also an object of adora tion with the early Hindus ? And unquestionably in the earlier
VEDIC HYMNS. 197
system the earth, under the name of Prithivi, " the broad one," does receive divine honors, being thought of as the mother of all beings. Moreover, various deities were regarded as the progeny resulting from the fancied union of earth with Dyaus, heaven. This imaginary marriage of heaven and earth was indeed a most natural idea, and much of the later mythology may be explained by it. But it is remarkable that as religious worship became of a more selfish character, the earth, being more evidently under man's control, and not seeming to need propitiation so urgently as the more uncertain air, fire, and water, lost impor tance among the gods, and was rarely addressed in prayer or hymn.
In all probability the deified forces addressed in the hymns were not represented by images or idols in the Vedic period, though doubtless the early worshipers clothed their gods with human form in their own imaginations.
I now begin my examples with a nearly literal translation of the well-known sixteenth hymn of the fourth book of the Atharva-veda, in praise of Varuna or the Investing Sky : —
HYMN TO THE INVESTING SKY.
The mighty Varuna, who rules above, looks down
Upon these worlds, his kingdom, as if close at hand.
When men imagine they do aught by stealth, he knows it. No one can stand or walk or softly glide along
Or hide in dark recess, or lurk in secret cell,
But Varuna detects him and his movements spies.
Two persons may devise some plot, together sitting
In private and alone ; but he, the king, is there —
A third — and sees it all. This boundless earth is his,
His the vast sky, whose depth no mortal e'er can fathom. Both oceans [air and sea] find a place within his body, yet In that small pool he lies contained. Whoe'er should flee Far, far beyond the sky, would not escape the grasp
Of Varuna, the king. His messengers descend
Countless from his abode — forever traversing
This world and scanning with a thousand eyes its inmates. Whate'er exists within this earth, and all within the sky, Yea, all that is beyond, King Varuna perceives.
The winking of men's eyes are numbered all by him.
He wields the universe, as gamesters handle dice.
May thy destroying snares cast sevenfold round the wicked, Entangle liars, but the truthful spare, O king !
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I pass from the ancient Aryan deity Varuna to the more thoroughly Indian god Indra.
The following metrical lines bring together various scattered texts relating to this Hindu Jupiter Pluvius : —
TO THE RAIN GOD.
Indra, twin brother of the god of fire,
When thou wast born, thy mother Aditi
Gave thee, her lusty child, the thrilling draught
Of mountain-growing Soma — source of life
And never-dying vigor to thy frame.
Then at the Thunderer's birth, appalled with fear, Dreading the hundred-jointed thunderbolt —
Forged by the cunning Trastivri — mountain rocked, Earth shook, and heaven trembled. Thou wast born Without a rival, king of gods and men —
The eye of living and terrestrial things.
Immortal Indra, unrelenting foe
Of drought and darkness, infinitely wise,
Terrific crusher of thy enemies,
Heroic, irresistible in might,
Wall of defense to us thy worshipers,
We sing thy praises, and our ardent hymns
Embrace thee, as a loving wife her lord.
Thou art our guardian, advocate, and friend,
A brother, father, mother, all combined.
Most fatherly of fathers, we are thine,
And thou art ours ; oh ! let thy pitying soul
Turn to us in compassion, when we praise thee,
And slay us not for one sin or for many.
Deliver us to-day, to-morrow, every day. — Armed for the conflict, see ! the demons come
Ahi and Vritra and a long array
Of darksome spirits. Quick, then, quaff the draught That stimulates thy martial energy,
And dashing onward in thy golden car,
Drawn by thy ruddy, Ribhu-fashioned steeds,
Speed to the charge, escorted by the Maruts.
Vainly the demons dare thy might ; in vain
Strive to deprive us of thy watery treasures.
Earth quakes beneath the crashing of thy bolts. Pierced, shattered, lies the foe — his cities crushed, His armies overthrown, his fortresses
Shivered to fragments; then the pent-up waters,
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Released from long imprisonment, descend In torrents to the earth, and swollen rivers, Foaming and rolling to their ocean home, Proclaim the triumph of the Thunderer.
Let us proceed next to the all-important Vedic deity Agni, " god of fire," especially of sacrificial fire. I propose now to paraphrase a few of the texts which relate to him : —
TO THE FIRE GOD.
Agni, thou art a sage, a priest, a king, Protector, father of the sacrifice. Commissioned by us men thou dost ascend A messenger, conveying to the sky
Our hymns and offerings. Though thy origin
Be threefold, now from air and now from water, Now from the mystic double Arani,
Thou art thyself a mighty god, a lord,
Giver of life and immortality,
One in thy essence, but to mortals three ;
Displaying thine eternal triple form,
As fire on earth, as lightning in the air,
As sun in heaven. Thou art a cherished guest
In every household — father, brother, son,
Friend, benefactor, guardian, all in one.
Bright, seven-rayed god ! how manifold thy shapes Revealed to us thy votaries ! now we see thee,
With body all of gold, and radiant hair,
Flaming from three terrific heads, and mouths Whose burning jaws and teeth devour all things. Now with a thousand glowing horns, and now Flashing thy luster from a thousand eyes,
Thou'rt borne towards us in a golden chariot, Impelled by winds, and drawn by ruddy steeds, Marking thy car's destructive course with blackness. Deliver, mighty lord, thy worshipers.
Purge us from taint of sin, and when we die,
Deal mercifully with us on the pyre,
Burning our bodies with their load of guilt,
But bearing our eternal part on high
To luminous abodes and realms of bliss,
Forever there to dwell with righteous men.
The next deity is Surya, the sun, who, with reference to the variety of his functions, has various names, — such as Savitri,
200 VEDIC HYMNS.
Aryaman, Mitra, Varuna, Pushan, sometimes ranking as dis tinct deities of the celestial sphere. As already explained, he is associated in the minds of Vedic worshipers with Fire, and is frequently described as sitting in a chariot drawn by seven ruddy horses (representing the seven days of the week), pre ceded by the Dawn. Here is an example of a hymn addressed to this deity, translated almost literally : —
HYMN TO THE SUN.
Behold the rays of dawn, like heralds, lead on high
The sun, that men may see the great all-knowing god.
The stars slink off like thieves, in company with Night, Before the all-seeing eye, whose beams reveal his presence, Gleaming like brilliant flames, to nation after nation.
With speed beyond the ken of mortals, thou, O Sun,
Dost ever travel on, conspicuous to all.
Thou dost create the light, and with it dost illume
The universe entire ; thou risest in the sight
Of all the race of men, and all the host of heaven. Light-giving Varuna ! thy piercing glance doth scan
in quick succession all this stirring, active world,
And penetrateth, too, the broad ethereal space,
Measuring our days and nights and spying out all creatures. Surya with flaming locks, clear-sighted, god of day,
Thy seven ruddy mares bear on thy rushing car.
With these thy self-yoked steeds, seven daughters of thy
chariot.
Onward thou dost advance. To thy refulgent orb Beyond this lower gloom and upward to the light Would we ascend, O Sun, thou god among the gods.
As an accompaniment to this hymn may here be mentioned the celebrated Gayatri. It is a short prayer to the Sun in his character of Savitri or the Vivifier, and is the most sacred of all Vedic texts. Though not always understood, it is to this very day used by every Brahman throughout India in his daily devotions. It occurs in the Rig-veda, and can be literally translated as follows : —
" Let us meditate [or, We meditate] on that excellent glory of the divine Vivifier. May he enlighten [or, stimulate] our understandings. "
May we not conjecture, with Sir William Jones, that the great veneration in which this text has ever been held by the
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Hindus from time immemorial, indicates that the more enlight ened worshipers adored, under the type of the visible sun, that divine light which alone could illumine their intellects ?
I may here also fitly offer a short paraphrase descriptive of the Vedic Ushas, the Greek E5s, or Dawn : —
HYMN TO THE DAWN.
Hail, ruddy Ushas, golden goddess, borne Upon thy shining car, thou comest like A lovely maiden by her mother decked, Disclosing coyly all thy hidden graces
To our admiring eyes ; or like a wife
Unveiling to her lord, with conscious pride, Beauties which, as he gazes lovingly,
Seem fresher, fairer, each succeeding morn. Through years on years thou hast lived on, and yet Thou'rt ever young. Thou art the breath and life Of all that breathes and lives, awaking day by day Myriads of prostrate sleepers, as from death, Causing the birds to flutter from their nests,
And rousing men to ply with busy feet
Their daily duties and appointed tasks,
Toiling for wealth, or pleasure, or renown.
Before leaving the subject of the Vedic deities, I add a few words about Yama, the god of departed spirits. It appears tolerably certain that the doctrine of metempsychosis has no place in the Mantra portion of the Veda ; nor do the authors of the hymns evince any sympathy with the desire to get rid of all action and personal existence, which became so remarkable a feature of the theology and philosophy of the Brahmans in later times. But there are many indirect references to the immortality of man's spirit and a future life, and these become more marked and decided towards the end of the Rig-veda. One of the hymns in the last Mandala is addressed to the Pitris or fathers, that is to say, the spirits of departed ances tors who have attained to a state of heavenly bliss, and are supposed to occupy three different stages of blessedness ; the highest inhabiting the upper sky, the middle the intermediate air, and the lowest the regions of the atmosphere near the earth. Reverence and adoration are always to be offered them, and they are presided over by the god Yama, the ruler of all the spirits of the dead, whether good or bad. The earlier legends repre
202 VEDIC HYMNS.
sent this god as a kind of first man (his twin sister being Yami), and also as the first of men that died. Hence he is described as guiding the spirits of other men who die, to the same world. In some passages, however, Death is said to be his messenger, he himself dwelling in celestial light, to which the departed are brought, and where they enjoy his society and that of the fathers. In the Veda he has nothing to do with judging or punishing the departed (as in the later mythology), but he has two terrific dogs, with four eyes, which guard the way to his abode. Here are a few thoughts about him from various hymns in the tenth Mandala of the Rig-veda : —
HYMN TO DEATH.
To Yama, mighty king, be gifts and homage paid.
He was the first of men that died, the first to brave
Death's rapid, rushing stream, the first to point the road
To heaven, and welcome others to that bright abode.
No power can rob us of the home thus won by thee.
O king, we come ; the born must die, must tread the path That thou hast trod — the path by which each race of men, In long succession, and our fathers too, have passed. —
Soul of the dead ! depart ; fear not to take the road
The ancient road — by which thy ancestors have gone ; Ascend to meet the god — to meet thy happy fathers, — Who dwell in bliss with him. Fear not to pass the guards The four-eyed brindled dogs — that watch for the departed. Return unto thy home, O soul ! Thy sin and shame—
Leave thou behind on earth ; assume a shining form
Thy ancient shape — refined and from all taint set free.
Let me now endeavor, by slightly amplified translations, to convey some idea of two of the most remarkable hymns in the Rig-veda. The first, which may be compared with some parts of the thirty-eighth chapter of Job, attempts to describe the mystery of creation, thus : —
THE MYSTERY OP CREATION.
In the beginning there was neither naught nor aught; Then there was neither sky nor atmosphere above. What then enshrouded all this teeming Universe ?
In the receptacle of what was it contained ?
Was it enveloped in the gulf profound of water ? Then was there neither death nor immortality,
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Then was there neither day, nor night, nor light, nor darkness, Only the existent One breathed calmly, self-contained.
Naught else than him there was — naught else above, beyond. Then first came darkness hid in darkness, gloom in gloom. Next all was water, all a chaos indiscrete,
In which the One lay void, shrouded in nothingness. Then turning inwards, he by self-developed force
Of inner fervor and intense abstraction, grew.
And now in him Desire, the primal germ of mind, Arose, which learned men, profoundly searching, say Is the first subtle bond, connecting Entity
With Nullity. This ray that kindled dormant life, Where was it then ? before ? or was it found above ? Were there parturient powers and latent qualities,
And fecund principles beneath, and active forces
That energized aloft ? Who knows ? Who can declare ? How and from what has sprung this Universe ? the gods Themselves are subsequent to its development.
Who then can penetrate the secret of its rise ?
Whether 'twas framed or not, made or not made, he only Who in the highest heaven sits, the omniscient lord, Assuredly knows all, or haply knows he not.
The next example is from the first Mandala of the Rig-veda. Like the preceding, it furnishes a good argument for those who maintain that the purer faith of the Hindus is properly mono theistic.
THE ONE GOD.
What god shall we adore with sacrifice ?
Him let us praise, the golden child that rose
In the beginning, who was born the lord —
The one sole lord of all that is — who made
The earth, and formed the sky, who giveth life, Who giveth strength, whose bidding gods revere, Whose hiding place is immortality,
Whose shadow, death ; who by his might is king Of all the breathing, sleeping, waking world— Who governs men and beasts, whose majesty These snowy hills, this ocean with its rivers, Declare ; of whom these spreading regions form The arms ; by whom the firmament is strong, Earth firmly planted, and the highest heavens Supported, and the clouds that fill the air Distributed and measured out ; to whom
Both earth and heaven, established by his will,
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VEDIC HYMNS.
Look up with trembling mind ; in whom revealed The rising sun shines forth above the world. Where'er let loose in space, the mighty waters Have gone, depositing a fruitful seed.
And generating fire, there he arose,
Who is the breath and life of all the gods,
Whose mighty glance looks round the vast expanse Of watery vapor — source of energy,
Cause of the sacrifice — the only God
Above the gods. May he not injure us!
He the Creator of the earth — the righteous
Creator of the sky, Creator too
Of oceans bright, and far-extending waters.
Let me now give a few verses (not in regular order and not quite literally translated) from the celebrated Purusha-sukta, one of the most recent hymns of the Rig-veda. It will serve to illustrate the gradual sliding of Hindu monotheism into pantheism, and the first foreshadowing of the institution of caste, which for so many centuries has held India in bond age : —
The embodied spirit has a thousand heads, A thousand eyes, a thousand feet around, On every side enveloping the earth,
Yet filling space no larger than a span.
He is himself this very universe,
He is whatever is, has been, and shall be.
He is the lord of immortality.
All creatures are one fourth of him, three fourths
Are that which is immortal in the sky.
From him called Purusha, was born Viraj,
And from Viraj was Purusha produced,
Whom gods and holy men made their oblation.
With Purusha as victim they performed
A sacrifice. When they divided him,
How did they cut him up ? what was his mouth ? What were his arms ? And what his thighs and feet ? The Brahman was his mouth, the kingly soldier
Was made his arms, the husbandman his thighs,
The servile Sudra issued from his feet.
I close my examples of the Mantras with slightly amplified versions of two hymns — one in praise of Time, personified as the source of all things, taken from the Atharva-veda ; the other addressed to Night, from the Rig-veda.
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Hymn to Time.
Time, like a brilliant steed with seven rays,
And with a thousand eyes, imperishable,
Full of fecundity, bears all things onward.
On him ascend the learned and the wise.
Time, like a seven-wheeled, seven-naved car, moves on. His rolling wheels are all the worlds, his axle
Is immortality. He is the first of gods.
We see him like an overflowing jar ;
We see him multiplied in various forms.
He draws forth and encompasses the worlds ; He is all future worlds ; he is their father ; He is their son ; there is no power like him. The past and future issue out of Time,
All sacred knowledge and austerity.
From Time the earth and waters were produced ;
From Time, the rising, setting, burning sun ;
From Time, the wind ; through Time the earth is vast Through Time the eye perceives ; mind, breath, and name In him are comprehended. All rejoice
When Time arrives — the monarch who has conquered This world, the highest world, the holy worlds,
Yea, all the worlds — and ever marches on.
The hymn to Night is my last example.
