By Nizam-ud-Din Ahmad ibn
Muhammad
Muqim.
Cambridge History of India - v4 - Mugul Period
And in the arrangement of these arches
the builder showed his consummate skill in solving a difficult problem
of construction in a scientific and at the same time artistic manner.
The intention of the building required him to lay out the foundations
of the hall on a square plan, and, as the walls gained height, gradually
to change this square so that the summit of the walls finished in a
circle; on this circular cornice he could readily construct his dome.
By an ingenious combination of eight intersecting arches, the foot
## p. 572 (#612) ############################################
672
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
of each standing within the square plan but its plane set at an angle,
the corner was bridged over, the whole construction eventually
forming a broad circular gallery or platform of masonry some 24 feet
wide and more than 100 feet from the ground. With this platform
as a base the builders proceeded to erect the huge inverted bowl of
the dome. The materials used for this purpose were bricks and mortar,
and a noticeable fact is the great thickness of the mortar between
each course, so much so that the dome may be described as con-
sisting of a hollow mass of concrete reinforced with layers of brick
set in level courses. Of a somewhat similar composition most large
domes have been built, as for instance that of St Sophia and also the
Pantheon, and here may be suspected slight evidence in support of
that Turkish attribution to which the 'Adil Shah dynasty laid claim,
as this method of construction was probably derived from Ottoman
sources. Another indication that the builders of Bijapur may have
sought far and wide for inspiration is shown by the device of inter-
secting arches referred to above, which made the raising of this
great dome in such a manner a practical expedient. For probably
the only other example of this particular system by which a dome
may be supported is in the cupola of the mihrab vestibule at Cordova
in Spain erected considerably over six hundred years before.
The Gol Gumbaz, however, is a building which depicts the Bijapur
style in what may be termed its masculine aspect, while its colossal
size is perhaps its most distinctive characteristic. For the opposite
of all these qualities there is the comparatively small edifice known
as the Mihtar Mahall erected in 1620, one of those rich gems of the
builder's art which the Indian's mind at times found such delight in
producing, and in the decoration of which his most skilled craftsmen
expended their ungrudging care. Although called a mahall, or palace,
this structure is really a gateway to the inner courtyard of a mosque
which lies a little way behind it. But it is something more than a
mere entrance, for it is a tall graceful building with an upper storey
containing an assembly room, and above this again is an open
terrace surrounded by a high wall with oriel windows and a per-
forated parapet. On each side of the façade are two slender orna-
mental minarets of a type characteristic of the Bijapur style, but it
is the projecting balcony window filling in the entire space between
that is the most striking feature. It is thrown out from the wall on
a series of closely set carved brackets, and the wide eaves-board is
supported by struts of stone so finely wrought with the chisel as to
have every appearance of wood. Perhaps in its imitation of other
and more plastic materials, and its delicate prettiness as a whole,
this charming little structure is open to criticism; it conveys the
impression that its designer had been commissioned to prepare a
miniature masterpiece complete in every detail regardless of time
or cost, and had been allowed a free hand in the matter. The manner
## p. 573 (#613) ############################################
SUNNOT
JAMI MASJID, BIJAPUR
573
in which he played with the stone as if it were clay in reproducing
mouldings, joggled joints, and particularly the sunk coffers in the
ceiling of the ground storey, show the exuberance of his fancy and
the sheer delight he took in his task.
One of the first buildings of importance to be erected in the city
of Bijapur, and thus illustrating the style in its formative state, was
the Jami' Masjid begun by 'Ali 'Adil Shah I about 1565. Never quite
finished it still lacks the frontage of the courtyard and two minarets
which were to complete this portion of its outer façade. An endeavour
was made by the Mughul emperor Aurangzib to supply this deficiency,
and under his orders an eastern entrance gateway was added, but
on this side of the structure much still remains to be done. The
exterior shows a large rectangular building of plain aspect but
powerful proportions rising at its western end into a low square
battlemented tower supporting a fine dome. As usual this dome is
over the central prayer hall of the sanctuary, and it is in the remark-
able depth of space covered by the sanctuary that this mosque differs
from many others. This arcaded prayer hall consists of five aisles
separated by piers, thus dividing the whole into a series of square
bays of wide pointed arches; the effect of this great expanse, with its
perspective of piers and arches, is very impressive. The appearance
of the entire building is forceful and uninvolved, a consummation
achieved by the correct relation of its parts and the skilful subordina-
tion of the lesser to the larger forms of the composition. Ornament
has been sparingly introduced and then only to enrich a shadow or
emphasise a line, as may be seen in the cusping of the central arch
of the façade, the elaboration of the brackets between the arches,
and other features that called for decorative accentuation. All the
surfaces have been treated to a coat of plaster, the interior walls
having been furnished with a layer of very fine quality which has
mellowed to a pleasing creamy tint. Amidst this display of austere
refinement, on the removal of a heavy protecting curtain covering
the central bay containing the principal mihrab, it is surprising to
find this particular space embellished with the most gorgeous array
of patterns in colour and gold. Although there is much to admire
in this unexpected blaze of colour, which depicts arcades and
minarets, lamps, arabesques and inscriptions all conventionally
treated, it is not in exact harmony with its surroundings and is the
work of a later hand.
That the Bijapur master-masons could, however, produce a highly
ornate type of architecture on a large scale is shown by the Ibrahim
Rauza, a group of buildings erected towards the end of the sixteenth
century. The Rauza consists of the tomb of Sultan Ibrahim II
together with its mosque, the two structures confronting one another
on a raised terrace, the whole being contained within the usual
square-walled enclosure. Rivalling even the finest buildings of the
3
1
## p. 574 (#614) ############################################
574
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
Mughuls in this respect, the premeditated completeness of this
mausoleum and its appurtenances is astonishing, every detail of the
scheme from the lettering of the inscriptions to the stone hooks in
the stables having evidently been determined before the first stone
was laid. Great ingenuity has been shown by the manner in which
the designer has disposed the two main structures, each widely
different in plan and purpose, so that together they form a sym-
metrical unity. Both are arcaded edifices with wide eaves on carved
brackets, ornamented minarets at each angle as turrets, and each is
surmounted by a bulbous dome. The mausoleum, as was intended,
is the more important building, and on this the workmen have
exercised their exceptional artistic ability, so that in design, con-
struction and ornamentation it leaves little to be desired. Enclosed
within a double verandah the tomb-chamber is square in shape with
a flat coffered ceiling composed of stones set together edge to edge,
having apparently no means of support, but evidently with concealed
joggled joints. Above this ceiling is the vaulted void of the double
dome, a large empty upper-storey chamber entered from the roof but
having no particular use. The mosque which faces the tomb across
a courtyard is in the same ornate style but slightly modified, and
consists of an open arcaded prayer chamber of three pillared aisles
with a deeply sunk mihrab in the western wall. Where, however, both
these buildings excel is in the individual character of the carved
decoration, which, like the Bijapur architecture itself, denotes the
presence of a definite school. The substance of this ornamentation
is similar to that found in all Islamic art, but certain factors have
been introduced, such as a special kind of bracket supporting a
medallion, which are as original as they are graceful. Unlike the
somewhat hybrid designs which satisfied the Mughuls, the Deccani
patterns exhibit little extraneous influence; they are clearly the
creation of the fertile imagination of the Bijapur craftsmen. Equally
distinctive are the buildings themselves, the typical features of which
may be readily recognised. These consist of the bulbous dome with
its foliated drum, the tall slender turret or pinnacle in the form of
an ornamental minaret, and the almost invariable preference for
the pier instead of the pillar. In their methods the Bijapur builders
were often bold and daring, but this adventurous spirit was accom-
panied by no little engineering experience and scientific knowledge.
This has been already noticed in referring to the technical skill
displayed in the construction of the Gol Gumbaz and the ceiling of
the Ibrahim Rauza, but it is similarly shown in the immense size
and spread of some of the archways, as for instance that of the Gagan
Mahall and a viaduct which leads to the Athar Mahall. These
mahalls are two of the several palaces built in or near the citadel
and illustrate the secular buildings of the 'Adil Shahs, but none of
them compares in architectural character with their mosques and
## p. 575 (#615) ############################################
KHANDESH
678
tombs, nor are they in the same class as the noble marble pavilions
of the Mughuls.
One other style of building of a quasi-independent order mani-
fested itself in the Deccan both before and during the Mughul
ascendancy, in the state of Khandesh. Here in the local capitals
of Burhanpur and Thalner several monuments were erected in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries by the Faruqi dynasty; later, in the
seventeenth century, the Mughul governors were responsible for a
number of tombs of a particular kind. The geographical position of
this comparatively small state, surrounded as it was by a number of
powerful kingdoms each with its own form of artistic expression,
rendered it specially liable to external influences. These show them.
selves unmistakably in the character of many of its buildings. Yet
although these borowings are discernible they do not entirely dominate
the style, as the architecture of Khandesh in some of its phases dis-
plays certain originality. One of the first buildings erected by the
Faruqi rulers was a large palace on a commanding situation above
the Tapti river at Burhanpur, followed by a group of tombs at the
same place and another group at Thalner, all dating from the first
half of the fifteenth century. Although the palace is now in ruins,
enough remains to indicate that this edifice, and perhaps more notice-
ably the tombs, owed not a little of their appearance to similar
buildings being then raised in the neighbouring city of Mandu, the
capital of Malwa. The tombs of the founders of the Faruqi dynasty,
such as that of Nasir Khan (1399-1437) at Burhanpur, and Miran
Mubarak I (deceased 1457) at Thalner, show a marked affinity to
the more famous mausoleum of Hushang at Mandu in the solidity
of their effect and proportions generally. The Khandesh masons
have, however, endeavoured to lighten the mass of the structure by
the introduction of projecting openings on each side of the central
doorway, and have also provided more height by raising the dome
on a well-proportioned drum, which, together with other features,
constructive and decorative, give these Faruqi tombs an air of no
little distinction. At a later date two mosques were erected at
Burhanpuur, the Jami' Masjid built by 'Ali Khan in 1588 being the
larger and more important, while the Bibi-ki-Masjid is better designed.
The former is a comparatively plain structure, the fifteen pointed
arches comprising its façade being flanked by two lofty minarets, a
simple conception, but the symmetry and disposition of its parts has
been carefully considered. It is not unlikely that the construction
of this building was interrupted by the subjection of the state by
Akbar, its completion being undertaken by the Mughuls, so that its
final appearance may not be as originally intended. As an example
of a coherent composition the Bibi-ki-Masjid is much superior, but
it is too obviously dictated by similar structures in Ahmadabad and
Champaner to be commended for its originality, although the minarets
## p. 576 (#616) ############################################
676
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
are a departure from the Gujarati type, particularly the projecting
windows and rounded cupolas. The concluding phase of the style,
when it came under the influence of the Mughuls, is seen in the tomb
of Shah Nawaz Khan, one of its provincial governors in the seven-
teenth century. Much of this building is frankly a composite con-
ception displaying elements acquired from a variety of sources. Its
square design in two storeys is suggestive of some of the royal tombs
of the Ahmad Shah dynasty, the pinnacles are those introduced by
Firuz Tughluq but ornamented with foliations from Bijapur, and,
finally, the whole is surmounted by a "Lodi" dome. Yet these attri-
butions are combined with no little skill, and the general appearance
of the structure is not unattractive. At the same time it is clear
that the style had no further resources of its own, and could only be
maintained by appropriating the ideas of others. In such circum-
stances it naturally follows that no more buildings of any consequence
were erected in Khandesh.
## p. 577 (#617) ############################################
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GENERAL
A. HISTORICAL
HURGESS, J. The Chronology of Modern India, Edinburgh, 1913.
ELLIOT, H. M. and DowSON, J. The History of India, as told by its own His-
torians. 8 vols. 1867-77.
HODIVALA, S. H. Historical Studies in Mughul Numismatics. Calcutta, 1923.
KEENE, H. G. Fall of the Moghul Empire. 1887.
LANE-POOLE, S. Mediaeval India under Muhammadan rule. 1902.
B. NUMISMATIC
Catalogues of Mughul coins in Museums :
British Museum. By S. Lane-Poole. 1892.
Calcutta. By H. Nelson Wright. 1908.
Lahore. By R. B. Whitehead. 1914.
Lucknow. By C. J. Brown. 2 vols. 1920.
Numismatic Supplement to the Journal, Asiatic Society of Bengal. Calcutta,
from 1904.
Index to Num. Supp. I-xv. Allahabad, 1912.
WHITEHEAD, R. B. Coins of Nadir Shah and the Durrani Dynasty. 1934.
CHAPTER I
BABUR
1. ORIGINAL SOURCES
Memoirs of Babur :
Turki text.
(a) Edited by N. Ilminski. 1857.
(b) Facsimile of Hyderabad Codex, edited by A. S. Beveridge. 1905.
Persian Versions.
(a) By Payandah Hasan.
(b) By Mirza Abdu'r-Rahim.
European translations.
(a) By J. Leyden and W. Erskine of `Abdu'r-Rahim's Persian version.
1826. Revised by Sir L. King. 1921.
(b) By A. Pavet de Courteille, from Ilminski's text. 1871.
(c) By A. S. Beveridge, from the Hyderabad Codex. 1921.
Tarikh-i-Rashidi. By Muhammad Haidar Dughlat.
Translation of the Persian text by N. Elias and E. Denison Ross. 1895.
Habib-us-Siyar. By Khvand Amir,
Persian text, lithographed. Teheran, 1855 and Bombay, 1857.
Ahsan-us-Siyar. By Mirza Barkhwardar Turkman.
Shaibani-nama. By Muhammad Salih.
Turki text and German translation by H. Vambéry. 1885.
Text edited by P. M. Melioransky and A. N. Samoilovich. 1908.
Tarikh-i-Alamarai 'Abbasi. By Iskandar Munshi.
37
## p. 578 (#618) ############################################
578
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Persian manuscript in the Bodleian. (Fraser 144, 147, 145. ) Lithographed.
Teheran, 1896.
Humayun-nama. By Gulbadan Begam.
Persian text, edited and translated by A. S. Beveridge. 1902.
Tarikh-i-Haqqi. By 'Abdul-Haqq ibn Saif-ud-Din Dihlavi.
Persian manuscript in the Bodleian. (Fraser 132. )
Ahsan-ut-Tawarikh. By Hasan.
Persian manuscript in the Bodleian. (Ouseley 232. )
Tarikh-i-Firishta. By Muhammad Qasim called Firishta.
Persian text, edited by J. Briggs. 1831. Lithographed edition, Lucknow, 1864.
Translation by J. Briggs. London, 1829; reprinted Calcutta, 1908.
Tabaqat-i-Akbari.
By Nizam-ud-Din Ahmad ibn Muhammad Muqim.
Persian manuscript in Bodleian. (Elliot 381. )
Edited and translated by B. De. (Bibliotheca Indica. ) In progress, 1913-
Akbar-nama. By Abu-'l-Fazl.
Persian text, edited by Agha Ahmad 'Ali and Maulavi 'Abd-ur-Rahim.
(Bibliotheca Indica. ) 1877-87.
Translation, by H. Beveridge. (Bibliotheca Indica. ) In progress, 1903-
2. MODERN WORKS
CALDECOTT, R. M. The life of Baber. 1844.
EDWARDES, S. M. Babur: diarist and despot. 1926.
ERSKINE, W. A history of India under. . . Baber and Humayun. 1854.
GRENARD, FERNAND. Baber, first of the Moguls. Translated and adapted by
Homer White and Richard Glaenzer. 1930.
POOLE, S. LANE. Babar. (Rulers of India. ) 1899.
WILLIAMS, L. F. RUSHBROOK. An empire builder of the sixteenth century. . .
Babur. (Allahabad University Publications, no. 3. ) 1918.
CHAPTER
II
HUMAYUN
1. ORIGINAL SOURCES
Memoirs of Babur, see chap. I.
Tarikh-i-Rashidi, see chap. I.
Humayun-nama, see chap. I.
Humayun-nama. By Khvand Amir. Partly translated in Elliot and Dowson, v,
116-26.
Tarikh-i-Gujarat. By 'Abdullah Muhammad. Edited by E. Denison Ross. 1910,
1921 and 1928.
Tezkereh-ul-Vákiát. By Jauhar. Translated by C. Stewart. 1832.
Memoirs of Bayazid. (India Office Library, MS. 216, 223. ) Abstract in English
by H. Beveridge, J. A. S. B. 1898, p. 296.
2. MODERN WORKS
ERSKINE, W. History of India, see chap. I.
## p. 579 (#619) ############################################
BIBLIOGRAPHY
579
CHAPTER III
SHER SHAH
1. ORIGINAL SOURCES
Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi. By 'Abbas Sarwani. Translated in Elliot and Dowson,
IV, 305-433.
Makhzan-i-Afghana. By Ni'mat-Ullah. Translated by B. Dorn in History of
the Afghans. 1829.
Tarikh-i-Daudi. By 'Abdullah. Partly translated in Elliot and Dowson, IV,
434-513.
Memoirs of Babur, Tarikh-i-Rashidi, Humayun-nama, Tabaqat-i-Akbari,
Akbar-nama, see chap. I.
2. MODERN WORKS
BHATTASALI, N. K. The date of Sher Shah's accession, Islamic Review, 1936, p. 127.
ERSKINE, W. History of India, see chap. I.
KALIKARANJAN QANUNGO. Sher Shah. Calcutta, 1921.
PARAMATMA SARAN. The date and place of Sher Shah's birth. Journal, Bihar
and Orissa Research Society, 1934, p. 108.
CHAPTERS IV AND V
AKBAR
1. ORIGINAL SOURCES
Akbar-nama. By Shaikh Abu-'l-Fazl. Published by the A. S. B. in the Biblio-
theca Indica series. Text, 3 volumes.
A most valuable chronicle of Akbar's reign and the principal authority
for dates and bare facts. When it goes beyond these it is highly coloured
by Abu-'l-Fazl's adulation of his master.
The Akbar-nama has been translated into English by Mr. H. Beveridge
and published by the A. S. B. in the same series.
Ain-i-Akbari. By Shaikh Abu-'l-Fazl. Published by the A. S. B. in the Biblio-
theca Indica series. Text, 3 volumes.
English translation in the same series, three volumes, vol. 1 by Blochmann
and vols. II and III by Jarrett. The translation of vol. I is generally accurate
but its chief value lies in the copious notes and appendices with which
the erudition of Mr Blochmann has enriched it. The translation of vols.
II and mi is excellent and the notes are ample, but the statistical account
of the provinces in vol. I is marred by failure to identify place names.
The Ain-i-Akbari contains a code of Akbar's regulations in all depart-
ments and on all subjects and includes, besides some extraneous matter, a
valuable and minute statistical account of his empire, with historical and
other notes.
Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh. By 'Abdul-Qadir Badauni. ' Also known as Tarikh-
i-Badauni. Published by the A. S. B. in the Bibliotheca Indica series. Text,
3 volumes.
1 Except on administrative matters [Ed. ].
## p. 580 (#620) ############################################
580
BIBLIOGRAPHY
English translation in the same series. Vol. 1 by Lt. -Col. Ranking, vol. II
by the Rev. W. H. Lowe, vol. III by Lt. -Col. Haig.
The book, being written from the point of view taken by a bigoted
Sunni, is of the highest value as a check on the turgid panegyric composed
by the latitudinarian Abu-'l-Fazl.
Tabaqat-i-Akbari. By Khvaja Nizam-ud-din Ahmad. Text, Lucknow litho-
graphed edition of A. H. 1292 (A. D. 1875).
A dry chronicle of events, without comment, written by a highly placed
and therefore cautious official. The chronology is faulty but the work is
specially valuable for a record of events in Gujarat, where the author was
much employed. It is brought down to the thirty-ninth year of the reign.
Tarikh-i-Firishta. Bombay lithographed text of 1832.
A mere compilation, which contains, however, a few interesting items of
information, especially relating to the Deccan, contributed by the author
from his own personal knowledge.
Darbar-i-Akbari (in Urdu). By Shams-ul-'Ulama Maulana Maulavi Muham-
mad Husain, Azad. Rifah-i-'Amm Press, Lahore, 1898.
A useful compilation, based chiefly on the works of Abu-'l-Fazl.
Insha-i-Abu-'l-Fazl. A collection of official dispatches written by Shaikh Abu-
’l-Fazl, and interesting as throwing much light on Akbar's relations with
his neighbours and with his own nobles and officers, but prolix, pompous,
and tedious. Lucknow lithographed edition of A. H. 1279 (A. D. 1862).
Zubdat-ut-Tawarikh. By Shaikh Nur-ul-Haqq. MSS.
Tarikh-i-Haqqi. By Shaikh 'Abdul-Haqq, father of the preceding. MSS. (A. D.
1596-7).
the builder showed his consummate skill in solving a difficult problem
of construction in a scientific and at the same time artistic manner.
The intention of the building required him to lay out the foundations
of the hall on a square plan, and, as the walls gained height, gradually
to change this square so that the summit of the walls finished in a
circle; on this circular cornice he could readily construct his dome.
By an ingenious combination of eight intersecting arches, the foot
## p. 572 (#612) ############################################
672
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
of each standing within the square plan but its plane set at an angle,
the corner was bridged over, the whole construction eventually
forming a broad circular gallery or platform of masonry some 24 feet
wide and more than 100 feet from the ground. With this platform
as a base the builders proceeded to erect the huge inverted bowl of
the dome. The materials used for this purpose were bricks and mortar,
and a noticeable fact is the great thickness of the mortar between
each course, so much so that the dome may be described as con-
sisting of a hollow mass of concrete reinforced with layers of brick
set in level courses. Of a somewhat similar composition most large
domes have been built, as for instance that of St Sophia and also the
Pantheon, and here may be suspected slight evidence in support of
that Turkish attribution to which the 'Adil Shah dynasty laid claim,
as this method of construction was probably derived from Ottoman
sources. Another indication that the builders of Bijapur may have
sought far and wide for inspiration is shown by the device of inter-
secting arches referred to above, which made the raising of this
great dome in such a manner a practical expedient. For probably
the only other example of this particular system by which a dome
may be supported is in the cupola of the mihrab vestibule at Cordova
in Spain erected considerably over six hundred years before.
The Gol Gumbaz, however, is a building which depicts the Bijapur
style in what may be termed its masculine aspect, while its colossal
size is perhaps its most distinctive characteristic. For the opposite
of all these qualities there is the comparatively small edifice known
as the Mihtar Mahall erected in 1620, one of those rich gems of the
builder's art which the Indian's mind at times found such delight in
producing, and in the decoration of which his most skilled craftsmen
expended their ungrudging care. Although called a mahall, or palace,
this structure is really a gateway to the inner courtyard of a mosque
which lies a little way behind it. But it is something more than a
mere entrance, for it is a tall graceful building with an upper storey
containing an assembly room, and above this again is an open
terrace surrounded by a high wall with oriel windows and a per-
forated parapet. On each side of the façade are two slender orna-
mental minarets of a type characteristic of the Bijapur style, but it
is the projecting balcony window filling in the entire space between
that is the most striking feature. It is thrown out from the wall on
a series of closely set carved brackets, and the wide eaves-board is
supported by struts of stone so finely wrought with the chisel as to
have every appearance of wood. Perhaps in its imitation of other
and more plastic materials, and its delicate prettiness as a whole,
this charming little structure is open to criticism; it conveys the
impression that its designer had been commissioned to prepare a
miniature masterpiece complete in every detail regardless of time
or cost, and had been allowed a free hand in the matter. The manner
## p. 573 (#613) ############################################
SUNNOT
JAMI MASJID, BIJAPUR
573
in which he played with the stone as if it were clay in reproducing
mouldings, joggled joints, and particularly the sunk coffers in the
ceiling of the ground storey, show the exuberance of his fancy and
the sheer delight he took in his task.
One of the first buildings of importance to be erected in the city
of Bijapur, and thus illustrating the style in its formative state, was
the Jami' Masjid begun by 'Ali 'Adil Shah I about 1565. Never quite
finished it still lacks the frontage of the courtyard and two minarets
which were to complete this portion of its outer façade. An endeavour
was made by the Mughul emperor Aurangzib to supply this deficiency,
and under his orders an eastern entrance gateway was added, but
on this side of the structure much still remains to be done. The
exterior shows a large rectangular building of plain aspect but
powerful proportions rising at its western end into a low square
battlemented tower supporting a fine dome. As usual this dome is
over the central prayer hall of the sanctuary, and it is in the remark-
able depth of space covered by the sanctuary that this mosque differs
from many others. This arcaded prayer hall consists of five aisles
separated by piers, thus dividing the whole into a series of square
bays of wide pointed arches; the effect of this great expanse, with its
perspective of piers and arches, is very impressive. The appearance
of the entire building is forceful and uninvolved, a consummation
achieved by the correct relation of its parts and the skilful subordina-
tion of the lesser to the larger forms of the composition. Ornament
has been sparingly introduced and then only to enrich a shadow or
emphasise a line, as may be seen in the cusping of the central arch
of the façade, the elaboration of the brackets between the arches,
and other features that called for decorative accentuation. All the
surfaces have been treated to a coat of plaster, the interior walls
having been furnished with a layer of very fine quality which has
mellowed to a pleasing creamy tint. Amidst this display of austere
refinement, on the removal of a heavy protecting curtain covering
the central bay containing the principal mihrab, it is surprising to
find this particular space embellished with the most gorgeous array
of patterns in colour and gold. Although there is much to admire
in this unexpected blaze of colour, which depicts arcades and
minarets, lamps, arabesques and inscriptions all conventionally
treated, it is not in exact harmony with its surroundings and is the
work of a later hand.
That the Bijapur master-masons could, however, produce a highly
ornate type of architecture on a large scale is shown by the Ibrahim
Rauza, a group of buildings erected towards the end of the sixteenth
century. The Rauza consists of the tomb of Sultan Ibrahim II
together with its mosque, the two structures confronting one another
on a raised terrace, the whole being contained within the usual
square-walled enclosure. Rivalling even the finest buildings of the
3
1
## p. 574 (#614) ############################################
574
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
Mughuls in this respect, the premeditated completeness of this
mausoleum and its appurtenances is astonishing, every detail of the
scheme from the lettering of the inscriptions to the stone hooks in
the stables having evidently been determined before the first stone
was laid. Great ingenuity has been shown by the manner in which
the designer has disposed the two main structures, each widely
different in plan and purpose, so that together they form a sym-
metrical unity. Both are arcaded edifices with wide eaves on carved
brackets, ornamented minarets at each angle as turrets, and each is
surmounted by a bulbous dome. The mausoleum, as was intended,
is the more important building, and on this the workmen have
exercised their exceptional artistic ability, so that in design, con-
struction and ornamentation it leaves little to be desired. Enclosed
within a double verandah the tomb-chamber is square in shape with
a flat coffered ceiling composed of stones set together edge to edge,
having apparently no means of support, but evidently with concealed
joggled joints. Above this ceiling is the vaulted void of the double
dome, a large empty upper-storey chamber entered from the roof but
having no particular use. The mosque which faces the tomb across
a courtyard is in the same ornate style but slightly modified, and
consists of an open arcaded prayer chamber of three pillared aisles
with a deeply sunk mihrab in the western wall. Where, however, both
these buildings excel is in the individual character of the carved
decoration, which, like the Bijapur architecture itself, denotes the
presence of a definite school. The substance of this ornamentation
is similar to that found in all Islamic art, but certain factors have
been introduced, such as a special kind of bracket supporting a
medallion, which are as original as they are graceful. Unlike the
somewhat hybrid designs which satisfied the Mughuls, the Deccani
patterns exhibit little extraneous influence; they are clearly the
creation of the fertile imagination of the Bijapur craftsmen. Equally
distinctive are the buildings themselves, the typical features of which
may be readily recognised. These consist of the bulbous dome with
its foliated drum, the tall slender turret or pinnacle in the form of
an ornamental minaret, and the almost invariable preference for
the pier instead of the pillar. In their methods the Bijapur builders
were often bold and daring, but this adventurous spirit was accom-
panied by no little engineering experience and scientific knowledge.
This has been already noticed in referring to the technical skill
displayed in the construction of the Gol Gumbaz and the ceiling of
the Ibrahim Rauza, but it is similarly shown in the immense size
and spread of some of the archways, as for instance that of the Gagan
Mahall and a viaduct which leads to the Athar Mahall. These
mahalls are two of the several palaces built in or near the citadel
and illustrate the secular buildings of the 'Adil Shahs, but none of
them compares in architectural character with their mosques and
## p. 575 (#615) ############################################
KHANDESH
678
tombs, nor are they in the same class as the noble marble pavilions
of the Mughuls.
One other style of building of a quasi-independent order mani-
fested itself in the Deccan both before and during the Mughul
ascendancy, in the state of Khandesh. Here in the local capitals
of Burhanpur and Thalner several monuments were erected in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries by the Faruqi dynasty; later, in the
seventeenth century, the Mughul governors were responsible for a
number of tombs of a particular kind. The geographical position of
this comparatively small state, surrounded as it was by a number of
powerful kingdoms each with its own form of artistic expression,
rendered it specially liable to external influences. These show them.
selves unmistakably in the character of many of its buildings. Yet
although these borowings are discernible they do not entirely dominate
the style, as the architecture of Khandesh in some of its phases dis-
plays certain originality. One of the first buildings erected by the
Faruqi rulers was a large palace on a commanding situation above
the Tapti river at Burhanpur, followed by a group of tombs at the
same place and another group at Thalner, all dating from the first
half of the fifteenth century. Although the palace is now in ruins,
enough remains to indicate that this edifice, and perhaps more notice-
ably the tombs, owed not a little of their appearance to similar
buildings being then raised in the neighbouring city of Mandu, the
capital of Malwa. The tombs of the founders of the Faruqi dynasty,
such as that of Nasir Khan (1399-1437) at Burhanpur, and Miran
Mubarak I (deceased 1457) at Thalner, show a marked affinity to
the more famous mausoleum of Hushang at Mandu in the solidity
of their effect and proportions generally. The Khandesh masons
have, however, endeavoured to lighten the mass of the structure by
the introduction of projecting openings on each side of the central
doorway, and have also provided more height by raising the dome
on a well-proportioned drum, which, together with other features,
constructive and decorative, give these Faruqi tombs an air of no
little distinction. At a later date two mosques were erected at
Burhanpuur, the Jami' Masjid built by 'Ali Khan in 1588 being the
larger and more important, while the Bibi-ki-Masjid is better designed.
The former is a comparatively plain structure, the fifteen pointed
arches comprising its façade being flanked by two lofty minarets, a
simple conception, but the symmetry and disposition of its parts has
been carefully considered. It is not unlikely that the construction
of this building was interrupted by the subjection of the state by
Akbar, its completion being undertaken by the Mughuls, so that its
final appearance may not be as originally intended. As an example
of a coherent composition the Bibi-ki-Masjid is much superior, but
it is too obviously dictated by similar structures in Ahmadabad and
Champaner to be commended for its originality, although the minarets
## p. 576 (#616) ############################################
676
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
are a departure from the Gujarati type, particularly the projecting
windows and rounded cupolas. The concluding phase of the style,
when it came under the influence of the Mughuls, is seen in the tomb
of Shah Nawaz Khan, one of its provincial governors in the seven-
teenth century. Much of this building is frankly a composite con-
ception displaying elements acquired from a variety of sources. Its
square design in two storeys is suggestive of some of the royal tombs
of the Ahmad Shah dynasty, the pinnacles are those introduced by
Firuz Tughluq but ornamented with foliations from Bijapur, and,
finally, the whole is surmounted by a "Lodi" dome. Yet these attri-
butions are combined with no little skill, and the general appearance
of the structure is not unattractive. At the same time it is clear
that the style had no further resources of its own, and could only be
maintained by appropriating the ideas of others. In such circum-
stances it naturally follows that no more buildings of any consequence
were erected in Khandesh.
## p. 577 (#617) ############################################
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GENERAL
A. HISTORICAL
HURGESS, J. The Chronology of Modern India, Edinburgh, 1913.
ELLIOT, H. M. and DowSON, J. The History of India, as told by its own His-
torians. 8 vols. 1867-77.
HODIVALA, S. H. Historical Studies in Mughul Numismatics. Calcutta, 1923.
KEENE, H. G. Fall of the Moghul Empire. 1887.
LANE-POOLE, S. Mediaeval India under Muhammadan rule. 1902.
B. NUMISMATIC
Catalogues of Mughul coins in Museums :
British Museum. By S. Lane-Poole. 1892.
Calcutta. By H. Nelson Wright. 1908.
Lahore. By R. B. Whitehead. 1914.
Lucknow. By C. J. Brown. 2 vols. 1920.
Numismatic Supplement to the Journal, Asiatic Society of Bengal. Calcutta,
from 1904.
Index to Num. Supp. I-xv. Allahabad, 1912.
WHITEHEAD, R. B. Coins of Nadir Shah and the Durrani Dynasty. 1934.
CHAPTER I
BABUR
1. ORIGINAL SOURCES
Memoirs of Babur :
Turki text.
(a) Edited by N. Ilminski. 1857.
(b) Facsimile of Hyderabad Codex, edited by A. S. Beveridge. 1905.
Persian Versions.
(a) By Payandah Hasan.
(b) By Mirza Abdu'r-Rahim.
European translations.
(a) By J. Leyden and W. Erskine of `Abdu'r-Rahim's Persian version.
1826. Revised by Sir L. King. 1921.
(b) By A. Pavet de Courteille, from Ilminski's text. 1871.
(c) By A. S. Beveridge, from the Hyderabad Codex. 1921.
Tarikh-i-Rashidi. By Muhammad Haidar Dughlat.
Translation of the Persian text by N. Elias and E. Denison Ross. 1895.
Habib-us-Siyar. By Khvand Amir,
Persian text, lithographed. Teheran, 1855 and Bombay, 1857.
Ahsan-us-Siyar. By Mirza Barkhwardar Turkman.
Shaibani-nama. By Muhammad Salih.
Turki text and German translation by H. Vambéry. 1885.
Text edited by P. M. Melioransky and A. N. Samoilovich. 1908.
Tarikh-i-Alamarai 'Abbasi. By Iskandar Munshi.
37
## p. 578 (#618) ############################################
578
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Persian manuscript in the Bodleian. (Fraser 144, 147, 145. ) Lithographed.
Teheran, 1896.
Humayun-nama. By Gulbadan Begam.
Persian text, edited and translated by A. S. Beveridge. 1902.
Tarikh-i-Haqqi. By 'Abdul-Haqq ibn Saif-ud-Din Dihlavi.
Persian manuscript in the Bodleian. (Fraser 132. )
Ahsan-ut-Tawarikh. By Hasan.
Persian manuscript in the Bodleian. (Ouseley 232. )
Tarikh-i-Firishta. By Muhammad Qasim called Firishta.
Persian text, edited by J. Briggs. 1831. Lithographed edition, Lucknow, 1864.
Translation by J. Briggs. London, 1829; reprinted Calcutta, 1908.
Tabaqat-i-Akbari.
By Nizam-ud-Din Ahmad ibn Muhammad Muqim.
Persian manuscript in Bodleian. (Elliot 381. )
Edited and translated by B. De. (Bibliotheca Indica. ) In progress, 1913-
Akbar-nama. By Abu-'l-Fazl.
Persian text, edited by Agha Ahmad 'Ali and Maulavi 'Abd-ur-Rahim.
(Bibliotheca Indica. ) 1877-87.
Translation, by H. Beveridge. (Bibliotheca Indica. ) In progress, 1903-
2. MODERN WORKS
CALDECOTT, R. M. The life of Baber. 1844.
EDWARDES, S. M. Babur: diarist and despot. 1926.
ERSKINE, W. A history of India under. . . Baber and Humayun. 1854.
GRENARD, FERNAND. Baber, first of the Moguls. Translated and adapted by
Homer White and Richard Glaenzer. 1930.
POOLE, S. LANE. Babar. (Rulers of India. ) 1899.
WILLIAMS, L. F. RUSHBROOK. An empire builder of the sixteenth century. . .
Babur. (Allahabad University Publications, no. 3. ) 1918.
CHAPTER
II
HUMAYUN
1. ORIGINAL SOURCES
Memoirs of Babur, see chap. I.
Tarikh-i-Rashidi, see chap. I.
Humayun-nama, see chap. I.
Humayun-nama. By Khvand Amir. Partly translated in Elliot and Dowson, v,
116-26.
Tarikh-i-Gujarat. By 'Abdullah Muhammad. Edited by E. Denison Ross. 1910,
1921 and 1928.
Tezkereh-ul-Vákiát. By Jauhar. Translated by C. Stewart. 1832.
Memoirs of Bayazid. (India Office Library, MS. 216, 223. ) Abstract in English
by H. Beveridge, J. A. S. B. 1898, p. 296.
2. MODERN WORKS
ERSKINE, W. History of India, see chap. I.
## p. 579 (#619) ############################################
BIBLIOGRAPHY
579
CHAPTER III
SHER SHAH
1. ORIGINAL SOURCES
Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi. By 'Abbas Sarwani. Translated in Elliot and Dowson,
IV, 305-433.
Makhzan-i-Afghana. By Ni'mat-Ullah. Translated by B. Dorn in History of
the Afghans. 1829.
Tarikh-i-Daudi. By 'Abdullah. Partly translated in Elliot and Dowson, IV,
434-513.
Memoirs of Babur, Tarikh-i-Rashidi, Humayun-nama, Tabaqat-i-Akbari,
Akbar-nama, see chap. I.
2. MODERN WORKS
BHATTASALI, N. K. The date of Sher Shah's accession, Islamic Review, 1936, p. 127.
ERSKINE, W. History of India, see chap. I.
KALIKARANJAN QANUNGO. Sher Shah. Calcutta, 1921.
PARAMATMA SARAN. The date and place of Sher Shah's birth. Journal, Bihar
and Orissa Research Society, 1934, p. 108.
CHAPTERS IV AND V
AKBAR
1. ORIGINAL SOURCES
Akbar-nama. By Shaikh Abu-'l-Fazl. Published by the A. S. B. in the Biblio-
theca Indica series. Text, 3 volumes.
A most valuable chronicle of Akbar's reign and the principal authority
for dates and bare facts. When it goes beyond these it is highly coloured
by Abu-'l-Fazl's adulation of his master.
The Akbar-nama has been translated into English by Mr. H. Beveridge
and published by the A. S. B. in the same series.
Ain-i-Akbari. By Shaikh Abu-'l-Fazl. Published by the A. S. B. in the Biblio-
theca Indica series. Text, 3 volumes.
English translation in the same series, three volumes, vol. 1 by Blochmann
and vols. II and III by Jarrett. The translation of vol. I is generally accurate
but its chief value lies in the copious notes and appendices with which
the erudition of Mr Blochmann has enriched it. The translation of vols.
II and mi is excellent and the notes are ample, but the statistical account
of the provinces in vol. I is marred by failure to identify place names.
The Ain-i-Akbari contains a code of Akbar's regulations in all depart-
ments and on all subjects and includes, besides some extraneous matter, a
valuable and minute statistical account of his empire, with historical and
other notes.
Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh. By 'Abdul-Qadir Badauni. ' Also known as Tarikh-
i-Badauni. Published by the A. S. B. in the Bibliotheca Indica series. Text,
3 volumes.
1 Except on administrative matters [Ed. ].
## p. 580 (#620) ############################################
580
BIBLIOGRAPHY
English translation in the same series. Vol. 1 by Lt. -Col. Ranking, vol. II
by the Rev. W. H. Lowe, vol. III by Lt. -Col. Haig.
The book, being written from the point of view taken by a bigoted
Sunni, is of the highest value as a check on the turgid panegyric composed
by the latitudinarian Abu-'l-Fazl.
Tabaqat-i-Akbari. By Khvaja Nizam-ud-din Ahmad. Text, Lucknow litho-
graphed edition of A. H. 1292 (A. D. 1875).
A dry chronicle of events, without comment, written by a highly placed
and therefore cautious official. The chronology is faulty but the work is
specially valuable for a record of events in Gujarat, where the author was
much employed. It is brought down to the thirty-ninth year of the reign.
Tarikh-i-Firishta. Bombay lithographed text of 1832.
A mere compilation, which contains, however, a few interesting items of
information, especially relating to the Deccan, contributed by the author
from his own personal knowledge.
Darbar-i-Akbari (in Urdu). By Shams-ul-'Ulama Maulana Maulavi Muham-
mad Husain, Azad. Rifah-i-'Amm Press, Lahore, 1898.
A useful compilation, based chiefly on the works of Abu-'l-Fazl.
Insha-i-Abu-'l-Fazl. A collection of official dispatches written by Shaikh Abu-
’l-Fazl, and interesting as throwing much light on Akbar's relations with
his neighbours and with his own nobles and officers, but prolix, pompous,
and tedious. Lucknow lithographed edition of A. H. 1279 (A. D. 1862).
Zubdat-ut-Tawarikh. By Shaikh Nur-ul-Haqq. MSS.
Tarikh-i-Haqqi. By Shaikh 'Abdul-Haqq, father of the preceding. MSS. (A. D.
1596-7).
