Too many laws that explain too little, whereas new
hypothesis
has few laws that explain a great deal.
Life-of-Galileo-by-Brecht
Private lessons: Ten scudi a month.
Very well, sir.
What are your interests?
Naturally I'll have to drop you. You understand, you don't pay. ANDREA All right, I'm going. Can I take the apple?
GALILEO Yes.
(Andrea leaves)
LUDOVICO You'll have to be patient with me. Mostly because in science everything's the opposite of common sense. Take that crazy tube they're selling in Amsterdam. I've examined it carefully. A green leather casing and two lenses, one like this (he indicates a concave lens) and one like this (indicates a convex lens). As far as I know, one magnifies and the other reduces.
Any sensible person would expect them to cancel each other out. But they don't. When you look through the thing everything's five times as big. That's science for you.
What do you see five times as big? Steeples, pigeons, anything far away.
GALILEO
LUDOVICO
GALILEO
LUDOVICO
GALILEO You say the tube has two lenses? (He makes a sketch on a sheet of paper) Like
this? (Ludovico nods) How old is this invention?
LUDOVICO I believe it wasn't much more than a few days old when I left
Holland, at least it hadn't been on the market any longer than that. GALILEO (almost friendly) Why do you insist on physics? Why not horse
breeding? (Enter Mrs. Sarti, unnoticed by Galileo)
LUDOVICO Mother thinks a little science won't hurt me. Everybody's eating
and drinking science nowadays, you know.
GALILEO Why not try a dead language or theology? They're easier. (Sees Mrs.
Sarti) AH right, come Tuesday morning. (Ludovico leaves)
GALILEO Don't look at me like that. I've accepted him.
MRS. SARTI Because you saw me in the nick of time. The procurator of the
university is here.
GALILEO This place is as busy as a pigeon house. Bring him in. It might mean
five hundred scudi. Then I wouldn't have to take pupils. (Mrs. Sarti shows the procurator in. Galileo has completed dressing while scribbling figures on a slip of paper)
GALILEO Good morning, lend me half a scudo. (Gives the coin the procurator has fished out of his purse to Mrs. Sarti) Sarti, would you send Andrea to the spectacle maker for some lenses? Here are the measurements. (Mrs. Sarti goes out with the slip of paper)
THE PROCURATOR I've come in regard to your request for a raise of salary. You have asked for a thousand scudi. Unfortunately I cannot recommend such an increase to the university. You are aware, I am sure, that courses in mathematics don't attract students to the university. Mathematics doesn't
Have you seen these magnified steeples? Certainly, sir.
7
? pay. Not that the republic doesn't value it highly. It may not be as impor tant as philosophy or as useful as theology; still, it gives endless pleasure to the connoisseur.
GALILEO (immersed in his papers) My dear man, I can't get along on five hundred scudi.
THE PROCURATOR But, Mr. Galilei, all you do is give a two-hour lecture twice a week. Surely your extraordinary reputation must attract any number of students who can afford private lessons. Haven't you got private pupils?
? GALILEO Sir, I have too many! I'm teaching all the time. When am I to learn? Good God, man, I'm not as clever as the gentlemen of the philosophical faculty. I'm stupid. I don't understand a thing. I've got to plug the holes in my knowledge. And where am I to find time for that? When am I to study and experiment? My knowledge, sir, is thirsty for more knowledge. In all the biggest problems we still have nothing but hypotheses to go by. What we need is proofs. How can I get anywhere if, to keep my household going, I have to drum it into the head of every idiot who can pay that parallel lines meet in infinity?
? ? THE PROCURATOR The republic may not pay as much as certain princes, but don't forget, it guarantees freedom of inquiry. We in Padua even admit Protestants as students. And we grant them doctor's degrees. Did we hand Mr. Cremonini over to the Inquisition when we had proof--proof, Mr. Galilei! --that he had made sacrilegious statements? No, we even granted him an increase in salary. As far away as Holland Venice is known as the republic where the Inquisition has nothing to say. That ought to be worth something to an astronomer like you, working in a field where the doctrines of the church have not been held in due respect of late.
GALILEO You handed Giordano Bruno over to Rome. Because he professed the teachings of Copernicus.
THE PROCURATOR Not because he professed the teachings of Mr. Copernicus which, incidentally, are wrong, but because he was not a citizen of Venice and was not employed here. You can leave him out of it, even if they did burn him. And by the by, for all our liberties I shouldn't advise you to make too free with a name that has been expressly anathematized
? by the church, not even here, no, not even here.
GALILEO Your protection of freedom of thought is rather good business, isn't it?
You get good teachers for low pay by pointing out that other towns are run by the Inquisition, which burns people. In return for protection from the Inquisition, your professors work for next to nothing.
? THE PROCURATOR You're being unfair. What good would it do you to have all the time you want for research if any witless monk of the Inquisition could simply suppress your ideas? No rose without thorns, Mr. Galilei, no prince without monks!
? GALILEO And what's the use of free investigation without free time to investigate? What happens to the results? Why don't you submit my work on the laws of falling bodies (He points at a sheaf of manuscript) to the gentlemen of the signoria and ask them if it's not worth a few scudi more.
THE PROCURATOR It's worth infinitely more, Mr. Galilei. GALILEO Not infinitely more, sir, but five hundred scudi more.
8
? THE PROCURATOR Only what brings in scudi is worth scudi. If. you want money, you'll have to come up with something different. If you have knowledge to sell, you can ask only as much as it earns the purchaser.
For instance, the philosophy Mr. Colombe is selling in Florence brings the prince at least ten thousand scudi a year. Granted, your laws of falling bodies raised some dust. They're applauding you in Paris and Prague. But the gentlemen who applaud don't pay the university of Padua what you cost it. Your misfortune, Mr. Galilei,is your field.
? GALILEO I get it: free trade, free research. Free trade in research, is that it?
? THE PROCURATOR But Mr. Galilei! How can you say such a thing? Permit me to observe that I don't fully appreciate your witticism. The flourishing trade of the republic is hardly to be sneered at. Much less can I, as long- time procurator of the university, countenance the, I must say, frivolous tone in which you speak of research. (While Galileo sends longing glances toward his worktable) Think of the world around us! The whip-of slavery under which science is groaning at certain universities--where old leather-bound tomes have been cut into whips. Where no one cares how the pebble falls, but only what Aristotle writes about it. The eyes have only one purpose: reading. What use are the new laws of gravity when the law of suavity is all that matters? And then think of the immense joy with which our republic accepts your ideas. Here you can do research! Here you can work! Nobody spies I on you, nobody oppresses you. Our merchants, who know the importance of better linen in their competition with Florence, listen with interest to your cry for "Better physics! And don't forget how much physics owes to the campaign for better looms! Our most eminent citizens--men for whom time is money--take an interest in your work, they come to see you and watch demonstrations of your discoveries. Don't despise trade, Mr. Galilei! None of us here would ever allow your work to be interfered with or permit outsiders to create difficulties for you. You've got to admit, Mr. Galilei, that this is the ideal place for your work!
GALILEO (in despair) Yes.
PROCURATOR Then the financial aspect: All you have to do is come up with
another invention as clever as that splendid proportional compass of yours which a person ignorant of mathematics can use to (He counts on his fingers) trace a line, compute compound interest, reproduce a land survey in enlarged or reduced scale, and determine the weight of cannon I balls.
GALILEO Flimflam.
THE PROCURATOR An invention that delighted and amazed our leading citizens
and brought in money--you call that flimflam. I'm told that even General Stefano Gritti can do square roots with it.
? CGALILEO Quite a gadget--all the same, Priuli, you've given me an idea. Priuli, I may have something along those lines for you. (He picks up the sheet with bis sketch)
? PROCURATOR Really? That would be the solution. (Gets up) Mr. Galilei, we know you are a great man. A great but ,f,'. dissatisfied man, if I may say so.
? GALILEO Yes, I am dissatisfied and that's what you should be paying me for if you had any sense. Because I'm dissatisfied with myself. But you do everything to make me dissatisfied with you, I admit it amuses me to do my bit for my Venetian friends, working in your great arsenal with its shipyards and armories. But you leave me no time to follow up the
9
? speculations which result from this work. You muzzle the ox that does your threshing. I'm forty-six years old and I've accomplished nothing that satisfies me.
THE PROCURATOR In that case I won't disturb you any longer. GALILEO Thank you.
(The procurator leaves, Galileo remains alone for a few moments and begins to
work. The Andrea comes running in)
GALILEO (at work) Why didn't you eat the apple?
ANDREA I need it to show her that the earth turns.
GALILEO I must tell you something, Andrea. Don't mention our ideas to
other people.
ANDREA GALILEO ANDREA GALILEO
Why not?
Our rulers have forbidden it.
But it's the truth.
Even so, they forbid it. And there's another reason. We still have no
proofs for what we know to be right. Eve the doctrine of the great
Copernicus is not yet proven. It only a hypothesis. Give me the lenses. ANDREA Half a scudo wasn't enough. I had to leave him my jacket. As a
pledge.
GALILEO How will you get through the winter without jacket?
(Pause. Galileo arranges the lenses on the sheet with the sketch)
ANDREA What's a hypothesis?
GALILEO It's when we consider something probable but have no facts. In the
face of the heavenly bodies we're like worms with dim eyes that see very little. The ancient doctrines that have been accepted for a thousand years are rickety. There's less solid timber in those immense edifices than in the props needed to keep them from collapsing.
Too many laws that explain too little, whereas new hypothesis has few laws that explain a great deal.
ANDREA But you've proved it all to me. I want to be a physicist too, Mr. Galilei. GALILEO Very sensible in view of all the problems remaining to be solved in our
field. (He has gone to the window and looked through the lenses. Mildly
interested] Take a look, Andrea.
ANDREA Holy Mary! Everything comes close. The bells of the campanile are
right here. I can even read the copper letters: GRACIA DEI. . GALILEO It'll get us five hundred scudi.
10
? 2
Galileo presents a new invention to the republic of Venice.
No one's virtue is complete: Great Galileo liked to eat. You will not resent, we hope The truth about his telescope.
The great arsenal of Venice near the harbor. Senators, headed by the 1'doge. On one side Galileo's friend Sagredo and Virginia Galilei, fifteen; Isbe is holding a velvet cushion on which lies a telescope about two feet ''long, encased in red leather. Galileo is standing on a dais. Behind him the tripod for the telescope; the lens grinder Federzoni is in charge
? GALILEO Your Excellency, august signoria! As professor of mathematics at your university in Padua and director of the great arsenal here in
Venice, I have always felt it incumbent upon me not only to fulfill my duties as a teacher but also to procure special advantages to the republic of V enice by means of useful inventions. With great satisfaction and in all due humility, I shall demonstrate and present to you today an entirely new instrument, my spyglass or telescope, manufactured in your world-famous great arsenal in accordance with the highest scientific and Christian principles, the fruit of seventeen years of your obedient servant's patient labors.
(Galileo leaves the dais and stands next to Sagredo)
(Applause, Galileo takes a bow)
GALILEO (softly to Sagredo) What a waste of time!
SAGREDO (softly) You'll be able to pay the butcher, old friend.
GALILEO Yes, they'll make money on it. (Makes another bow)
THE PROCURATOR (steps up on the dais) Your Excellency, august signoria! Once
again a glorious page in the great book of human accomplishments is being written in Venetian characters. (Polite applause) A scholar of world renown is presenting to you, and to you alone, a highly salable tube for you to manufacture and market at your pleasure. (Stronger applause) Has it occurred to you that in the event of war this instrument will enable us to recognize the nature and number of the enemy's ships at least two hours before they have a clear view of ours and, in full cognizance of his strength, decide whether to pursue, engage or withdraw? (Loud applause) And now, Your Excellency, august signoria, Mr. Galilei bids you accept this instrument of his invention, this evidence of his genius, from the hands of his charming daughter.
(Music. Virginia steps forward, bows, hands the telescope to the procurator. The doge and the senators mount the dais and look through the tube)
GALILEO (softly) I can't promise to go through with this farce. They think they're getting a profitable gadget, but it's much more than that. Last night I turned the tube on the moon.
SAGREDO What did you see?
11
? GALILEO It has no light of its own.
SAGREDO What?
GALILEO I tell you, astronomy has been marking time for a thousand years for lack of a telescope.
SENATOR SAGREDO SENATOR
GALILEO SAGREDO GALILEO SENATOR
Mr. Galilei! You're wanted.
One sees too well with that thing. I'll have to warn my ladies to stop bathing on the roof.
Do you know what the Milky Way consists of? No.
I do.
A thing like that is worth its ten scudi, Mr. Galilei.
(Galileo bows)
VIRGINIA (takes Ludovico to her father) Ludovico wants to congratulate you,
father.
LUDOVICO (embarrassed] Congratulations, sir.
GALILEO I've improved on it.
LUDOVICO So I see, sir. You made the casing red. In Holland it was green. GALILEO (turns to Sagredo) I wonder if I couldn't prove a certain doctrine with
that thing. SAGREDO Watch your step!
THE PROCURATOR Your five hundred scudi are in the bag, Mr. Galilei. GALILEO (paying no attention to him) Of course, I'm always wary of rash
conclusions.
(The doge, a fat, modest man, has approached Galileo and is attempting, with clumsy dignity, to address him)
VIRGINIA LUDOVICO VIRGINIA LUDOVICO VIRGINIA LUDOVICO
Did I do it all right?
It seemed all right to me.
What's the matter?
Oh, nothing. A green casing might have done just as well.
I think they're all very pleased with father.
And I think I'm beginning to understand something about science.
? 12
? 3
January 10, 1610: By means of the telescope Galileo discovers celestial phenomena which prove the Copernican system. Warned by his friend of the possible consequences of his investigations, Galileo affirms his faith in reason.
January ten, sixteen ten: Galileo Galilei abolishes heaven.
Galileo's study in Padua. Night. Galileo and Sagredo, both in heavy overcoats, at the telescope.
? SAGREDO (looking through the telescope, in an undertone) The edge of the crescent is quite irregular, rough and serrated. In the dark part near the luminous edge there are luminous points. They are emerging, one after another. From these points the light spreads out over wider and wider areas and finally merges with the larger luminous part.
GALILEO How do you account for those luminous points? SAGREDO It can't be.
GALILEO But it is. They're mountains.
SAGREDO On a star?
GALILEO Gigantic mountains. Their peaks are gilded by the rising sun while the surrounding slopes are still deep in darkness. You can see the light descending from the highest peaks into the valleys.
SAGREDO But that contradicts all the astronomy of two thousand years. GALILEO True. No mortal has ever seen what you are seeing, except me. You're
the second.
SAGREDO But the moon can't be another earth with mountains and valleys, any
more than the earth can be a planet.
GALILEO The moon can be an earth with mountains and valleys, and the earth can be a planet. Simply another heavenly body, one among thousands. Take another look. Is the dark part of the moon entirely dark?
SAGREDO No. When I look closely, I see a feeble gray light on it.
GALILEO SACREDO GALILEO SAGREDO
What can that light be? ?
It's from the earth.
Nonsense. How can the earth with its mountains and forests and
oceans--a cold body--give light?
GALILEO The same way the moon sheds light. Because both bodies are
illuminated by the sun, that's why they shed light. What the moon is to us we are to the moon. The moon sees us by turns as a crescent, as a half- circle, as full, and then not at all.
SAGREDO GALILEO SAGREDO
Then there's no difference between moon and earth? Apparently not.
Less than ten years ago a man was burned in Rome. His name was Giordano Bruno and he had said the same thing.
13
GALILEO I know. But we can see it. Keep your eyes to the tube. What you see is that there's no difference between heaven and earth. This is the tenth of January. Humanity notes in its diary: Heaven abolished.
SAGREDO It's terrifying.
GALILEO I've discovered something else. Perhaps something even more amazing.
MRS. SARTI (comes in) The procurator.
(The procurator rushes in)
THE PROCURATOR I apologize for the late hour. I'd be much obliged if we could talk privately.
GALILEO Mr. Sagredo can hear anything I can hear, Mr. Priuli.
THE PROCURATOR It might embarrass you to have the gentleman hear what has
happened. Unfortunately, it's something quite incredible.
GALILEO Mr. Sagredo is used to hearing incredible things in my presence.
THE PROCURATOR I wonder. (Pointing at the telescope) There it is, your splendid gadget.
You might as well throw it away. It's worthless, absolutely worthless. SAGREDO (who has been restlessly pacing the floor) What do you mean?
THE PROCURATOR Do you realize that this invention of yours, "the fruit of seventeen
years of patient labor," is for sale on every street corner in Italy for a couple of scudi? Made in Holland, I might add. At this very moment a Dutch freighter is unloading five hundred telescopes in the harbor.
GALILEO You don't say.
THE PROCURATOR Your equanimity, sir, is beyond me.
SAGREDO I fail to see what's troubling you. Let me tell you that just in these last few
days Mr. Galilei--with this very instrument--has made the most
revolutionary discoveries concerning heavenly bodies.
GALILEO (laughing) Have a look for yourself, Priuli.
THE PROCURATOR Let me tell you that after having Mr. Galilei's salary doubled on the
strength of this worthless gadget I'm quite satisfied with the discovery I've already made. It's sheer accident that when the gentlemen of the signoria first looked through your tube, confident of having acquired something for the republic that could be manufactured only here, they failed to see--seven times magnified--a common peddler on the next corner hawking that same tube for a song. (Galileo roars with laughter)
SAGREDO Dear Mr. Priuli, I may not be able to judge the instrument's value to the economy, but its value to philosophy is so enormous that . . .
THE PROCURATOR To philosophy! What business has Mr. Galilei, a mathematician, meddling with philosophy? Mr. Galilei, you once invented a very respectable pump for the city; your irrigation system functions. The weavers, too, are very pleased with your machine. How on earth could I have anticipated anything like this?
GALILEO Not so fast, Priuli. Sea routes are still long, unsafe and expensive. We lack a dependable clock in the sky. A guide to navigation. I have reason to believe that with the telescope we can very clearly perceive certain stars with very regular motions. New star charts, Mr. Priuli, could save the shipping interests millions of scudi.
THE PROCURATOR Forget it. I've heard more than enough. In return for my kindness you've made me the laughingstock of the city. I'll be remembered as the procurator who fell for a worthless telescope. You have every reason to laugh. You've got your five hundred scudi. But I'm telling you, and I speak as an honest man: This world makes me sick! (He leaves, banging the door behind him)
? 14
? GALILEO He's rather likable when he gets angry. Did you hear what he said; A world where you can't do business makes him sick.
SAGREDO Did you know about the Dutch instruments?
GALILEO Of course. From hearsay. But the one I made for those skinflints in the
signoria is twice as good. How can I do my work with the bailiff at the door? And Virginia will need her trousseau soon, she's not bright. Besides, I like to buy books, and not only about physics, and I like to eat well. I get my best ideas over a good meal. A rotten time to live in! They weren't paying me as much as the teamster who carts their wine barrels. Four cords of firewood for two courses in mathematics. I've wormed five hundred scudi out of them, but I've got debts, some of them twenty years old. Give me five years of leisure and I'll prove everything. Let me show you something else.
SAGREDO (hesitates to go to the telescope) I almost think I'm afraid, Galileo.
GALILEO I want to show you a milky-white patch of luminous mist in the galaxy.
Tell me what it's made of.
SAGREDO Why, stars, countless stars.
Very well, sir.
What are your interests?
Naturally I'll have to drop you. You understand, you don't pay. ANDREA All right, I'm going. Can I take the apple?
GALILEO Yes.
(Andrea leaves)
LUDOVICO You'll have to be patient with me. Mostly because in science everything's the opposite of common sense. Take that crazy tube they're selling in Amsterdam. I've examined it carefully. A green leather casing and two lenses, one like this (he indicates a concave lens) and one like this (indicates a convex lens). As far as I know, one magnifies and the other reduces.
Any sensible person would expect them to cancel each other out. But they don't. When you look through the thing everything's five times as big. That's science for you.
What do you see five times as big? Steeples, pigeons, anything far away.
GALILEO
LUDOVICO
GALILEO
LUDOVICO
GALILEO You say the tube has two lenses? (He makes a sketch on a sheet of paper) Like
this? (Ludovico nods) How old is this invention?
LUDOVICO I believe it wasn't much more than a few days old when I left
Holland, at least it hadn't been on the market any longer than that. GALILEO (almost friendly) Why do you insist on physics? Why not horse
breeding? (Enter Mrs. Sarti, unnoticed by Galileo)
LUDOVICO Mother thinks a little science won't hurt me. Everybody's eating
and drinking science nowadays, you know.
GALILEO Why not try a dead language or theology? They're easier. (Sees Mrs.
Sarti) AH right, come Tuesday morning. (Ludovico leaves)
GALILEO Don't look at me like that. I've accepted him.
MRS. SARTI Because you saw me in the nick of time. The procurator of the
university is here.
GALILEO This place is as busy as a pigeon house. Bring him in. It might mean
five hundred scudi. Then I wouldn't have to take pupils. (Mrs. Sarti shows the procurator in. Galileo has completed dressing while scribbling figures on a slip of paper)
GALILEO Good morning, lend me half a scudo. (Gives the coin the procurator has fished out of his purse to Mrs. Sarti) Sarti, would you send Andrea to the spectacle maker for some lenses? Here are the measurements. (Mrs. Sarti goes out with the slip of paper)
THE PROCURATOR I've come in regard to your request for a raise of salary. You have asked for a thousand scudi. Unfortunately I cannot recommend such an increase to the university. You are aware, I am sure, that courses in mathematics don't attract students to the university. Mathematics doesn't
Have you seen these magnified steeples? Certainly, sir.
7
? pay. Not that the republic doesn't value it highly. It may not be as impor tant as philosophy or as useful as theology; still, it gives endless pleasure to the connoisseur.
GALILEO (immersed in his papers) My dear man, I can't get along on five hundred scudi.
THE PROCURATOR But, Mr. Galilei, all you do is give a two-hour lecture twice a week. Surely your extraordinary reputation must attract any number of students who can afford private lessons. Haven't you got private pupils?
? GALILEO Sir, I have too many! I'm teaching all the time. When am I to learn? Good God, man, I'm not as clever as the gentlemen of the philosophical faculty. I'm stupid. I don't understand a thing. I've got to plug the holes in my knowledge. And where am I to find time for that? When am I to study and experiment? My knowledge, sir, is thirsty for more knowledge. In all the biggest problems we still have nothing but hypotheses to go by. What we need is proofs. How can I get anywhere if, to keep my household going, I have to drum it into the head of every idiot who can pay that parallel lines meet in infinity?
? ? THE PROCURATOR The republic may not pay as much as certain princes, but don't forget, it guarantees freedom of inquiry. We in Padua even admit Protestants as students. And we grant them doctor's degrees. Did we hand Mr. Cremonini over to the Inquisition when we had proof--proof, Mr. Galilei! --that he had made sacrilegious statements? No, we even granted him an increase in salary. As far away as Holland Venice is known as the republic where the Inquisition has nothing to say. That ought to be worth something to an astronomer like you, working in a field where the doctrines of the church have not been held in due respect of late.
GALILEO You handed Giordano Bruno over to Rome. Because he professed the teachings of Copernicus.
THE PROCURATOR Not because he professed the teachings of Mr. Copernicus which, incidentally, are wrong, but because he was not a citizen of Venice and was not employed here. You can leave him out of it, even if they did burn him. And by the by, for all our liberties I shouldn't advise you to make too free with a name that has been expressly anathematized
? by the church, not even here, no, not even here.
GALILEO Your protection of freedom of thought is rather good business, isn't it?
You get good teachers for low pay by pointing out that other towns are run by the Inquisition, which burns people. In return for protection from the Inquisition, your professors work for next to nothing.
? THE PROCURATOR You're being unfair. What good would it do you to have all the time you want for research if any witless monk of the Inquisition could simply suppress your ideas? No rose without thorns, Mr. Galilei, no prince without monks!
? GALILEO And what's the use of free investigation without free time to investigate? What happens to the results? Why don't you submit my work on the laws of falling bodies (He points at a sheaf of manuscript) to the gentlemen of the signoria and ask them if it's not worth a few scudi more.
THE PROCURATOR It's worth infinitely more, Mr. Galilei. GALILEO Not infinitely more, sir, but five hundred scudi more.
8
? THE PROCURATOR Only what brings in scudi is worth scudi. If. you want money, you'll have to come up with something different. If you have knowledge to sell, you can ask only as much as it earns the purchaser.
For instance, the philosophy Mr. Colombe is selling in Florence brings the prince at least ten thousand scudi a year. Granted, your laws of falling bodies raised some dust. They're applauding you in Paris and Prague. But the gentlemen who applaud don't pay the university of Padua what you cost it. Your misfortune, Mr. Galilei,is your field.
? GALILEO I get it: free trade, free research. Free trade in research, is that it?
? THE PROCURATOR But Mr. Galilei! How can you say such a thing? Permit me to observe that I don't fully appreciate your witticism. The flourishing trade of the republic is hardly to be sneered at. Much less can I, as long- time procurator of the university, countenance the, I must say, frivolous tone in which you speak of research. (While Galileo sends longing glances toward his worktable) Think of the world around us! The whip-of slavery under which science is groaning at certain universities--where old leather-bound tomes have been cut into whips. Where no one cares how the pebble falls, but only what Aristotle writes about it. The eyes have only one purpose: reading. What use are the new laws of gravity when the law of suavity is all that matters? And then think of the immense joy with which our republic accepts your ideas. Here you can do research! Here you can work! Nobody spies I on you, nobody oppresses you. Our merchants, who know the importance of better linen in their competition with Florence, listen with interest to your cry for "Better physics! And don't forget how much physics owes to the campaign for better looms! Our most eminent citizens--men for whom time is money--take an interest in your work, they come to see you and watch demonstrations of your discoveries. Don't despise trade, Mr. Galilei! None of us here would ever allow your work to be interfered with or permit outsiders to create difficulties for you. You've got to admit, Mr. Galilei, that this is the ideal place for your work!
GALILEO (in despair) Yes.
PROCURATOR Then the financial aspect: All you have to do is come up with
another invention as clever as that splendid proportional compass of yours which a person ignorant of mathematics can use to (He counts on his fingers) trace a line, compute compound interest, reproduce a land survey in enlarged or reduced scale, and determine the weight of cannon I balls.
GALILEO Flimflam.
THE PROCURATOR An invention that delighted and amazed our leading citizens
and brought in money--you call that flimflam. I'm told that even General Stefano Gritti can do square roots with it.
? CGALILEO Quite a gadget--all the same, Priuli, you've given me an idea. Priuli, I may have something along those lines for you. (He picks up the sheet with bis sketch)
? PROCURATOR Really? That would be the solution. (Gets up) Mr. Galilei, we know you are a great man. A great but ,f,'. dissatisfied man, if I may say so.
? GALILEO Yes, I am dissatisfied and that's what you should be paying me for if you had any sense. Because I'm dissatisfied with myself. But you do everything to make me dissatisfied with you, I admit it amuses me to do my bit for my Venetian friends, working in your great arsenal with its shipyards and armories. But you leave me no time to follow up the
9
? speculations which result from this work. You muzzle the ox that does your threshing. I'm forty-six years old and I've accomplished nothing that satisfies me.
THE PROCURATOR In that case I won't disturb you any longer. GALILEO Thank you.
(The procurator leaves, Galileo remains alone for a few moments and begins to
work. The Andrea comes running in)
GALILEO (at work) Why didn't you eat the apple?
ANDREA I need it to show her that the earth turns.
GALILEO I must tell you something, Andrea. Don't mention our ideas to
other people.
ANDREA GALILEO ANDREA GALILEO
Why not?
Our rulers have forbidden it.
But it's the truth.
Even so, they forbid it. And there's another reason. We still have no
proofs for what we know to be right. Eve the doctrine of the great
Copernicus is not yet proven. It only a hypothesis. Give me the lenses. ANDREA Half a scudo wasn't enough. I had to leave him my jacket. As a
pledge.
GALILEO How will you get through the winter without jacket?
(Pause. Galileo arranges the lenses on the sheet with the sketch)
ANDREA What's a hypothesis?
GALILEO It's when we consider something probable but have no facts. In the
face of the heavenly bodies we're like worms with dim eyes that see very little. The ancient doctrines that have been accepted for a thousand years are rickety. There's less solid timber in those immense edifices than in the props needed to keep them from collapsing.
Too many laws that explain too little, whereas new hypothesis has few laws that explain a great deal.
ANDREA But you've proved it all to me. I want to be a physicist too, Mr. Galilei. GALILEO Very sensible in view of all the problems remaining to be solved in our
field. (He has gone to the window and looked through the lenses. Mildly
interested] Take a look, Andrea.
ANDREA Holy Mary! Everything comes close. The bells of the campanile are
right here. I can even read the copper letters: GRACIA DEI. . GALILEO It'll get us five hundred scudi.
10
? 2
Galileo presents a new invention to the republic of Venice.
No one's virtue is complete: Great Galileo liked to eat. You will not resent, we hope The truth about his telescope.
The great arsenal of Venice near the harbor. Senators, headed by the 1'doge. On one side Galileo's friend Sagredo and Virginia Galilei, fifteen; Isbe is holding a velvet cushion on which lies a telescope about two feet ''long, encased in red leather. Galileo is standing on a dais. Behind him the tripod for the telescope; the lens grinder Federzoni is in charge
? GALILEO Your Excellency, august signoria! As professor of mathematics at your university in Padua and director of the great arsenal here in
Venice, I have always felt it incumbent upon me not only to fulfill my duties as a teacher but also to procure special advantages to the republic of V enice by means of useful inventions. With great satisfaction and in all due humility, I shall demonstrate and present to you today an entirely new instrument, my spyglass or telescope, manufactured in your world-famous great arsenal in accordance with the highest scientific and Christian principles, the fruit of seventeen years of your obedient servant's patient labors.
(Galileo leaves the dais and stands next to Sagredo)
(Applause, Galileo takes a bow)
GALILEO (softly to Sagredo) What a waste of time!
SAGREDO (softly) You'll be able to pay the butcher, old friend.
GALILEO Yes, they'll make money on it. (Makes another bow)
THE PROCURATOR (steps up on the dais) Your Excellency, august signoria! Once
again a glorious page in the great book of human accomplishments is being written in Venetian characters. (Polite applause) A scholar of world renown is presenting to you, and to you alone, a highly salable tube for you to manufacture and market at your pleasure. (Stronger applause) Has it occurred to you that in the event of war this instrument will enable us to recognize the nature and number of the enemy's ships at least two hours before they have a clear view of ours and, in full cognizance of his strength, decide whether to pursue, engage or withdraw? (Loud applause) And now, Your Excellency, august signoria, Mr. Galilei bids you accept this instrument of his invention, this evidence of his genius, from the hands of his charming daughter.
(Music. Virginia steps forward, bows, hands the telescope to the procurator. The doge and the senators mount the dais and look through the tube)
GALILEO (softly) I can't promise to go through with this farce. They think they're getting a profitable gadget, but it's much more than that. Last night I turned the tube on the moon.
SAGREDO What did you see?
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? GALILEO It has no light of its own.
SAGREDO What?
GALILEO I tell you, astronomy has been marking time for a thousand years for lack of a telescope.
SENATOR SAGREDO SENATOR
GALILEO SAGREDO GALILEO SENATOR
Mr. Galilei! You're wanted.
One sees too well with that thing. I'll have to warn my ladies to stop bathing on the roof.
Do you know what the Milky Way consists of? No.
I do.
A thing like that is worth its ten scudi, Mr. Galilei.
(Galileo bows)
VIRGINIA (takes Ludovico to her father) Ludovico wants to congratulate you,
father.
LUDOVICO (embarrassed] Congratulations, sir.
GALILEO I've improved on it.
LUDOVICO So I see, sir. You made the casing red. In Holland it was green. GALILEO (turns to Sagredo) I wonder if I couldn't prove a certain doctrine with
that thing. SAGREDO Watch your step!
THE PROCURATOR Your five hundred scudi are in the bag, Mr. Galilei. GALILEO (paying no attention to him) Of course, I'm always wary of rash
conclusions.
(The doge, a fat, modest man, has approached Galileo and is attempting, with clumsy dignity, to address him)
VIRGINIA LUDOVICO VIRGINIA LUDOVICO VIRGINIA LUDOVICO
Did I do it all right?
It seemed all right to me.
What's the matter?
Oh, nothing. A green casing might have done just as well.
I think they're all very pleased with father.
And I think I'm beginning to understand something about science.
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? 3
January 10, 1610: By means of the telescope Galileo discovers celestial phenomena which prove the Copernican system. Warned by his friend of the possible consequences of his investigations, Galileo affirms his faith in reason.
January ten, sixteen ten: Galileo Galilei abolishes heaven.
Galileo's study in Padua. Night. Galileo and Sagredo, both in heavy overcoats, at the telescope.
? SAGREDO (looking through the telescope, in an undertone) The edge of the crescent is quite irregular, rough and serrated. In the dark part near the luminous edge there are luminous points. They are emerging, one after another. From these points the light spreads out over wider and wider areas and finally merges with the larger luminous part.
GALILEO How do you account for those luminous points? SAGREDO It can't be.
GALILEO But it is. They're mountains.
SAGREDO On a star?
GALILEO Gigantic mountains. Their peaks are gilded by the rising sun while the surrounding slopes are still deep in darkness. You can see the light descending from the highest peaks into the valleys.
SAGREDO But that contradicts all the astronomy of two thousand years. GALILEO True. No mortal has ever seen what you are seeing, except me. You're
the second.
SAGREDO But the moon can't be another earth with mountains and valleys, any
more than the earth can be a planet.
GALILEO The moon can be an earth with mountains and valleys, and the earth can be a planet. Simply another heavenly body, one among thousands. Take another look. Is the dark part of the moon entirely dark?
SAGREDO No. When I look closely, I see a feeble gray light on it.
GALILEO SACREDO GALILEO SAGREDO
What can that light be? ?
It's from the earth.
Nonsense. How can the earth with its mountains and forests and
oceans--a cold body--give light?
GALILEO The same way the moon sheds light. Because both bodies are
illuminated by the sun, that's why they shed light. What the moon is to us we are to the moon. The moon sees us by turns as a crescent, as a half- circle, as full, and then not at all.
SAGREDO GALILEO SAGREDO
Then there's no difference between moon and earth? Apparently not.
Less than ten years ago a man was burned in Rome. His name was Giordano Bruno and he had said the same thing.
13
GALILEO I know. But we can see it. Keep your eyes to the tube. What you see is that there's no difference between heaven and earth. This is the tenth of January. Humanity notes in its diary: Heaven abolished.
SAGREDO It's terrifying.
GALILEO I've discovered something else. Perhaps something even more amazing.
MRS. SARTI (comes in) The procurator.
(The procurator rushes in)
THE PROCURATOR I apologize for the late hour. I'd be much obliged if we could talk privately.
GALILEO Mr. Sagredo can hear anything I can hear, Mr. Priuli.
THE PROCURATOR It might embarrass you to have the gentleman hear what has
happened. Unfortunately, it's something quite incredible.
GALILEO Mr. Sagredo is used to hearing incredible things in my presence.
THE PROCURATOR I wonder. (Pointing at the telescope) There it is, your splendid gadget.
You might as well throw it away. It's worthless, absolutely worthless. SAGREDO (who has been restlessly pacing the floor) What do you mean?
THE PROCURATOR Do you realize that this invention of yours, "the fruit of seventeen
years of patient labor," is for sale on every street corner in Italy for a couple of scudi? Made in Holland, I might add. At this very moment a Dutch freighter is unloading five hundred telescopes in the harbor.
GALILEO You don't say.
THE PROCURATOR Your equanimity, sir, is beyond me.
SAGREDO I fail to see what's troubling you. Let me tell you that just in these last few
days Mr. Galilei--with this very instrument--has made the most
revolutionary discoveries concerning heavenly bodies.
GALILEO (laughing) Have a look for yourself, Priuli.
THE PROCURATOR Let me tell you that after having Mr. Galilei's salary doubled on the
strength of this worthless gadget I'm quite satisfied with the discovery I've already made. It's sheer accident that when the gentlemen of the signoria first looked through your tube, confident of having acquired something for the republic that could be manufactured only here, they failed to see--seven times magnified--a common peddler on the next corner hawking that same tube for a song. (Galileo roars with laughter)
SAGREDO Dear Mr. Priuli, I may not be able to judge the instrument's value to the economy, but its value to philosophy is so enormous that . . .
THE PROCURATOR To philosophy! What business has Mr. Galilei, a mathematician, meddling with philosophy? Mr. Galilei, you once invented a very respectable pump for the city; your irrigation system functions. The weavers, too, are very pleased with your machine. How on earth could I have anticipated anything like this?
GALILEO Not so fast, Priuli. Sea routes are still long, unsafe and expensive. We lack a dependable clock in the sky. A guide to navigation. I have reason to believe that with the telescope we can very clearly perceive certain stars with very regular motions. New star charts, Mr. Priuli, could save the shipping interests millions of scudi.
THE PROCURATOR Forget it. I've heard more than enough. In return for my kindness you've made me the laughingstock of the city. I'll be remembered as the procurator who fell for a worthless telescope. You have every reason to laugh. You've got your five hundred scudi. But I'm telling you, and I speak as an honest man: This world makes me sick! (He leaves, banging the door behind him)
? 14
? GALILEO He's rather likable when he gets angry. Did you hear what he said; A world where you can't do business makes him sick.
SAGREDO Did you know about the Dutch instruments?
GALILEO Of course. From hearsay. But the one I made for those skinflints in the
signoria is twice as good. How can I do my work with the bailiff at the door? And Virginia will need her trousseau soon, she's not bright. Besides, I like to buy books, and not only about physics, and I like to eat well. I get my best ideas over a good meal. A rotten time to live in! They weren't paying me as much as the teamster who carts their wine barrels. Four cords of firewood for two courses in mathematics. I've wormed five hundred scudi out of them, but I've got debts, some of them twenty years old. Give me five years of leisure and I'll prove everything. Let me show you something else.
SAGREDO (hesitates to go to the telescope) I almost think I'm afraid, Galileo.
GALILEO I want to show you a milky-white patch of luminous mist in the galaxy.
Tell me what it's made of.
SAGREDO Why, stars, countless stars.
