Masinissa
is at his side.
Poland - 1915 - Poland, a Study in National Idealism - Monica Gardner
See, thy dagger flashes
there, Irydion. Let us hasten annihilation for
ourselves, Irydion. "
Irydion: "Thou blasphemest against thy
father's thought. Of old the life of one man
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? 132
POLAND
sufficed for the salvation of nations. To-day the
times are otherwise. To-day the sacrifice must be
of honour. " He clasps her in his arms. "To-day
thou shalt be wreathed with roses, decked with
smiles^Oh, unhappy child, lay here thy doomed
head. For the last time in thy father's house thy
brother presses thee to his bosom. Take thy fare-
well of me in all the beauty of thy maiden fresh-
ness. Neyer again shall I behold thee young--
never, never again. " 1
Then he, too, fails at the thought of what he is
doing. He cries to Masinissa for support. His
hesitation, Elsinoe's prayers'and tears, all alike die
at the entrance of the old man. Adorned as a
bride, weeping and swooning, the girl h carried
off by the slaves of Heliogabalus; but irydion's
end is gained. He, and Elsinoe acting under his
-orders, assume entire dominion over the young
'emperor, the mad, childish degenerate whose
personality stands out in vivid colours in Krasin-
. ski's drama. Irydion soon convinces him that he,
the" Greek, is his only friend, and that no safety
. will be his till he abandons the city and retires to
^uild up another in the east. In the meanwhile,
the traitor tampers with the Praetorians, and
lures the barbarians and gladiators to his side.
They only wait Irydion's signal to fall upon Rome;
but Irydion is not ready yet. He believes that
Rome cannot be destroyed unless he wins the
adhesion of the Christians, and they, he knows,
will not consent to fight against their persecutors
whom their Founder bade them forgive. Masinissa
persuades him to go down into the catacombs, to
feign the profession of Christianity and receive.
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ZTGMUNT KRASINSK1 133
baptism and then, seemingly as a fervent neophyte,
By all the craft in his power to sow dissension among
'the Christians, and convince the more restless and
impetuous that it is their duty to' take up
arms. Irydion is baptized by the name of Hieron-
imus. /He attempts to work his will with the
Christians. But the task is a difficult one. Masi-
nissa counsels him to dupe some Christian virgin,
and to play upon her religious exaltation till it
turns into love for him. Then, when she is his,
victory will follow. . For once, Jrydiqn shrinks.
He has in his mind ^Cornelia, the pure ind
beautiful maiden, Vowed to Christ, who has
talked to him of his soul,
"Must all that is holy and dear to others be
ever a sacrilege for me? Who made me miserable
and vile? She, who is the murderess of all my
moments, whose name is Rome. "
"There is another Rome," answers Masinissa,
"that cannot perish. Not on seven hills, but on
millions of stars have her feet rested. " Against
that Rome Irydion must swear eternal enmity. t
And Irydion,' calling on "unhappy Hellas," con-1
sents for love of her to destroy another's joy, "to
tear hope away from one who hoped. "
Masinissa is Satan. Krasinski's conception of a'
Mephistopheles is unusual. He is grand, majestic,
and, save in certain moments when he speaks or acts
openly as the minister of hatred, passionless. His
attitude with Irydion is less that of a tempter
than of a conspirator on equal terms. He incites or
encourages Irydion to vile deeds, such as the
sacrifice of the two women in the play; but it is
in the name of a sacred cause that he does so, for
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? *34
POLAND
the love of Hellas. He will ruin souls by his appeal,
not to their baser, but to their higher, desires. *
Krasinski's idea in the presentment of this Mephis-
topheles is that he is the satan of the world's
policy; the evil spirit of humanity that thrusts
governments and peoples back from the road of
spiritual progress, that would warp a nation's
love to destroy her by that love itself. f
Irydion has already brought disunion and con-
fusion where before all was brotherly charity and
steadfast purpose. He has set the young men
among the Christians on fire for battle in the
name of God. The old men, headed by the Pope,
Victor, seek to hold them back, appalled at the
thought of taking the blood of their persecutors.
If only Cornelia, who is venerated as a saint by
her fellow-believers, will persuade them to listen
to Irydion, his cause is won. He, therefore, sets
himself to deceive her by every wile of diabolical
craft that his cunning can suggest, into which <
against his will the touch of human passion on his
side now and again steals. They stand together
alone in the bowels of the earth, among the cor-
ridors of the dead stretching as far as eye can
reach. The maiden, in whose portrayal there is
the tenderness of touch, the strange, elusive charm
peculiar to Krasinski's women, trembles for
lrydion's soul. The Greek, dark and gloomy,
watches her as with the eyes of a snake on the bird
he is ensnaring. She entreats him to desist from his
thirst for bloodshed that she can only look upon
as sin.
* J. Kleiner, History of the Thought of Zygmunt Krasinski.
t St. Tarnowski, Zygmunt Krasinski.
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ZTGMUNT KRASINSKI 135
"Alas! Art thou the same with whom I knelt
in the cemetery of Eufemia, to whom I taught
my prayer? Hieronimus, is this thou? I have
prayed so much, I have done such hard penance
for so many days and nights. "
Irydion: "And thou shalt reach heaven. Who
could doubt it? "
Cornelia: "Oh, it was not for myself, not for
myself. "
Irydion: "Then for whom? "
Cornelia: "One of my brothers. "
Terrified at the frenzy, whether real or feigned,
of a jealous lover which she in her innocence
takes for a delirium she does not understand, she
confesses that this brother was he. Little by
little, Irydion lets sink into her ear the idea that
she is dishonouring her God, Who is his God too,
by not desiring the warfare for His glory that
Irydion desires.
"Oh, Lord, for mercy, mercy on him do I call,"
pleads Cornelia. " Thou wilt not suffer him to be
lost before my eyes. Ah! what am I saying?
Where am I? Surely, oh, Lord, I have vowed my
whole heart to Thee. How dark and gloomy is it
here! For the first time terror of the dead falls
on me. "
Irydion; "Lean on me. "
Gradually the hints of the tempter do their
work. Trouble and doubt enter the soul of the
innocent girl. Irydion weaves the story of the vow
to revenge himself on Rome, to which his father
trained him, with the vision of Christ's kingdom
triumphing, till she can no longer distinguish
issues. She only knows that a mortal face has
4
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? 136
POLAND
fastened itself into her thoughts where Christ
alone reigned before; "and as a prophet, a saint,
an archangel, he stands before me and speaks, and
I listen to him, oh, Lord, and I would fain die. Have
mercy on me! " .
She strives to defend him against his temptation
to vengeance, herself against the unknown forces
that are carrying her away. Overcome with detesta-
tion of the deed he is about to do, Irydion bids
her leave him. No, she will not leave him to his
sin. She implores him to kneel and pray by her <<
side.
"You are my witness, bones of the dead,"
murmurs he, "and thou, mother earth, I would
fain have spared her, and her only. "
He hears the voice of Simeon, the leader of the
Christian youths whom he has gained over,
calling him to the battle. Then he tears the
veil from Cornelia's head, and implants his kisses
on her forehead. With the cry that she is damned
with him for ever, she swoons. She wakes, mad, to
find Irydion standing by her. He tells her he is
Christ, come to claim His victory with arms. His
end is secured. Cornelia runs frenzied through
the catacombs, crying out: "To arms! "
All is now clamour and discord. Victor tries in
vain to restrain Simeon's band. Irydion, surrounded
by his barbarians, urges them forward by all that
is sacred to them, and which he pretends is equally
sacred to himself. Cornelia's wild cries " To arms! "
ring above the tumult, and, coming from the lips
of the saint of the catacombs, seem a summons
from heaven. Masinissa, at this moment appearing
openly as the demon, rises in the midst of columns
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ZTGMUNT KRAS1NSKI
of fire, exulting in the ravages that have been, and
will be, wrought in the souls of the followers of
Christ.
"Faith, hope and love! Trinity, which wast
to last for ever, I have torn Thee to shreds in the
hearts of the most beloved children of Thy bene-
diction! In Thy name they shall slay and burn.
In Thy name they shall oppress. Thou shalt be
crucified alike in their wisdom and their ignorance,
alike in the sleepy humility of their prayers and in
the blasphemies of their pride. "
And now the moment for which Irydion has
schemed so long is close at hand. Irydion wrings
from the terror-stricken emperor his command
over the Praetorians. Alexander Severus is march-
ing on Rome; and the avenger has sworn his death
no less than that of Heliogabalus, with an equal
certainty that neither of them must live to prolong
the life of Rome. Elsinoe, throwing herself into
her brother's arms, entreats him:
"Let those eyes die beneath which I withered.
Let the arms which crawled about my neck fall
as two worn-out vipers. Let the lips which first
touched mine perish in ashes. "
Irydion: "On the same heap and at the same
moment, both he and Severus. "
Elsinoe: "Not so, not so. Let me finish my
last desire. Spare Alexander on the field of battle.
He with one look calmed my despair. He alone
guessed. Ah, why hast thou turned thy face away
from me? "
Irydion: "He is the only one who is now
tearing Rome from the clasp of my hatred. "
Elsinoe: "Then once more press thy sister to
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? POLAND
thy bosom. Feelest thou how this heart throbs?
Ere thou returnest, it will have broken, son of
Amphilochus! But remember Elsinoe desired no
blood of thee. Let live all, all--even he, the
Syrian, the abominated--let him live. "
Voices outside the palace: "Forward, in the
name of the Fortune of Irydion the Greek. "
Irydion: "Away with untimely mourning,
when Nemesis already holds the crown of ven-
geance for us in each hand. Victory descends into
my soul. In those clashings of arms, in those shouts,
leaps my life, and must thou die? Rather be
happy and proud. What thy father invoked, what
long ages have asked of the gods with tears,
approaches as the thunderbolt. "
Voices: "Irydion, Irydion! "
Irydion: "Farewell. " /
Elsinoe: "Go. Be thou happy and mighty;
and if ever thou shalt sail on the Aegean waters
cast a handful of my ashes on Chiara's banks. "
They part for ever. When Alexander Severus'
troops rush into the palace, Heliogabalus is hold-
ing to his lips the cup of poison he dares not
drink, and is despatched by the soldiers. Elsinoe,
garbed in imperial robes, sits calmly waiting. As
the curtains of her apartment are torn aside, she
pierces her heart with a dagger, preferring death
rather than the love that might be hers of the
saviour of Rome, Alexander Severus.
But we anticipate. Alexander is not victorious
yet. The night that Irydion hails as the last night
of Rome is here. His armies are awaiting his
signal.
Masinissa is at his side. With wild fury
Irydion exults in the thought that, before the
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ZTGMUNT KRASINSKI 139
morning is upon them, Rome shall be in flames--
if, and upon this condition all depends, the
Christian auxiliaries join him. They delay. They
are singing their hymns, says Masinissa sardon-
ically. A messenger from Simeon summons Irydion.
He hastens to the catacombs. He finds Victor and
the priests on the altar steps, Simeon and his
youths in arms, panting for the fray, Cornelia
still uttering her frenzied war-cry. Irydion bursts
upon this assembly. He calls to Cornelia as to his
beloved; but pitted against him is Victor who
stands forth and, in the presence of all, exorcises
Cornelia. She returns to herself. She bears witness
that she and her fellow Christians have been
duped by an evil spirit that has possessed her and
spoken through her lips. In vain Irydion, with
one despairing effort, calls to her in the language
of love for the last time. She turns to him without
fear and with forgiveness. "Hieronimus, I
pardon thee. Hieronimus, pray to Christ "; and
so she dies, breathing the fragrance of the flowers
of Paradise.
Her testimony turns the Christians, loathing
and horror-stricken, from him whom they now
see in his true colours. The maddened Irydion
tears the cross he wears from his armour and,
dashing it to the ground, departs, doomed, as he
well knows, to failure. In the catacombs the
avenger has been brought up against the only
life-giving element in Rome. With that force
behind him, he can conquer. With it against
him, he can do nothing. All that is now left to
him is to fight a losing battle "morelike a demon
than a mortal man. " The envoy of Alexander
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? 140 POLAND
Severus brings him overtures of peace. He rejects
them with a certain noble contempt. His nation
has loved, and lived on, an idea. What has she
to do with an empire that has maintained herself
by blood and by the tears of the conquered? >.
So Irydion fights on; but ever and again his
sword falters in his hand and he turns pale, for he
hears Cornelia calling to him in the name of
Christ. He is defeated, and abandoned by all.
He steps on Elsinoe's funeral pyre and prepares to
perish in the flames. Masinissa descends, and
carries him away to a mountain top. In the dis-
tance lies Rome. The enemy of Irydion's race
stands out on her hills, her marbles flashing in
the sun, proud and invincible.
"Oh, thou whom I loved for thy sorrows, wast
thou but a shade ? " What now remains to Iry-
dion? The voice of the Christian maiden, whom
he sacrificed at Masinissa's bidding, wails in his
ear. He sees the cross at which she prayed. If her
God wete indeed a God above all gods, it is on
Him that he would now call.
"-Our Father, Who art in heaven," sneers
Masinissa, " give long days to Rome. Save those
who through alTtime have oppressed my native
land. "
'^Nay," is Irydion's reply. "Our Father Who
art in heaven, love Hellas as I have loved her. "
He then adjures Masinissa to tell him if Christ
is indeed the "Lord of heaven and earth. "
Masinissa confesses Him, but as his immortal
enemy. He bids Irydion gaze at the " city of his
hatred. " Who shall tear it from the hands of
Irydion's northern brothers when their hordes
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ZTGMUNT KRASINSKI 141
Overwhelm Italy? The Nazarene. But Irydion
1 must not despair. A day will come when " on the
Forum only dust shall remain, in the Circus only
ruins, on the Capitol only shams-. " That day is so
- distant that Masinissa himself can hardly foresee
it; but, if Irydion will consent to renounce Christ
for ever, Masinissa will cast him into a slumber
of centuries till he awakes to behold the ruin of
Rome. A voice once known to Irydion cries in
anguish and entreaty: but he agrees to the bond,
and sinks into a deep sleep in a cavern in the hills
outside Rome.
Here the dramatic form of Irydion ends, and
the conclusion is told in an epilogue.
The ages roll over Irydion's head.
"Oh, my Thought "--the poet thus address-
ing Irydion--" thou hast lasted out the centuries!
Thou didst slumber in the day of Alaric and in
the day of the mighty Attila. Neither the ring of
the imperial crown on the rough brow of Char-
lemagne, nor Rienzi, the tribune of the people,
woke thee--and the consecrated lords of the
Vatican one after the other passed before thee, as
shades before a shade. But to-day thou shalt
arise, oh, my Thought! "
He rises in the strength of his youth at the
appointed hour--the days of Krasinski.
"Thou didst stand in the Roman Campagna.
She hath nought with which to hide her shame
before thy gaze. The aqueducts running to the
city, finding no city, have halted. The stones
fallen from them lie in graveyard heaps.
"The son of the ages saw and rejoiced in the
justice of his vengeance. Each ruin, and the plains,.
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? i42 POLAND
widowed of amphitheatres, and the hills, orphaned
of temples, were his recompense. "
He passes on to Rome, guided by Masinissa.
He beholds the ruins of the Baths of Caracalla,
the Appian way laid waste, the Forum a mass of
fragments. He halts in the Coliseum. As he stands
in the arena, surrounded by the gaping walls
about which festoons of greenery cling, some
strange emotion stirs within the Greek. He looks
upon the cross that stands there--as it stood in
Krasinski's youth--with some far off recollection
of a maiden's face; and he knows that now he no
longer desires war with the cross, for it seems to
him as though that cross is " weary as he, sorrow-
ing as once Hellas sorrowed--and holy for ever-
more. "
Then begins in the Coliseum, at the foot of the
cross, the judgment upon Irydion's soul--a scene
that had developed in Krasinski's heart since
he had wandered, when little more than a boy,
about the ruin in the moonlight. The amphi-
theatre resounds with the sighs of the martyrs
who shed their blood there, with the wailing of
the angels above. Below the cross stands Irydion
with prayerless lips. Masinissa claims the damned
soul for his own. In the light of the moon shines
a beautiful face, angelic wings flash, as Cornelia
battles for the salvation of him who wronged her.
"Immortal Enemy," is the cry of Masinissa, " he
is mine, for he lived in revenge, and he hated
Rome. " "Oh, Lord, he is mine," rings the cry
of Cornelia, " for he loved Greece. "
The plea of love prevails, as in the scheme of
Irydion it must prevail. Irydion had. h. a'tsd ? but,
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ZTGMUNT KRAS1NSK1 ^3
unlike Henryk of the Undivine Comedy, who was
damned because he had loved nothing, Irydion
had loved Greece. He had sinned, but sinned
because he had loved. He is, therefore, saved, but
not without a long expiation. He who had worked
in hatred, and whose work had therefore resulted
only in its own destruction, is now sent to a labour v
of love for a fallen country that will surely save
both him and her. In the sentence pronounced by
heaven upon Irydion--Krasinski's mystic and
national Thought--the poet throws off, in part, the-
allegory, and speaks more plainly to his brother
Poles. Irydion is bidden
"'Go to the north in the name of Christ. Go
and halt not till thou standest in the land of graves
and crosses. Thou shalt know it by the silence of
men and the sadness of little children, by the
ruined huts of the poor and the destroyed palaces
of the exiles. Thou shalt know it by the sighs of
My angels, flying over it by night. '
"' Go and dwell among the brothers that I
give thee. There, is thy second trial. For the
second time thou shalt behold thy love trans-
pierced, dying--and the sorrows of thousands
shall be born in thy one heart. '
"'Go and trust in My name. Ask not for thy
glory, but for the good of those whom I entrust
to thee. And, after long martyrdom, I will give ye
what I gave My angels--happiness--and what I
promised to mankind on the heights of Golgotha
--freedom. '
"' Go and act. Although thy heart shall faint in
thy bosom, although thou shalt doubt thy brethren,
although^thou shouldst despair of Me Myself,
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? 144
POLAND
act ever and without rest. And thou shalt rise,
not from sleep as erst, but from the work of
ages--and thou shalt be the free son of heaven. '
"And the sun rose above the ruins of Rome.
And there was none whom I might tell where
were the traces of my Thought--but I know that
it lasts and lives. "
Irydion is the confession of one who knew the
onslaughts of despair and hatred, and who over-
came them, both for himself and his nation, by
holding fast to the principles of an unflinching
national morality. Criticising his drama from the
ethical standpoint, which was the only aspect
under which Krasinski ever spoke of his work in
his correspondence with his friends, the poet said:
"To prove its truth, the author might call
upon the shades of the dead and the tears of the
living. He might ask many a one: 'Didst thou
not feel this, didst thou not dream thus ? ' And
many a one would answer: 'It is so. ' Not many
a one, but a whole nation. "A
V III
The development of Krasinski's thought was
not, as might have been imagined, a triumphal
progress from Irydion onwards. After the com-
pletion of the latter, darkness and confusion
swept down upon the poet. From his own testi-
mony in the opening lines to Dawn, we know that
it was his grief for his country that shook both his
* Letters of Zygmunt Krasinsii. Vol. I. To Constantine
pasizynski, June 6, 1837.
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ZTGMUNT KRASINSKI 145
religious and national faith, always closely inter-
woven in Krasinski's soul. At this time he wrote
but little, and nothing that was worthy of his
genius, chiefly obscure allegories in poetic prose,
overladen with excessive imagery, tinged here
and there with pantheism, and indicative of the
spiritual perplexity in which he dwelt. Yet
through The Temptation, The Summer Night,
through the strange, nightmare visions of the
Three Thoughts, there runs the one thread that
nothing could ever destroy or weaken in Kras-
inski's life, which was at once his ruling passion
and the chief source of all his suffering: devotion
to Poland. They are the cry of one bewildered
with pain, unable to see with certainty his nation's
deliverance.
Curiously enough, Krasinski, the dreamer, the
poet, the mystic, was above all things a logician.
His national philosophy must be founded on a
rational system, it must convince his mind no less
than his heart, before it could satisfy him. Through
the years of mental suffering that stretched be-
tween the writing of Irydion and Dawn, he was
seeking a theory that would give the key to the
mystery of PolandVtragedy, provide her with a
hope, proclaim a vocation for her in the future.
Every philosophical development, every political
event, was significant in this connection alone. At
last, he found what his soul had asked. Dawn is
the hymn of his spiritual and patriotic victory.
His idea may be thus roughly summarized.
The signs of the times that immediately preceded
the birth of Christ--religious doubt, moral de-
cadence, strange faiths--are almost identical with
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? 146
POLAND
those of Krasinski's age. The conquests of Julius
Csesar paved the way for the coming of Christ by
obliterating the frontiers between nations. In
the nineteenth century we have the Napoleonic
conquests; and these, in their turn, prepared the
world for Christ's second and spiritual advent.
Not again in our flesh. But as He christianized
the individual, so now He will christianize govern-
ments, and harmonize the relations between them
and their subjects, between nation and nation.
As long as the dismemberment of Poland, that
crime against law and right, is permitted to be
an established fact, so long is Christ's intention
violated. Her restoration will be the herald of
the transfiguration of the political sphere into
the religious sphere, an earnest of the higher epoch
of the world's history.
Thus Krasinski in his prose introduction to
Dawn* And hence the mystic rapture with which
he can announce to his people that Poland's
death leads to her resurrection, her shame to the
glorious re-birth of the human race.
"Hodie scietis quia veniet Dominus et salvabit
nos et mane videbitis gloriam ejus. " These words
from the office of his Church for Christmas Eve,
Krasinski places at the head of the poem that is
one of the noblest expressions in literature of a
nation's suffering and a nation's hope.
As Dante's Divina Commedia is the spiritual
apotheosis of a woman, so Dawn is the idealization
of her whom Krasinski etherealized as his Beatrice,
and who likewise inspired Poland's greatest
See. Chapter II.
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl.
there, Irydion. Let us hasten annihilation for
ourselves, Irydion. "
Irydion: "Thou blasphemest against thy
father's thought. Of old the life of one man
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? 132
POLAND
sufficed for the salvation of nations. To-day the
times are otherwise. To-day the sacrifice must be
of honour. " He clasps her in his arms. "To-day
thou shalt be wreathed with roses, decked with
smiles^Oh, unhappy child, lay here thy doomed
head. For the last time in thy father's house thy
brother presses thee to his bosom. Take thy fare-
well of me in all the beauty of thy maiden fresh-
ness. Neyer again shall I behold thee young--
never, never again. " 1
Then he, too, fails at the thought of what he is
doing. He cries to Masinissa for support. His
hesitation, Elsinoe's prayers'and tears, all alike die
at the entrance of the old man. Adorned as a
bride, weeping and swooning, the girl h carried
off by the slaves of Heliogabalus; but irydion's
end is gained. He, and Elsinoe acting under his
-orders, assume entire dominion over the young
'emperor, the mad, childish degenerate whose
personality stands out in vivid colours in Krasin-
. ski's drama. Irydion soon convinces him that he,
the" Greek, is his only friend, and that no safety
. will be his till he abandons the city and retires to
^uild up another in the east. In the meanwhile,
the traitor tampers with the Praetorians, and
lures the barbarians and gladiators to his side.
They only wait Irydion's signal to fall upon Rome;
but Irydion is not ready yet. He believes that
Rome cannot be destroyed unless he wins the
adhesion of the Christians, and they, he knows,
will not consent to fight against their persecutors
whom their Founder bade them forgive. Masinissa
persuades him to go down into the catacombs, to
feign the profession of Christianity and receive.
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ZTGMUNT KRASINSK1 133
baptism and then, seemingly as a fervent neophyte,
By all the craft in his power to sow dissension among
'the Christians, and convince the more restless and
impetuous that it is their duty to' take up
arms. Irydion is baptized by the name of Hieron-
imus. /He attempts to work his will with the
Christians. But the task is a difficult one. Masi-
nissa counsels him to dupe some Christian virgin,
and to play upon her religious exaltation till it
turns into love for him. Then, when she is his,
victory will follow. . For once, Jrydiqn shrinks.
He has in his mind ^Cornelia, the pure ind
beautiful maiden, Vowed to Christ, who has
talked to him of his soul,
"Must all that is holy and dear to others be
ever a sacrilege for me? Who made me miserable
and vile? She, who is the murderess of all my
moments, whose name is Rome. "
"There is another Rome," answers Masinissa,
"that cannot perish. Not on seven hills, but on
millions of stars have her feet rested. " Against
that Rome Irydion must swear eternal enmity. t
And Irydion,' calling on "unhappy Hellas," con-1
sents for love of her to destroy another's joy, "to
tear hope away from one who hoped. "
Masinissa is Satan. Krasinski's conception of a'
Mephistopheles is unusual. He is grand, majestic,
and, save in certain moments when he speaks or acts
openly as the minister of hatred, passionless. His
attitude with Irydion is less that of a tempter
than of a conspirator on equal terms. He incites or
encourages Irydion to vile deeds, such as the
sacrifice of the two women in the play; but it is
in the name of a sacred cause that he does so, for
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? *34
POLAND
the love of Hellas. He will ruin souls by his appeal,
not to their baser, but to their higher, desires. *
Krasinski's idea in the presentment of this Mephis-
topheles is that he is the satan of the world's
policy; the evil spirit of humanity that thrusts
governments and peoples back from the road of
spiritual progress, that would warp a nation's
love to destroy her by that love itself. f
Irydion has already brought disunion and con-
fusion where before all was brotherly charity and
steadfast purpose. He has set the young men
among the Christians on fire for battle in the
name of God. The old men, headed by the Pope,
Victor, seek to hold them back, appalled at the
thought of taking the blood of their persecutors.
If only Cornelia, who is venerated as a saint by
her fellow-believers, will persuade them to listen
to Irydion, his cause is won. He, therefore, sets
himself to deceive her by every wile of diabolical
craft that his cunning can suggest, into which <
against his will the touch of human passion on his
side now and again steals. They stand together
alone in the bowels of the earth, among the cor-
ridors of the dead stretching as far as eye can
reach. The maiden, in whose portrayal there is
the tenderness of touch, the strange, elusive charm
peculiar to Krasinski's women, trembles for
lrydion's soul. The Greek, dark and gloomy,
watches her as with the eyes of a snake on the bird
he is ensnaring. She entreats him to desist from his
thirst for bloodshed that she can only look upon
as sin.
* J. Kleiner, History of the Thought of Zygmunt Krasinski.
t St. Tarnowski, Zygmunt Krasinski.
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ZTGMUNT KRASINSKI 135
"Alas! Art thou the same with whom I knelt
in the cemetery of Eufemia, to whom I taught
my prayer? Hieronimus, is this thou? I have
prayed so much, I have done such hard penance
for so many days and nights. "
Irydion: "And thou shalt reach heaven. Who
could doubt it? "
Cornelia: "Oh, it was not for myself, not for
myself. "
Irydion: "Then for whom? "
Cornelia: "One of my brothers. "
Terrified at the frenzy, whether real or feigned,
of a jealous lover which she in her innocence
takes for a delirium she does not understand, she
confesses that this brother was he. Little by
little, Irydion lets sink into her ear the idea that
she is dishonouring her God, Who is his God too,
by not desiring the warfare for His glory that
Irydion desires.
"Oh, Lord, for mercy, mercy on him do I call,"
pleads Cornelia. " Thou wilt not suffer him to be
lost before my eyes. Ah! what am I saying?
Where am I? Surely, oh, Lord, I have vowed my
whole heart to Thee. How dark and gloomy is it
here! For the first time terror of the dead falls
on me. "
Irydion; "Lean on me. "
Gradually the hints of the tempter do their
work. Trouble and doubt enter the soul of the
innocent girl. Irydion weaves the story of the vow
to revenge himself on Rome, to which his father
trained him, with the vision of Christ's kingdom
triumphing, till she can no longer distinguish
issues. She only knows that a mortal face has
4
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? 136
POLAND
fastened itself into her thoughts where Christ
alone reigned before; "and as a prophet, a saint,
an archangel, he stands before me and speaks, and
I listen to him, oh, Lord, and I would fain die. Have
mercy on me! " .
She strives to defend him against his temptation
to vengeance, herself against the unknown forces
that are carrying her away. Overcome with detesta-
tion of the deed he is about to do, Irydion bids
her leave him. No, she will not leave him to his
sin. She implores him to kneel and pray by her <<
side.
"You are my witness, bones of the dead,"
murmurs he, "and thou, mother earth, I would
fain have spared her, and her only. "
He hears the voice of Simeon, the leader of the
Christian youths whom he has gained over,
calling him to the battle. Then he tears the
veil from Cornelia's head, and implants his kisses
on her forehead. With the cry that she is damned
with him for ever, she swoons. She wakes, mad, to
find Irydion standing by her. He tells her he is
Christ, come to claim His victory with arms. His
end is secured. Cornelia runs frenzied through
the catacombs, crying out: "To arms! "
All is now clamour and discord. Victor tries in
vain to restrain Simeon's band. Irydion, surrounded
by his barbarians, urges them forward by all that
is sacred to them, and which he pretends is equally
sacred to himself. Cornelia's wild cries " To arms! "
ring above the tumult, and, coming from the lips
of the saint of the catacombs, seem a summons
from heaven. Masinissa, at this moment appearing
openly as the demon, rises in the midst of columns
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ZTGMUNT KRAS1NSKI
of fire, exulting in the ravages that have been, and
will be, wrought in the souls of the followers of
Christ.
"Faith, hope and love! Trinity, which wast
to last for ever, I have torn Thee to shreds in the
hearts of the most beloved children of Thy bene-
diction! In Thy name they shall slay and burn.
In Thy name they shall oppress. Thou shalt be
crucified alike in their wisdom and their ignorance,
alike in the sleepy humility of their prayers and in
the blasphemies of their pride. "
And now the moment for which Irydion has
schemed so long is close at hand. Irydion wrings
from the terror-stricken emperor his command
over the Praetorians. Alexander Severus is march-
ing on Rome; and the avenger has sworn his death
no less than that of Heliogabalus, with an equal
certainty that neither of them must live to prolong
the life of Rome. Elsinoe, throwing herself into
her brother's arms, entreats him:
"Let those eyes die beneath which I withered.
Let the arms which crawled about my neck fall
as two worn-out vipers. Let the lips which first
touched mine perish in ashes. "
Irydion: "On the same heap and at the same
moment, both he and Severus. "
Elsinoe: "Not so, not so. Let me finish my
last desire. Spare Alexander on the field of battle.
He with one look calmed my despair. He alone
guessed. Ah, why hast thou turned thy face away
from me? "
Irydion: "He is the only one who is now
tearing Rome from the clasp of my hatred. "
Elsinoe: "Then once more press thy sister to
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? POLAND
thy bosom. Feelest thou how this heart throbs?
Ere thou returnest, it will have broken, son of
Amphilochus! But remember Elsinoe desired no
blood of thee. Let live all, all--even he, the
Syrian, the abominated--let him live. "
Voices outside the palace: "Forward, in the
name of the Fortune of Irydion the Greek. "
Irydion: "Away with untimely mourning,
when Nemesis already holds the crown of ven-
geance for us in each hand. Victory descends into
my soul. In those clashings of arms, in those shouts,
leaps my life, and must thou die? Rather be
happy and proud. What thy father invoked, what
long ages have asked of the gods with tears,
approaches as the thunderbolt. "
Voices: "Irydion, Irydion! "
Irydion: "Farewell. " /
Elsinoe: "Go. Be thou happy and mighty;
and if ever thou shalt sail on the Aegean waters
cast a handful of my ashes on Chiara's banks. "
They part for ever. When Alexander Severus'
troops rush into the palace, Heliogabalus is hold-
ing to his lips the cup of poison he dares not
drink, and is despatched by the soldiers. Elsinoe,
garbed in imperial robes, sits calmly waiting. As
the curtains of her apartment are torn aside, she
pierces her heart with a dagger, preferring death
rather than the love that might be hers of the
saviour of Rome, Alexander Severus.
But we anticipate. Alexander is not victorious
yet. The night that Irydion hails as the last night
of Rome is here. His armies are awaiting his
signal.
Masinissa is at his side. With wild fury
Irydion exults in the thought that, before the
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ZTGMUNT KRASINSKI 139
morning is upon them, Rome shall be in flames--
if, and upon this condition all depends, the
Christian auxiliaries join him. They delay. They
are singing their hymns, says Masinissa sardon-
ically. A messenger from Simeon summons Irydion.
He hastens to the catacombs. He finds Victor and
the priests on the altar steps, Simeon and his
youths in arms, panting for the fray, Cornelia
still uttering her frenzied war-cry. Irydion bursts
upon this assembly. He calls to Cornelia as to his
beloved; but pitted against him is Victor who
stands forth and, in the presence of all, exorcises
Cornelia. She returns to herself. She bears witness
that she and her fellow Christians have been
duped by an evil spirit that has possessed her and
spoken through her lips. In vain Irydion, with
one despairing effort, calls to her in the language
of love for the last time. She turns to him without
fear and with forgiveness. "Hieronimus, I
pardon thee. Hieronimus, pray to Christ "; and
so she dies, breathing the fragrance of the flowers
of Paradise.
Her testimony turns the Christians, loathing
and horror-stricken, from him whom they now
see in his true colours. The maddened Irydion
tears the cross he wears from his armour and,
dashing it to the ground, departs, doomed, as he
well knows, to failure. In the catacombs the
avenger has been brought up against the only
life-giving element in Rome. With that force
behind him, he can conquer. With it against
him, he can do nothing. All that is now left to
him is to fight a losing battle "morelike a demon
than a mortal man. " The envoy of Alexander
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? 140 POLAND
Severus brings him overtures of peace. He rejects
them with a certain noble contempt. His nation
has loved, and lived on, an idea. What has she
to do with an empire that has maintained herself
by blood and by the tears of the conquered? >.
So Irydion fights on; but ever and again his
sword falters in his hand and he turns pale, for he
hears Cornelia calling to him in the name of
Christ. He is defeated, and abandoned by all.
He steps on Elsinoe's funeral pyre and prepares to
perish in the flames. Masinissa descends, and
carries him away to a mountain top. In the dis-
tance lies Rome. The enemy of Irydion's race
stands out on her hills, her marbles flashing in
the sun, proud and invincible.
"Oh, thou whom I loved for thy sorrows, wast
thou but a shade ? " What now remains to Iry-
dion? The voice of the Christian maiden, whom
he sacrificed at Masinissa's bidding, wails in his
ear. He sees the cross at which she prayed. If her
God wete indeed a God above all gods, it is on
Him that he would now call.
"-Our Father, Who art in heaven," sneers
Masinissa, " give long days to Rome. Save those
who through alTtime have oppressed my native
land. "
'^Nay," is Irydion's reply. "Our Father Who
art in heaven, love Hellas as I have loved her. "
He then adjures Masinissa to tell him if Christ
is indeed the "Lord of heaven and earth. "
Masinissa confesses Him, but as his immortal
enemy. He bids Irydion gaze at the " city of his
hatred. " Who shall tear it from the hands of
Irydion's northern brothers when their hordes
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ZTGMUNT KRASINSKI 141
Overwhelm Italy? The Nazarene. But Irydion
1 must not despair. A day will come when " on the
Forum only dust shall remain, in the Circus only
ruins, on the Capitol only shams-. " That day is so
- distant that Masinissa himself can hardly foresee
it; but, if Irydion will consent to renounce Christ
for ever, Masinissa will cast him into a slumber
of centuries till he awakes to behold the ruin of
Rome. A voice once known to Irydion cries in
anguish and entreaty: but he agrees to the bond,
and sinks into a deep sleep in a cavern in the hills
outside Rome.
Here the dramatic form of Irydion ends, and
the conclusion is told in an epilogue.
The ages roll over Irydion's head.
"Oh, my Thought "--the poet thus address-
ing Irydion--" thou hast lasted out the centuries!
Thou didst slumber in the day of Alaric and in
the day of the mighty Attila. Neither the ring of
the imperial crown on the rough brow of Char-
lemagne, nor Rienzi, the tribune of the people,
woke thee--and the consecrated lords of the
Vatican one after the other passed before thee, as
shades before a shade. But to-day thou shalt
arise, oh, my Thought! "
He rises in the strength of his youth at the
appointed hour--the days of Krasinski.
"Thou didst stand in the Roman Campagna.
She hath nought with which to hide her shame
before thy gaze. The aqueducts running to the
city, finding no city, have halted. The stones
fallen from them lie in graveyard heaps.
"The son of the ages saw and rejoiced in the
justice of his vengeance. Each ruin, and the plains,.
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? i42 POLAND
widowed of amphitheatres, and the hills, orphaned
of temples, were his recompense. "
He passes on to Rome, guided by Masinissa.
He beholds the ruins of the Baths of Caracalla,
the Appian way laid waste, the Forum a mass of
fragments. He halts in the Coliseum. As he stands
in the arena, surrounded by the gaping walls
about which festoons of greenery cling, some
strange emotion stirs within the Greek. He looks
upon the cross that stands there--as it stood in
Krasinski's youth--with some far off recollection
of a maiden's face; and he knows that now he no
longer desires war with the cross, for it seems to
him as though that cross is " weary as he, sorrow-
ing as once Hellas sorrowed--and holy for ever-
more. "
Then begins in the Coliseum, at the foot of the
cross, the judgment upon Irydion's soul--a scene
that had developed in Krasinski's heart since
he had wandered, when little more than a boy,
about the ruin in the moonlight. The amphi-
theatre resounds with the sighs of the martyrs
who shed their blood there, with the wailing of
the angels above. Below the cross stands Irydion
with prayerless lips. Masinissa claims the damned
soul for his own. In the light of the moon shines
a beautiful face, angelic wings flash, as Cornelia
battles for the salvation of him who wronged her.
"Immortal Enemy," is the cry of Masinissa, " he
is mine, for he lived in revenge, and he hated
Rome. " "Oh, Lord, he is mine," rings the cry
of Cornelia, " for he loved Greece. "
The plea of love prevails, as in the scheme of
Irydion it must prevail. Irydion had. h. a'tsd ? but,
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ZTGMUNT KRAS1NSK1 ^3
unlike Henryk of the Undivine Comedy, who was
damned because he had loved nothing, Irydion
had loved Greece. He had sinned, but sinned
because he had loved. He is, therefore, saved, but
not without a long expiation. He who had worked
in hatred, and whose work had therefore resulted
only in its own destruction, is now sent to a labour v
of love for a fallen country that will surely save
both him and her. In the sentence pronounced by
heaven upon Irydion--Krasinski's mystic and
national Thought--the poet throws off, in part, the-
allegory, and speaks more plainly to his brother
Poles. Irydion is bidden
"'Go to the north in the name of Christ. Go
and halt not till thou standest in the land of graves
and crosses. Thou shalt know it by the silence of
men and the sadness of little children, by the
ruined huts of the poor and the destroyed palaces
of the exiles. Thou shalt know it by the sighs of
My angels, flying over it by night. '
"' Go and dwell among the brothers that I
give thee. There, is thy second trial. For the
second time thou shalt behold thy love trans-
pierced, dying--and the sorrows of thousands
shall be born in thy one heart. '
"'Go and trust in My name. Ask not for thy
glory, but for the good of those whom I entrust
to thee. And, after long martyrdom, I will give ye
what I gave My angels--happiness--and what I
promised to mankind on the heights of Golgotha
--freedom. '
"' Go and act. Although thy heart shall faint in
thy bosom, although thou shalt doubt thy brethren,
although^thou shouldst despair of Me Myself,
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? 144
POLAND
act ever and without rest. And thou shalt rise,
not from sleep as erst, but from the work of
ages--and thou shalt be the free son of heaven. '
"And the sun rose above the ruins of Rome.
And there was none whom I might tell where
were the traces of my Thought--but I know that
it lasts and lives. "
Irydion is the confession of one who knew the
onslaughts of despair and hatred, and who over-
came them, both for himself and his nation, by
holding fast to the principles of an unflinching
national morality. Criticising his drama from the
ethical standpoint, which was the only aspect
under which Krasinski ever spoke of his work in
his correspondence with his friends, the poet said:
"To prove its truth, the author might call
upon the shades of the dead and the tears of the
living. He might ask many a one: 'Didst thou
not feel this, didst thou not dream thus ? ' And
many a one would answer: 'It is so. ' Not many
a one, but a whole nation. "A
V III
The development of Krasinski's thought was
not, as might have been imagined, a triumphal
progress from Irydion onwards. After the com-
pletion of the latter, darkness and confusion
swept down upon the poet. From his own testi-
mony in the opening lines to Dawn, we know that
it was his grief for his country that shook both his
* Letters of Zygmunt Krasinsii. Vol. I. To Constantine
pasizynski, June 6, 1837.
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ZTGMUNT KRASINSKI 145
religious and national faith, always closely inter-
woven in Krasinski's soul. At this time he wrote
but little, and nothing that was worthy of his
genius, chiefly obscure allegories in poetic prose,
overladen with excessive imagery, tinged here
and there with pantheism, and indicative of the
spiritual perplexity in which he dwelt. Yet
through The Temptation, The Summer Night,
through the strange, nightmare visions of the
Three Thoughts, there runs the one thread that
nothing could ever destroy or weaken in Kras-
inski's life, which was at once his ruling passion
and the chief source of all his suffering: devotion
to Poland. They are the cry of one bewildered
with pain, unable to see with certainty his nation's
deliverance.
Curiously enough, Krasinski, the dreamer, the
poet, the mystic, was above all things a logician.
His national philosophy must be founded on a
rational system, it must convince his mind no less
than his heart, before it could satisfy him. Through
the years of mental suffering that stretched be-
tween the writing of Irydion and Dawn, he was
seeking a theory that would give the key to the
mystery of PolandVtragedy, provide her with a
hope, proclaim a vocation for her in the future.
Every philosophical development, every political
event, was significant in this connection alone. At
last, he found what his soul had asked. Dawn is
the hymn of his spiritual and patriotic victory.
His idea may be thus roughly summarized.
The signs of the times that immediately preceded
the birth of Christ--religious doubt, moral de-
cadence, strange faiths--are almost identical with
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/mdp. 39015005782621 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? 146
POLAND
those of Krasinski's age. The conquests of Julius
Csesar paved the way for the coming of Christ by
obliterating the frontiers between nations. In
the nineteenth century we have the Napoleonic
conquests; and these, in their turn, prepared the
world for Christ's second and spiritual advent.
Not again in our flesh. But as He christianized
the individual, so now He will christianize govern-
ments, and harmonize the relations between them
and their subjects, between nation and nation.
As long as the dismemberment of Poland, that
crime against law and right, is permitted to be
an established fact, so long is Christ's intention
violated. Her restoration will be the herald of
the transfiguration of the political sphere into
the religious sphere, an earnest of the higher epoch
of the world's history.
Thus Krasinski in his prose introduction to
Dawn* And hence the mystic rapture with which
he can announce to his people that Poland's
death leads to her resurrection, her shame to the
glorious re-birth of the human race.
"Hodie scietis quia veniet Dominus et salvabit
nos et mane videbitis gloriam ejus. " These words
from the office of his Church for Christmas Eve,
Krasinski places at the head of the poem that is
one of the noblest expressions in literature of a
nation's suffering and a nation's hope.
As Dante's Divina Commedia is the spiritual
apotheosis of a woman, so Dawn is the idealization
of her whom Krasinski etherealized as his Beatrice,
and who likewise inspired Poland's greatest
See. Chapter II.
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-06-10 17:09 GMT / http://hdl.
