The epic
was not a success, and the poet returned to
Corinna.
was not a success, and the poet returned to
Corinna.
Ovid - 1901 - Ovid and His Influence
The Beginnings of a Greater
Plan 16
Medea 16
Heroides 18
The Double Epistles . . . . 27
iii. The Art of Love 33
iv. The Remedies of Love . . . . 48
2. The Poet of Transformations . . 54
3. The Poet of the Pagan Year . . . 76
4. The Poet in Exile 89
Tristia 92
Last Works 101
Epistulae ex Ponto 104
II. Ovid Through the Centuries . . . 108
1. Ovid in the Middle Ages . . . . 112
i. Elegiac Comedies 114
ii. The Tale 116
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? CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
iii. Vagabond Poetry and Satire 117
iv. Romance and Epic 123
v. Arts of Love and the Knightly
Code 125
vi. Forgeries 128
vii. Ovid's Transformations . . . . 131
Ovidius Ethicus 131
Ovidius Theologus 134
Ovidius Medicus 137
Ovidius Magnus 138
Ovid's Alter Ego 141
viii. Dante and Chaucer 143
Dante 143
Chaucer 14S
2. Ovid in the Renaissance 150
i. Petrarch and Boccaccio . . . . 150
ii. Neo-Latin Poetry 152
3. Ovid in Modern Poetry 156
III. Ovid the Modern 168
Notes 177
Bibliography 180
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? ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATE FACING PAGE
I. Solmona. From the frontispiece to
Keppel Craven, Excursions in the
Abruzzi and Northern Provinces
of Naples, Vol. II, London,
1838 Frontispiece
II. The Poet in Exile. From the
frontispiece to J. C. Poncelin,
Oeuvres Complettes d'Ovide, Vol.
VII, Paris, An VII 90
M
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? PREFACE
OUR debt to Ovid! What, save the
warning of an awful example, does
our age owe to a professed roui, the
author of a monument so dangerously typical
of his degenerate society that the ruler of Rome
banished him to a frozen land and excluded
his book from the libraries? It would seem as
if Ovid's influence ended and ought to have
ended then and there. Somehow it has sur-
vived. In certain momentous periods of human
history, Ovid's name has shone brightly among
the immortals. Part of his fame, of course, is
due to other works besides the Art of Love.
It may be, further, that Augustus and the
Puritans of his time, and the Puritans of other
times, did not quite understand the qualities
of that poem or the character of its author.
Ovid is nothing if not subtle, nor had he any
desire to present his apologies to those who
could not see what he was about. Moralists
have put him on their black list again and
again. His art, too, has seemed to many steeped
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? PREFACE
in rhetoric and thoroughly insincere. Accord-
ing to Mr. Palgrave, no mean judge of letters,
he is "amongst world-famous poets, perhaps
the least true to the soul of poetry. " Today,
in our own country certainly, he is hardly more
than a school-book. He has surmounted the
Alps of the centuries ut declamatio fiat. His
own imagination could have contrived no more
horrible metamorphosis than this. But why
should one try to revive him? What is our
debt to him?
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
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? OVID AND HIS
INFLUENCE
I. OVID IN THE WORLD OF
POETRY
Nimium amator ingenii sui. quintilian
Ingenio perii Naso poeta mei. ovn>
OVID'S birth in the year 43 B. C. coin-
cides with the beginning of a new age
in Roman literature. Virgil, whatever
he may have written in his youth, was at work
on his Eclogues, which both marked an epoch
in pastoral poetry and presented a programme
of universal peace through Roman imperialism
that was destined to become the watch-word
of the age and the ideal of its ruler. Ovid was
still in his teens when the Georgics appeared,
in which the idealization of Italy and a
"mirror of the prince," -- not yet known as
Augustus -- were even more splendidly dis-
played. But when the greatest work of the
poet, the goal of his aspiration and the com-
plete symbol of the Augustan Age had, after
his death in 19 ? b^ been given to the world,
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
Ovid was already busied with poetry of a very
different sort. Horace had described the Roman
world, and the world of humanity, in a new and
genial satire. He had enticed Aeolian song into
Italian measures in a new and Roman lyric,
and succeeded Virgil as the laureate of Rome.
Ovid, a youth of the rising generation, did not
aspire to this part. He has been called, in an
admirable work in the present series,1 "the
least Roman of all the Latin poets. " Perhaps
we should allow Ovid to enlarge our ideas of
what "Roman" means; for the old Romans
were also Italians. It is true, at any rate, that
Ovid's poetry is primarily the expression of his
own temperament rather than of some national
desire into which his temperament has been
caught up. He writes rather as a citizen of the
cosmos than as a subject of imperial Rome.
Ovid's native place, Sulmo, lay in a region,
now called the Abruzzi, that even today stirs
longings for the romantic and the wild. The
poet did not forget his birthplace; he revisited
it and in his latest poetry cherishes its memory
with affection. But though the scenes of his
'boyhood may have aroused his imagination,
they failed to give it a romantic caste. Ovid
was fascinated with the novelty of adventure,
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? THE WORLD OF POETRY
but no adventure controlled him. He loved
nature and could paint her finest shadings, but
he never confused himself with meadow, stream
or grove. If he ever sought moral lessons, it
was not in an impulse from the vernal woods.
His soul possessed emotions, but he was the
captain of his soul. He was Horace's first pupil,
and his aptest, in the golden principle of nil
admirari. And the Stoic sage, master of the
perturbations of the mind, could have profit-
ably sat at Ovid's feet.
Ovid's father, like Petrarch's, destined his
son to a career of practical success. The young
man obediently started out on this career and
disobediently abandoned it. He held various
minor judicial posts, but he spent less time at
court than with the young poets about town.
Ovid, though in command of his moods, was
not a poet of solitude; he liked companionship
and doubtless made a good flaneur. One of his
friends, Bassus, was writing stinging iambics.
Macer and Ponticus were following the popu-
lar trend to epic, with an eye, if they were wise,
to the epic achievements of Augustus. The
fourth of his intimates was Propertius, already
noted for his love-elegies, which set forth, in
intensely serious verse, the bitter-sweet of his
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
passion for Cynthia. Love was a theme well
fitted to Ovid's tastes; he tried his hand at
that. He probably was still under twenty when
the streets of Rome were ringing with his songs
of Corinna, a person mysterious, as we shall
see. But Ovid, no less than Virgil or Milton,
had visions of some greater work ahead. His
earliest plan was for something epic, an heroic
treatment of the battle of the Gods and the
Giants. Horace had shown how this theme
could symbolize the victory of Augustus's
angels over the devils of Antony. It were
strange if this was the only poem for which
Ovid later repented, but as to what these youth-
ful efforts may have been, we have not the
slightest scrap of positive evidence.
The epic
was not a success, and the poet returned to
Corinna.
Ovid's first experiments in poetry were pre-
ceded, or accompanied, by a thorough training
in the rhetoricians' schools. His masters were
the Spaniard Porcius Latro and Arellius Fus-
cus, an adept in Asiatic exuberance. From
them Ovid learned all the rules of the game.
He sometimes displays his craft too freely, to
the detriment of true feeling and good taste.
But he always has the upper hand. Ovid is
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? THE WORLD OF POETRY
mastered no more by rhetoric than by romantic
Sehnsucht. If he played with the devices un-
seasonably and pursued them to extravagance,
he knew, like Euripides, what he was about.
The elder Seneca 2 tells a delightful story about
three kindly critics who pointed out the poet's
short-comings and requested the privilege of
excising a certain three verses, in different
poems, really too bad to stand. Ovid instantly
complied, with the stipulation that he should
retain a certain three verses, of which he was
particularly fond. When both the selections
were compared, they were found to be the
same. Non ignoravit vitia sua, says Seneca,
sed amavit.
Ovid's best teacher was his own genius.
Poetry came to him with an almost fatal ease.
Given a theme in prose, he would find that the
thing turned out verse. The experience is rare,
though repeated by Pope and Lamartine. One
of the ancient lives of Ovid declares that once
when his father caught him writing a poem and
proceeded to apply the rod, the lad cried out
(in his native medium):
Parce mihi numquam versificabor pater!
Oh father dear, make it no worse;
I vow I'll nevermore write verset
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
This promise was ill kept. Throughout his life,
Ovid's thought flowed into verse, in love-elegy,
in tragedy, in tragical monologues of deserted
heroines, in an art of cosmetics, in an art of
love, in a remedy for the disease, in an epic
on miraculous transformations, in a calendar
of the Pagan Year. Even after his exile in
8 a. d. to the frozen shore of the Euxine Pontus,
his vein of poetry did not freeze. He poured
forth laments and petitions for forgiveness, as
well as less gloomy strains.
Ovid was thrice married, finding at last a
true mate, to whom he writes from exile in
terms of deep affection. By one of his earlier
wives he had a daughter who imitated the
paternal example by marrying twice. One of
the letters from exile is addressed to Perilla,
probably his step-daughter, the daughter of
his third wife. The letter reveals a delightful
intimacy between Ovid and the girl; he had
encouraged her in the old days to write verse,
and had acted as her kindly critic.
The life of our poet, we see, is bisected, like
the life of Cassiodorus and of Boccaccio. It is
natural to divide Ovid's poetry and his temper-
ament into two halves, one gay and active, one
sombre and depressed. But though exile was a
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? THE WORLD OF POETRY
grim reality of horror to Ovid, his genius was
steady and normal in its development, and his
strength was only gradually unnerved by the
catastrophe of his latter days. His successes
and his downfall follow, as he saw, from the
same cause, his wit.
i. The Poet of Love
i. corinna
Him, who loves always one, why should they call
More constant, than the man loves always all?
COWLEY
Et falso movi pectus amore meum. ovn>
The Roman love-elegy, whatever had pre-
ceded it in the later Greek literature, had a rich
and varied history before Ovid. He mentions
his precursors, Gallus, Tibullus, Propertius, in
a kind of apostolic succession, and registers
himself as fourth in the line. 8 Catullus does
not appear, since technically he should not.
Horace quite as justly does not cite him as his
master in lyric poetry. But though Catullus
eludes literary categories with a Protean agil-
ity, we as moderns must reckon with him in
lyric of a kind that Horace could not write,
and in the poetry of a love that none of his
successors could feel. Jean de Meun, in the
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
heart of the Middle Ages, as he starts to com-
plete the Romance of the Rose, does not leave
Catullus out of his galaxy of the poets of love;
he proudly, and truly, adds his own name and
that of Guillaume de Lorris, the author of the
first part of the great Mediaeval mirror of love
and courtesy. The truth is no less apparent to
Ovid, who pays Catullus his tribute in the
proper place. 4 And despite the technical ac-
curacy of Ovid's account of the elegists, it is
also true that Catullus should be acclaimed as
the inventor of the Roman love-elegy. The
history of a passion, the rehearsal of adven-
tures and joys and woes, is clearly the theme
of Catullus, whatever his form of verse be
called. Though his name may not head the
royal four, who will deny, if we turn from the
singers of love to their ladies, that the line of
Lycoris, Delia, Cynthia and Corinna descends
straight from Queen Lesbia? Who would im-
agine, if we consider Ovid's words, that he and
Catullus celebrated their sweethearts in a dif-
ferent kind of song? The lines on Corinna and
those on Lesbia seem of a piece. 5 If we would
know the real history of Roman elegy and
understand both Ovid and Catullus, cherchez
la femme!
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? THE WORLD OF POETRY
But cherchez Corinne! She is hard to find.
The name is fictitious, as Ovid informs us.
What of her nature? What of the poet's pas-
sion? He tells us how it came. He finds his
couch hard and the bed-clothes restive. A night
of insomnia leaves him with aching bones at
dawn, -- he concludes that he is in love, and
reasons that the best way to stand it is to make
no protest. Unconditional surrender to Cupid!
Let us celebrate a trionfo d' amore, the little
god riding in his car, Compliments, Confusion
and Craze parading in the van, Conscience and
Common Sense trailing behind with shackled
wrists, -- and there is the poet, the latest catch,
trudging along with his fellow-captives.
Think back from this gay imagery to the
crystal-clear passion of Catullus:6
I hate and love. The cause I cannot tell,
But know the feeling and its torture well.
We need no formal proof that that poet is in
love. Tibullus and Propertius took love seri-
ously, a bit too seriously. Ovid's chief inspira-
tion for something new in elegy came from
Horace, who finds Tibullus a trifle lacrimose
and genially ridicules the lover and his woes.
Horace also understands the admirably pro-
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
tective art of satirizing the third person in
terms of the first; he did not really blurt out
the story of his love when the wine went to his
head or really lay his plump body on the cruel
sill for an unheeded serenade in the rain. In
such pictures as these, he is having a little fun
with the romantic lover as he appears in elegy;
and Ovid is having more. With an undeniable
interest, and perhaps some experience, in in-
trigue, with an incorrigible indecency and yet
without a touch of the prurience of Sterne,
he invents a mistress and a world of escapades,
partly to give his fancy rein and partly to in-
dulge in sprightly travesties. Falsus amor,
"imaginary amours," is his name for this in-
vention. 7 His amusement must have been vast
when one Roman dame let it be whispered that
she was the genuine Corinna.
Let us follow some of the episodes in our
lover's uncertain career. After his capture, the
new victim takes vows of perpetual fidelity to
his only sweetheart, and promises her through
his songs the immortality of the famous
heroines of myth. In the next poem, he blithely
instructs her how to deceive her husband at a
banquet that they all attend. Then Corinna
comes to him for a mid-day revel. May the
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? THE WORLD OF POETRY
gods send many mid-days of this kind! And
now the lover is singing a sweetly elaborate
serenade, -- what is technically known as a
"closed-door serenade " -- but it has no effect
on the lady or on the boorish concierge. Our
hero, thus flouted, is desperate. Small wonder
that in a fit of indignation he grabbed his sweet-
heart and scratched her face; a poem records
his utter repentance and humiliation. Then fol-
lows a dreadful scene, witnessed by the poet
behind the arras. The hag Dipsas, procuress
and type of all evil, instructs his darling in the
art of love. The creature's nomen is her omen;
Dipsy is her name and tipsy is her nature.
Ne'er has Aurora gilt the morning skies
That Dipsy sighted her with sober eyes.
She explains the social standards of the age:
The slattern Sabine under Tatiuf rule
Kept but one lover in her simple school.
While Mars abroad fighteth our foemen down
Good Venus reigns within Aeneas' town.
Our beauties are at play, and she is chaste
Whom none has asked. Or if she's not straight-
laced,
A rustic hoyden, she herself will ask.
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
Casta est quant nemo rogavit, -- that motto
heads one of the stories of Prosper Merimee
and is elaborated wittily by Congreve. It is
not the poet's doctrine. Oh, no! Dipsas is the
speaker. But from other poems, it is fairly ap-
parent that rusticitas is the ultimate word for
moral evil, physical evil and spiritual evil.
Finally, when the hag exhorts her pupil always
to demand pay for her favors, and in particular
to set no commercial value on the only coin that
the poet can pay, his verses, then his righteous
indignation can stand no more. He leaps from
his covert and pronounces on the beldame the
most awful imprecation that mind can con-
ceive:
Homeless and poor, by every god accursed,
Have winters lengthy, and perpetual thirst!
A dirge now follows, on the loss of his mis-
tress's hair, in consequence of a violent appli-
cation of cosmetic. But weep no more, Lady,
weep no more. Augustus has vanquished the
Sygambri, and there should soon come from the
north a new supply of wigs in your favorite
shade of blonde.
Now Germany shall send you caitiff hair;
Thus shall my darling in the triumph share.
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? THE WORLD OF POETRY
As beaux stand round with admiration big,
Blusking you'll say, "My charm is but a wig.
Some dimpled Gretchen from beyond the Rhine
Merits the fame that once, alas, was mine. "
Such is our lover's career. After many suc-
cesses, after loving two sweethearts at the same
time, after loving with undivided affection each
girl that he sees, after many buffetings and
floutings, he would fain resign. He has had
much to bear. It is not pleasant to sing a
closed-door serenade to your mistress while the
rival is within or to be observed by the latter
as he comes away.
Waste no more honeyed words, fell charm of yore.
I'm not so foolish as I was before.
And yet, the battle of Hate versus Love tor-
ments him:
I cannot live or with you or without.
I think I know my will and still I doubt.
If only she were either less beautiful or more
virtuous, -- but either wish is vain. Ah, well,
there is no escape.
You're mine, whatever else. Decree my fate I
Will you by will I love, or forced by fate?
But no! Let freedom's breeze my broad sails fill!
I'll nolens volens will Love rule my will!
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
This is a complex sort of freedom, worthy a
place among the metaphysical conceits of
Donne or Cowley. There is an unexpectedly
Calvinistic ingredient in Ovid's erotic philos-
ophy; he finds no difficulty in being damned
for the glory of his mistress. To die in her
embraces, that is the happy end.
Then at the grave some sobbing friend shall say,
"Just as he lived, our Ovid passed away. "
11. THE BEGINNINGS OF A GREATER PLAN
O mihi turn si vita supersit
Tu procul annosa pendebis fistula pinu
Multum oblita mihi. milton
Pulsanda est magnis area maior equis. ovn>
Medea
In one of the poems of the Amores, Ovid
describes the ancient and solemn rites of Juno
which he witnessed with his wife at Falerii, a
town just over the Etruscan border. The sud-
den revelation of Ovid as a sober family man
taking a steep road to attend a religious festi-
val is a bit disconcerting.
Plan 16
Medea 16
Heroides 18
The Double Epistles . . . . 27
iii. The Art of Love 33
iv. The Remedies of Love . . . . 48
2. The Poet of Transformations . . 54
3. The Poet of the Pagan Year . . . 76
4. The Poet in Exile 89
Tristia 92
Last Works 101
Epistulae ex Ponto 104
II. Ovid Through the Centuries . . . 108
1. Ovid in the Middle Ages . . . . 112
i. Elegiac Comedies 114
ii. The Tale 116
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? CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
iii. Vagabond Poetry and Satire 117
iv. Romance and Epic 123
v. Arts of Love and the Knightly
Code 125
vi. Forgeries 128
vii. Ovid's Transformations . . . . 131
Ovidius Ethicus 131
Ovidius Theologus 134
Ovidius Medicus 137
Ovidius Magnus 138
Ovid's Alter Ego 141
viii. Dante and Chaucer 143
Dante 143
Chaucer 14S
2. Ovid in the Renaissance 150
i. Petrarch and Boccaccio . . . . 150
ii. Neo-Latin Poetry 152
3. Ovid in Modern Poetry 156
III. Ovid the Modern 168
Notes 177
Bibliography 180
[viii]
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? ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATE FACING PAGE
I. Solmona. From the frontispiece to
Keppel Craven, Excursions in the
Abruzzi and Northern Provinces
of Naples, Vol. II, London,
1838 Frontispiece
II. The Poet in Exile. From the
frontispiece to J. C. Poncelin,
Oeuvres Complettes d'Ovide, Vol.
VII, Paris, An VII 90
M
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? PREFACE
OUR debt to Ovid! What, save the
warning of an awful example, does
our age owe to a professed roui, the
author of a monument so dangerously typical
of his degenerate society that the ruler of Rome
banished him to a frozen land and excluded
his book from the libraries? It would seem as
if Ovid's influence ended and ought to have
ended then and there. Somehow it has sur-
vived. In certain momentous periods of human
history, Ovid's name has shone brightly among
the immortals. Part of his fame, of course, is
due to other works besides the Art of Love.
It may be, further, that Augustus and the
Puritans of his time, and the Puritans of other
times, did not quite understand the qualities
of that poem or the character of its author.
Ovid is nothing if not subtle, nor had he any
desire to present his apologies to those who
could not see what he was about. Moralists
have put him on their black list again and
again. His art, too, has seemed to many steeped
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? PREFACE
in rhetoric and thoroughly insincere. Accord-
ing to Mr. Palgrave, no mean judge of letters,
he is "amongst world-famous poets, perhaps
the least true to the soul of poetry. " Today,
in our own country certainly, he is hardly more
than a school-book. He has surmounted the
Alps of the centuries ut declamatio fiat. His
own imagination could have contrived no more
horrible metamorphosis than this. But why
should one try to revive him? What is our
debt to him?
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
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? OVID AND HIS
INFLUENCE
I. OVID IN THE WORLD OF
POETRY
Nimium amator ingenii sui. quintilian
Ingenio perii Naso poeta mei. ovn>
OVID'S birth in the year 43 B. C. coin-
cides with the beginning of a new age
in Roman literature. Virgil, whatever
he may have written in his youth, was at work
on his Eclogues, which both marked an epoch
in pastoral poetry and presented a programme
of universal peace through Roman imperialism
that was destined to become the watch-word
of the age and the ideal of its ruler. Ovid was
still in his teens when the Georgics appeared,
in which the idealization of Italy and a
"mirror of the prince," -- not yet known as
Augustus -- were even more splendidly dis-
played. But when the greatest work of the
poet, the goal of his aspiration and the com-
plete symbol of the Augustan Age had, after
his death in 19 ? b^ been given to the world,
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
Ovid was already busied with poetry of a very
different sort. Horace had described the Roman
world, and the world of humanity, in a new and
genial satire. He had enticed Aeolian song into
Italian measures in a new and Roman lyric,
and succeeded Virgil as the laureate of Rome.
Ovid, a youth of the rising generation, did not
aspire to this part. He has been called, in an
admirable work in the present series,1 "the
least Roman of all the Latin poets. " Perhaps
we should allow Ovid to enlarge our ideas of
what "Roman" means; for the old Romans
were also Italians. It is true, at any rate, that
Ovid's poetry is primarily the expression of his
own temperament rather than of some national
desire into which his temperament has been
caught up. He writes rather as a citizen of the
cosmos than as a subject of imperial Rome.
Ovid's native place, Sulmo, lay in a region,
now called the Abruzzi, that even today stirs
longings for the romantic and the wild. The
poet did not forget his birthplace; he revisited
it and in his latest poetry cherishes its memory
with affection. But though the scenes of his
'boyhood may have aroused his imagination,
they failed to give it a romantic caste. Ovid
was fascinated with the novelty of adventure,
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? THE WORLD OF POETRY
but no adventure controlled him. He loved
nature and could paint her finest shadings, but
he never confused himself with meadow, stream
or grove. If he ever sought moral lessons, it
was not in an impulse from the vernal woods.
His soul possessed emotions, but he was the
captain of his soul. He was Horace's first pupil,
and his aptest, in the golden principle of nil
admirari. And the Stoic sage, master of the
perturbations of the mind, could have profit-
ably sat at Ovid's feet.
Ovid's father, like Petrarch's, destined his
son to a career of practical success. The young
man obediently started out on this career and
disobediently abandoned it. He held various
minor judicial posts, but he spent less time at
court than with the young poets about town.
Ovid, though in command of his moods, was
not a poet of solitude; he liked companionship
and doubtless made a good flaneur. One of his
friends, Bassus, was writing stinging iambics.
Macer and Ponticus were following the popu-
lar trend to epic, with an eye, if they were wise,
to the epic achievements of Augustus. The
fourth of his intimates was Propertius, already
noted for his love-elegies, which set forth, in
intensely serious verse, the bitter-sweet of his
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
passion for Cynthia. Love was a theme well
fitted to Ovid's tastes; he tried his hand at
that. He probably was still under twenty when
the streets of Rome were ringing with his songs
of Corinna, a person mysterious, as we shall
see. But Ovid, no less than Virgil or Milton,
had visions of some greater work ahead. His
earliest plan was for something epic, an heroic
treatment of the battle of the Gods and the
Giants. Horace had shown how this theme
could symbolize the victory of Augustus's
angels over the devils of Antony. It were
strange if this was the only poem for which
Ovid later repented, but as to what these youth-
ful efforts may have been, we have not the
slightest scrap of positive evidence.
The epic
was not a success, and the poet returned to
Corinna.
Ovid's first experiments in poetry were pre-
ceded, or accompanied, by a thorough training
in the rhetoricians' schools. His masters were
the Spaniard Porcius Latro and Arellius Fus-
cus, an adept in Asiatic exuberance. From
them Ovid learned all the rules of the game.
He sometimes displays his craft too freely, to
the detriment of true feeling and good taste.
But he always has the upper hand. Ovid is
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? THE WORLD OF POETRY
mastered no more by rhetoric than by romantic
Sehnsucht. If he played with the devices un-
seasonably and pursued them to extravagance,
he knew, like Euripides, what he was about.
The elder Seneca 2 tells a delightful story about
three kindly critics who pointed out the poet's
short-comings and requested the privilege of
excising a certain three verses, in different
poems, really too bad to stand. Ovid instantly
complied, with the stipulation that he should
retain a certain three verses, of which he was
particularly fond. When both the selections
were compared, they were found to be the
same. Non ignoravit vitia sua, says Seneca,
sed amavit.
Ovid's best teacher was his own genius.
Poetry came to him with an almost fatal ease.
Given a theme in prose, he would find that the
thing turned out verse. The experience is rare,
though repeated by Pope and Lamartine. One
of the ancient lives of Ovid declares that once
when his father caught him writing a poem and
proceeded to apply the rod, the lad cried out
(in his native medium):
Parce mihi numquam versificabor pater!
Oh father dear, make it no worse;
I vow I'll nevermore write verset
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
This promise was ill kept. Throughout his life,
Ovid's thought flowed into verse, in love-elegy,
in tragedy, in tragical monologues of deserted
heroines, in an art of cosmetics, in an art of
love, in a remedy for the disease, in an epic
on miraculous transformations, in a calendar
of the Pagan Year. Even after his exile in
8 a. d. to the frozen shore of the Euxine Pontus,
his vein of poetry did not freeze. He poured
forth laments and petitions for forgiveness, as
well as less gloomy strains.
Ovid was thrice married, finding at last a
true mate, to whom he writes from exile in
terms of deep affection. By one of his earlier
wives he had a daughter who imitated the
paternal example by marrying twice. One of
the letters from exile is addressed to Perilla,
probably his step-daughter, the daughter of
his third wife. The letter reveals a delightful
intimacy between Ovid and the girl; he had
encouraged her in the old days to write verse,
and had acted as her kindly critic.
The life of our poet, we see, is bisected, like
the life of Cassiodorus and of Boccaccio. It is
natural to divide Ovid's poetry and his temper-
ament into two halves, one gay and active, one
sombre and depressed. But though exile was a
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? THE WORLD OF POETRY
grim reality of horror to Ovid, his genius was
steady and normal in its development, and his
strength was only gradually unnerved by the
catastrophe of his latter days. His successes
and his downfall follow, as he saw, from the
same cause, his wit.
i. The Poet of Love
i. corinna
Him, who loves always one, why should they call
More constant, than the man loves always all?
COWLEY
Et falso movi pectus amore meum. ovn>
The Roman love-elegy, whatever had pre-
ceded it in the later Greek literature, had a rich
and varied history before Ovid. He mentions
his precursors, Gallus, Tibullus, Propertius, in
a kind of apostolic succession, and registers
himself as fourth in the line. 8 Catullus does
not appear, since technically he should not.
Horace quite as justly does not cite him as his
master in lyric poetry. But though Catullus
eludes literary categories with a Protean agil-
ity, we as moderns must reckon with him in
lyric of a kind that Horace could not write,
and in the poetry of a love that none of his
successors could feel. Jean de Meun, in the
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
heart of the Middle Ages, as he starts to com-
plete the Romance of the Rose, does not leave
Catullus out of his galaxy of the poets of love;
he proudly, and truly, adds his own name and
that of Guillaume de Lorris, the author of the
first part of the great Mediaeval mirror of love
and courtesy. The truth is no less apparent to
Ovid, who pays Catullus his tribute in the
proper place. 4 And despite the technical ac-
curacy of Ovid's account of the elegists, it is
also true that Catullus should be acclaimed as
the inventor of the Roman love-elegy. The
history of a passion, the rehearsal of adven-
tures and joys and woes, is clearly the theme
of Catullus, whatever his form of verse be
called. Though his name may not head the
royal four, who will deny, if we turn from the
singers of love to their ladies, that the line of
Lycoris, Delia, Cynthia and Corinna descends
straight from Queen Lesbia? Who would im-
agine, if we consider Ovid's words, that he and
Catullus celebrated their sweethearts in a dif-
ferent kind of song? The lines on Corinna and
those on Lesbia seem of a piece. 5 If we would
know the real history of Roman elegy and
understand both Ovid and Catullus, cherchez
la femme!
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? THE WORLD OF POETRY
But cherchez Corinne! She is hard to find.
The name is fictitious, as Ovid informs us.
What of her nature? What of the poet's pas-
sion? He tells us how it came. He finds his
couch hard and the bed-clothes restive. A night
of insomnia leaves him with aching bones at
dawn, -- he concludes that he is in love, and
reasons that the best way to stand it is to make
no protest. Unconditional surrender to Cupid!
Let us celebrate a trionfo d' amore, the little
god riding in his car, Compliments, Confusion
and Craze parading in the van, Conscience and
Common Sense trailing behind with shackled
wrists, -- and there is the poet, the latest catch,
trudging along with his fellow-captives.
Think back from this gay imagery to the
crystal-clear passion of Catullus:6
I hate and love. The cause I cannot tell,
But know the feeling and its torture well.
We need no formal proof that that poet is in
love. Tibullus and Propertius took love seri-
ously, a bit too seriously. Ovid's chief inspira-
tion for something new in elegy came from
Horace, who finds Tibullus a trifle lacrimose
and genially ridicules the lover and his woes.
Horace also understands the admirably pro-
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
tective art of satirizing the third person in
terms of the first; he did not really blurt out
the story of his love when the wine went to his
head or really lay his plump body on the cruel
sill for an unheeded serenade in the rain. In
such pictures as these, he is having a little fun
with the romantic lover as he appears in elegy;
and Ovid is having more. With an undeniable
interest, and perhaps some experience, in in-
trigue, with an incorrigible indecency and yet
without a touch of the prurience of Sterne,
he invents a mistress and a world of escapades,
partly to give his fancy rein and partly to in-
dulge in sprightly travesties. Falsus amor,
"imaginary amours," is his name for this in-
vention. 7 His amusement must have been vast
when one Roman dame let it be whispered that
she was the genuine Corinna.
Let us follow some of the episodes in our
lover's uncertain career. After his capture, the
new victim takes vows of perpetual fidelity to
his only sweetheart, and promises her through
his songs the immortality of the famous
heroines of myth. In the next poem, he blithely
instructs her how to deceive her husband at a
banquet that they all attend. Then Corinna
comes to him for a mid-day revel. May the
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? THE WORLD OF POETRY
gods send many mid-days of this kind! And
now the lover is singing a sweetly elaborate
serenade, -- what is technically known as a
"closed-door serenade " -- but it has no effect
on the lady or on the boorish concierge. Our
hero, thus flouted, is desperate. Small wonder
that in a fit of indignation he grabbed his sweet-
heart and scratched her face; a poem records
his utter repentance and humiliation. Then fol-
lows a dreadful scene, witnessed by the poet
behind the arras. The hag Dipsas, procuress
and type of all evil, instructs his darling in the
art of love. The creature's nomen is her omen;
Dipsy is her name and tipsy is her nature.
Ne'er has Aurora gilt the morning skies
That Dipsy sighted her with sober eyes.
She explains the social standards of the age:
The slattern Sabine under Tatiuf rule
Kept but one lover in her simple school.
While Mars abroad fighteth our foemen down
Good Venus reigns within Aeneas' town.
Our beauties are at play, and she is chaste
Whom none has asked. Or if she's not straight-
laced,
A rustic hoyden, she herself will ask.
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
Casta est quant nemo rogavit, -- that motto
heads one of the stories of Prosper Merimee
and is elaborated wittily by Congreve. It is
not the poet's doctrine. Oh, no! Dipsas is the
speaker. But from other poems, it is fairly ap-
parent that rusticitas is the ultimate word for
moral evil, physical evil and spiritual evil.
Finally, when the hag exhorts her pupil always
to demand pay for her favors, and in particular
to set no commercial value on the only coin that
the poet can pay, his verses, then his righteous
indignation can stand no more. He leaps from
his covert and pronounces on the beldame the
most awful imprecation that mind can con-
ceive:
Homeless and poor, by every god accursed,
Have winters lengthy, and perpetual thirst!
A dirge now follows, on the loss of his mis-
tress's hair, in consequence of a violent appli-
cation of cosmetic. But weep no more, Lady,
weep no more. Augustus has vanquished the
Sygambri, and there should soon come from the
north a new supply of wigs in your favorite
shade of blonde.
Now Germany shall send you caitiff hair;
Thus shall my darling in the triumph share.
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? THE WORLD OF POETRY
As beaux stand round with admiration big,
Blusking you'll say, "My charm is but a wig.
Some dimpled Gretchen from beyond the Rhine
Merits the fame that once, alas, was mine. "
Such is our lover's career. After many suc-
cesses, after loving two sweethearts at the same
time, after loving with undivided affection each
girl that he sees, after many buffetings and
floutings, he would fain resign. He has had
much to bear. It is not pleasant to sing a
closed-door serenade to your mistress while the
rival is within or to be observed by the latter
as he comes away.
Waste no more honeyed words, fell charm of yore.
I'm not so foolish as I was before.
And yet, the battle of Hate versus Love tor-
ments him:
I cannot live or with you or without.
I think I know my will and still I doubt.
If only she were either less beautiful or more
virtuous, -- but either wish is vain. Ah, well,
there is no escape.
You're mine, whatever else. Decree my fate I
Will you by will I love, or forced by fate?
But no! Let freedom's breeze my broad sails fill!
I'll nolens volens will Love rule my will!
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? OVID AND HIS INFLUENCE
This is a complex sort of freedom, worthy a
place among the metaphysical conceits of
Donne or Cowley. There is an unexpectedly
Calvinistic ingredient in Ovid's erotic philos-
ophy; he finds no difficulty in being damned
for the glory of his mistress. To die in her
embraces, that is the happy end.
Then at the grave some sobbing friend shall say,
"Just as he lived, our Ovid passed away. "
11. THE BEGINNINGS OF A GREATER PLAN
O mihi turn si vita supersit
Tu procul annosa pendebis fistula pinu
Multum oblita mihi. milton
Pulsanda est magnis area maior equis. ovn>
Medea
In one of the poems of the Amores, Ovid
describes the ancient and solemn rites of Juno
which he witnessed with his wife at Falerii, a
town just over the Etruscan border. The sud-
den revelation of Ovid as a sober family man
taking a steep road to attend a religious festi-
val is a bit disconcerting.
