No More Learning

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At which--somewhat predictably, given the circumstances--the great scholastic philosophers Albert and Henry declared Jacob their master "because you have spoken the praise of Mary better than we did. is we admit. "136
Under such circumstances, even the language of scripture might come to seem inadequate. e great Franciscan Doctor Seraphicus Bonaventure of Bagnoreg- gio (d. 1274) put the mystery this way in the rst of the sermons that he preached for the Feast of the Annunciation:
Because the mystery of the incarnation of the Lord is so secret and deep that no understanding is able to seize it, no tongue able to unfold it, the Holy Spirit, con- descending to human weakness, wished that it be described by many metaphors (metaphoris), by which as if led by the hand, we might come to some knowledge of it. For, according to the Apostle [Romans 1:20], "the invisible things of God are made comprehensible through those visible things that have been made. "137
"A rod shall come forth out of the root of Jesse, and a ower shall rise up out of his root, and the Spirit of the Lord shall rest upon him" (Isaiah 11:1); " e Lord will give goodness, and our earth shall yield her fruit" (Psalm 84:13); "He who created me rested in my tabernacle" (Ecclesiasticus 24:12). According to Bonaventure, all of these visible things (root, rod, and ower; the earth and her fruit; the tabernacle in which the Creator rested) were ways of attempting to express the same incomprehensible mystery: how the immensity of the eternal majesty con ned itself in Mary's womb. As the Mother of God Mary was the temple in which "the whole Divinity dwelt corporeally" (cf. Malachi 3:1). 138 She was the house of David in which "the true David, Christ, dwelt and dedicated to himself and blessed for all eternity" (cf. 2 Kings [Samuel] 7:29). 139 And she was the ark of the covenant in which "all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge are hidden because in her she contained the esh of Christ" (cf. 2 Chronicles 5:8). 140 Indeed, as Bonaventure understood it, without Mary, that "wonderful vessel, the work of the Most High" (Ecclesiasticus 43:2), the whole universe would be deformed: "For if you take the Mother of God from the world, in consequence you take the incarnate Word, without which the deformity of sinning and the error of sinners would remain. "141
Nor was it only Mary whom Divinity had infused. Isaiah heard the seraphs sur- rounding the throne of the Lord calling, " e whole earth is lled with his glory" (Isaiah 6:3), which is to say, the humanity of the Son of God " lled the most sacred womb of the Virgin and in consequence the whole universe. . . . [and] that plenitude which was in the Virgin Mary over owed into the whole Church. "142 Filling the Virgin's womb, God the Creator over owed in his goodness to su use
the whole of creation, now transformed in both grace and meaning. "He who created me rested in my tabernacle" (Ecclesiasticus 24:12), that is, Bonaventure explained, he who was Creator was also the inhabitant of that which he had cre- ated because he was both God and man, Alpha and Omega. Inhabiting the Vir- gin corporeally, he likewise rested sacramentally in the tabernacle of the militant Church (that is, the Church on earth), while at the same time resting spiritually in the tabernacle of the faithful soul as well as sempiternally in the tabernacle of the celestial court. " us," Bonaventure argued, "what is said [in this text] is true in every mode, namely literally, allegorically, morally, and anagogically. "143
Full of Grace
It would be hard to imagine--would it not? --how such an indwelling could not have had some e ect on the Virgin, other than her giving birth, although many since the sixteenth century have insisted that it did not, that Mary was "just a housewife" who was obedient to God. Perhaps the most contested e ect of this indwelling since the mid-nineteenth century, and thus in the modern historiog- raphy of her cult, has been her preservation whether before or a er her concep- tion from sin. 144 For Mary's medieval devotees, however, the e ects included not only her spiritual, but also her intellectual state, o en to what some would later ridicule as a preposterous extent. Never mind (although the debate was a erce one) whether she was conceived without original sin or only sancti ed in her mother's womb, what did the Virgin in whom the Creator of all things had made his dwelling know? According to the thirteenth-century Mariale, sive CCXXX quaestiones super Evangelium of Pseudo-Albert the Great, everything: Mary had knowledge of all of the mechanical arts, especially those having to do with weav- ing, and all of the liberal arts, including those of the trivium (grammar, rheto- ric, dialectic) along with civil and canon law, physics and medicine, and those of the quadrivium (music, astronomy, arithmetic, and geometry), not to mention theology and all the matter of Peter Lombard's Sentences, the textbook of the Scholastics. 145 As Hilda Graef writing in the mid-twentieth century somewhat dismissively commented, "had the author lived in our own time he no doubt would have added aeronautics and nuclear physics"--and why not? 146 Moreover, Pseudo-Albert would insist, Mary had not only perfect knowledge of the Incar- nation "through grace and singular experience," but also perfect knowledge of the Trinity "without mediation," as well as knowledge of her own predestina- tion; of souls and spirits, angels, and demons; of the scriptures, what ought to be done and what ought to be contemplated; of all creatures "through nature,
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grace, and contemplation"; and of "evening and morning," that is, rst and last things. Indeed, Pseudo-Albert concluded, "there was nothing of which she was ignorant," whether of action or contemplation, by nature or grace; rather, her knowledge of all things was perfectly complete. 147
e German poet Heinrich von Mu? geln (d. 1369) would concur. In his Der meide kranz ( e Virgin's garland), the seven liberal arts plus Philosophy, Medicine, Alchemy, Metaphysics, and eology meet at the court of Emperor Charles IV (d. 1378) in Prague to debate which among them is to hold the place of honor as a jewel in Mary's crown. As Charles judges the case, eology is nec- essarily the victor, for her truth surpasses that of all of the other arts. Philosophy "speaks of corruption and generation and the rightful operations of Nature," but eology speaks of the one who rules over and nourishes Nature. Grammar "uses words and teaches the parts of speech," but she forgets that Word "which became esh in the maiden and which never separates itself from the divine essence. " Arithmetic counts and measures everything from the sands of the sea to the stars of heaven, but eology describes "how the king allowed himself to receive num- berless wounds for our sake. " Music "lured God into the depths of the heart" so that he "took on humanity from the maiden," but she did not master that tune that was "composed on the cross by the child of the maiden and the Word of God. " Astronomy teaches the movement of the stars and what events will hap- pen in the future: "For that reason," she argues, "I may stand in the crown of the Virgin who spun three persons out of one Word, painlessly; the rays of the sun did not break her glass. " But eology teaches about him "who has embedded the stars into the grail of heaven and who may pull them down again. "148 And so forth. All twelve arts in the end are nevertheless admitted to adorn the Virgin's garland, for each, while itself inadequate to the task of describing her in full, contributes to the understanding and praise of the Virgin, she who gave birth to the Truth surpassing all human arts.
While full of the knowledge of the Creator and his creation, Mary was like- wise, as the angel had put it, "full of grace," a fullness only intensi ed by the fact that "the Lord [was with her]. " All virtues, Pseudo-Albert would contend, were embodied in her--faith, hope, charity, justice, obedience, worship, penitence, prudence, fortitude, perseverance, temperance, chastity, sobriety, modesty-- along with the gi s of the Holy Spirit (Isaiah 11:2-3), the Beatitudes (Matthew 5:3-11), and the fruits of the Spirit (Galatians 5:22-23). 149 She had the graces of healing, working miracles, prophecy, discernment of spirits, tongues, and the interpretation of scriptures (1 Corinthians 12:9-10). And she was an apostle, a prophetess, an evangelist, and a pastor (Ephesians 4:11). 150 She also, of course, had a perfect body, perfect complexion (warm and dry), and perfect health, and,
therefore--Pseudo-Albert reasoned according to contemporary physiologi- cal theory--black eyes and black hair. 151 At her death, she was (as the Church sings) "exalted above all the choirs of the angels," because she possessed all the properties of all the hierarchies of the angels. Likewise, she was "blessed among women" because she possessed "in the highest degree all singular blessings singu- larly, and all universal blessings universally," including the blessings of Adam and Eve, of Abraham on Isaac, of Jacob's blessings on his sons, and Balaam's blessings on Israel. 152 In short, as Albert the Great's fellow Dominican omas Aquinas would put it in his commentary on the angelic salutation, the Virgin "surpasses the angels in her fullness of grace, which is greater in her than in any angel. . . . Grace lled her soul . . . Grace over owed into her body [ tting it for the con- ception of God's Son]. . . . [And] grace over ows from her onto all mankind. "153
Leaving to one side later anxieties about how far one could or should go in praising the Virgin, perhaps we may now begin to appreciate how, from the per- spective of her high and late medieval devotees, even hyperbole might come to seem inadequate. As the thirteenth-century Franciscan Conrad of Saxony put it in his popular meditation on the angel's greeting:
e grace of which [Mary] was full was certainly immense. An immense vessel (vas) cannot be full, unless that is also immense wherewith it is lled. Mary was a vessel beyond measure (vas immensissimum), since she could contain Him who is greater than the Heavens. Who is greater than the Heavens? Without doubt He of whom Solomon says: "If heaven and the heaven of heavens cannot contain thee, how much less this house which I have built? " (3 Kings 8:27). It was not indeed the house which Solomon built, but she who is signi ed by that house, which could contain God (sed domus per illam signi cata Deum capere potuit). You, therefore, O most immeasurable Mary (immensissima Maria), are more capacious than the Heavens, because "he whom the Heavens cannot contain was carried in your womb. "154 You are more capacious than the world, because He whom the whole world cannot contain, "being made man, was enclosed in you. "155 If Mary's womb then had such immensity, how much more had her mind? And if so immense a capacity was full of grace, it was tting that that grace which could ll so great a capacity, should also be immense. Who can measure the immen- sity of Mary? . . . . Mary is a heaven, as much because she abounded in heavenly purity, heavenly light, and other heavenly virtues, as because she was the most high throne of God. . . . Mary was also the earth which brought forth for us that fruit of which the same Prophet says: " e earth has given its fruits" (Psalm 66:7). Mary is also an abyss in goodness and deepest mercy; whence she obtains for us the mercy of her Son, as it were "an abyss calling upon an abyss" (Psalm 41:8). 156
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For Conrad and, indeed, the majority of his contemporaries, it was inconceivable that one might praise Mary "too much," as if it were even possible to praise her, like God to whom she had given birth, enough. Never mind how (although, of course, they were certain that she had been a virgin), Mary had carried in her body the Author of the World. To minimize Mary would be to suggest that one might minimize God.
Of course Mary was "full of grace"; of course she enjoyed all of the gi s of the Holy Spirit; of course she was lled with nine plenitudes--the over owing of grace, the illumination of wisdom, the fruits and riches of a good life, the anoint- ing of mercy, the fecundity of the divine o spring, the perfection of the universal Church, the fragrant sprinkling of sweetly scented fame, the re ection of the divine glory, and the joy of eternal happiness--surpassing even the plenitudes of the nine orders of angels. 157 "She alone," as Conrad put it, "above all creatures was in the body most familiar with God. For, what was never granted to any other creature, nor will ever be granted again in eternity, she bore God for nine months in her womb, she nourished God 'from her breasts full of heaven,' for many years she sweetly brought up our Lord. "158 "She, who is our moon and our lamp, was illuminated by the Lord," her mind lled with the light of wisdom before she conceived him, her body with Wisdom a er her consent. 159 Her body was the house lled with the majesty of the Incarnate Word on the throne of whose mind the Lord sits (cf. Isaiah 6:1); therefore, Conrad explained, "it is said in the third book of Kings (8:11): ' e glory of the Lord had lled the house of the Lord. ' "160
And who is this Lord who is "with [her]"? Generally speaking (generaliter), he is the "Lord of all creatures," "of all things visible and invisible," who has made Mary "the universal Lady of all things--the Lady, I say, of heaven and the Lady of the world. "161 More speci cally (specialiter), he is a "most loving, most just, most sure, and most renowned Lord" of his rational creatures, loving in his in nite mercy, just in his judgments and equity, sure in his delity, renowned over all the earth. 162 Most particularly (singulariter), however, he is the Lord who inhabits the singular court of Mary's body and soul, in relation to whom Mary is at once Daughter of the Lord Father, Mother of the Lord Son, Bride of the Lord Holy Spirit, and Handmaid of the Lord ree-and-One. 163 As such, she is accordingly the dawn (aurora) irradiated by the Eternal Sun and preparing for his rising (Song of Songs 6:9); the rod (virga) smoking with incense (Song of Songs 3:6), owering with virtues (Numbers 17:8), golden to the perfect and contemplative (Esther 15:15), and iron to demons and sinners (Psalm 2:9), from which the ower foreseen by Isaiah (11:1) sprouted; and the Queen (regina) of the Eternal King, entering into his glory (3 Kings 10:1-2). "Behold, therefore," Conrad concluded, "O most sweet Virgin Mary; behold, truly 'the Lord is with
you,' as the sun is with the dawn going before it, as the ower is with the owering rod, as the king is with the queen entering in. "164 Mary, in other words, de nes (encompasses, makes visible) God because it is she--as Daughter, Mother, Bride, Handmaid, Dawn, Rod, and Queen--whom he is with.
Aves in the Psalms
But how does one praise the human woman in whom Divinity dwelt? (It is impos- sible to overstress how mind-boggling this question is, banal as the idea of the Incarnation has become some two thousand years a er the conception and birth of the one whom Christians call Lord. ) According to Mary's medieval devotees, faute de mieux with a list, ideally one prefacing every attribute or title--just as the angel had--with "Hail! " Such lists are perhaps most familiar to more recent Chris- tians in the form of devotions like the Litany of Loreto, formally approved by Pope Sixtus V in 1587 but well attested in older versions from the twel h century at the latest, when the recitation of the Ave Maria was already gaining in popularity, as liturgical historian G. G. Meersseman has shown. 165 Even by the twel h century, however, this practice of hailing Mary in all her attributes and titles was centuries old, going back to the very origins of the formal cult of the Virgin in the East fol- lowing Mary's o cial recognition at the council of Ephesus in 431 as eotokos or "Mother of God. "166 Perhaps the most telling--certainly the most liturgically resonant--product of this recognition was the magni cent twenty-four-strophe hymn in Greek famously sung standing ("Akathistos") over the course of single night in thanksgiving for the deliverance of the city of Constantinople from its Avar and Persian besiegers in August 626. 167 By the ninth century, as Meersseman has shown, the "Akathistos" hymn with its twelve groups of twelve greetings to the Virgin, each punctuated by the paradoxical refrain "Ave, sponsa insponsata" (Hail, bride unwedded), had been translated into Latin, most likely by the Greek Christophorus I, bishop of Venice under the Franks (803-807). 168 At about the same time, similar greeting hymns began to be composed in the West, including the much-loved "Ave maris stella" (Hail, star of the sea), subsequently adopted as the hymn for Vespers in the O ce of the Virgin. 169 In the tenth century, such com- positions o en took the form of meditations on the various titles of the Virgin arranged according to the letters of the alphabet: "Auroram. . . . Beatam domum. . . . Columbam. . . . David praecelso parientem lium. . . . Egressa virga Jesse de radice est. . . . "170 From the twel h century, however, it became the custom to compose whole "psalters" of Aves, each verse recalling a corresponding verse or image from the Psalms. 171 While such "Mary-psalters" have been o en invoked as precursors to
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the later fourteenth- and eenth-century recitation of the rosary, particularly its numbering of Aves in imitation of the Psalms, what is surely these psalters' most striking characteristic is their painstaking e ort--psalm by psalm--to salute the Virgin in all her titular abundance. 172
To take but one example: the earliest as well as one of the most popular of these psalters would appear to come from the Cistercian monastery of Pontigny, although at least one early thirteenth-century manuscript (London, British Library, Arundel 157, fols. 146-159) attributes it to Anselm of Canterbury. 173 e Arundel version includes, among others, the following preparatory prayer sug- gesting the psalter's purpose:
Suscipe, regina celi, que mente deuota Cantica de psalmis o ero sumpta sacris. Cumque salutaris in eis et magni caris Pauperis atque mei sis memor et miseri.
Queen of heaven, accept these songs
that devoted I o er om the sacred psalms.
And when in them you are saluted and magni ed, be mindful of me, miserable and poor. 174
e psalter itself consists of 150 salutations, from "Ave, porta paradysi" (Hail, gate of paradise) (Psalm 1) to "Ave, li; salve, mater" (Hail, son; greetings, mother) (Psalm 150), including "Ave, templum sanctum dei" (Hail, holy temple of God) (Psalm 5), "Ave, lucerna seculi" (Hail, lamp of the age) (Psalm 10), "Ave, virgo pulchra tota" (Hail, all beautiful virgin) (Psalm 25), "Ave, domus uberta- tis" (Hail, house of plenty) (Psalm 35), "Ave, simplex ut columba" (Hail, simple as a dove) (Psalm 54), "Ave, terra ferens fructum" (Hail, earth bearing fruit) (Psalm 66), "Ave, prima columpnarum" (Hail, rst of columns) (Psalm 74), "Ave pulchra sicut luna" (Hail, beautiful as the moon) (Psalm 80), "Ave, ancilla domini" (Hail, handmaid of the Lord) (Psalm 85), "Ave, virgo, celi porta" (Hail, virgin, gate of heaven) (Psalm 96), "Ave, ovis centesima" (Hail, one hundredth sheep) (Psalm 99), "Ave, virga iustitie" (Hail, rod of justice) (Psalm 109)--and so on, from psalm to psalm, with no apparent logic other than that of pairing each salutation with a verse from the Psalms. e point is not, however, as in the meditations that would later come to be associated with the various decades of the rosary, to recall particular events in Mary's or her Son's life, but rather, as the prefatory prayer suggests, to salute and magnify the Virgin through the Psalms. If there is a fullness here (which there most de nitely is), it is not that of
narrative, but rather that of praise, the Psalms that God so loved to hear provid- ing the structure for praising his Mother, and vice versa, the Aves giving occa- sion for praising God. e rst few verses may give us a taste of the way in which this interwoven praise works. 175
e psalter begins:
Et erit tanquam lingnum (sic) quod plantatum est, secus decursus aquarum quod fructum suum dabit in tempore suo. (Psalm 1:3)
And he [or she] will be like a tree (lignum) that is planted by running waters which will give its uit (fructum) in its time.
e accompanying Ave provides, as it were, the gloss:
Aue porta paradysi lignum uite quod amisi.
Per te michi iam dulcessit, et salutis fructus crescit.
Gate of paradise, tree (lignum) of life that I have lost.
rough you for me already the uit (fructus) of salvation becomes sweet
and grows.
While the rhyme scheme of the Ave emphasizes the loss of paradise (paradysi/ amisi) as against the increase of sweetness (dulcescit/crescit), the pairing with the psalm verse focuses the attention on the tree and its fruit: Christ is, of course, the fruit that Mary bore. Accordingly, it is she who is the Tree of Life on which the fruit ripened, an image recalling at once the Tree of Life in the garden of paradise (Genesis 2:9) and the Cross-Tree from which Christ, the fruit of salvation, hung. As Conrad of Saxony put it, citing Revelation 22:2: " e tree of life (lignum vitae) is Mary, the mother of life; or the tree of life is the tree of the Cross; or else the tree is Jesus Christ, the author of life, who is also the fruit of life. "176 According to Richard of Saint-Laurent, the running waters by which the tree is planted may be read as, among other things, streams of scripture, wisdom, and grace that help ripen the fruit, that is, make it available to humankind. 177
e psalm admonishes:
Apprehendite disciplinam nequando irascatur dominus et pereatis de uia iusta. (Psalm 2:12)
Embrace discipline (disciplinam) lest the Lord be angry (irascatur) and you perish om the just way (uia).
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Aue morum disciplina, uita uia, lux diuina. Iram dei mitigasti quando Christum generasti.
Hail, discipline (disciplina) of customs, way (uia) of life, light divine. You so ened the anger (iram) of God when you gave birth to Christ.
Here the parallels are between Mary's discipline in its divine inspiration (disci- plina/divina) and between her act of generation and the so ening of God's anger (mitigasti/generasti). Somewhat surprisingly, Mary, rather than Christ, is here "the way" because it is she who mitigated God's anger against sinners through her teaching and habits; likewise, she shows sinners the way to the path of justice by giving birth to God's Son.
e one praying cries out:
Voce mea ad dominum clamaui et exaudiuit me de monte sancto suo. (Psalm 3:5)
I have cried (clamaui) to the Lord with my voice and he heard (exaudiuit) me om his holy mountain (de monte).
And the Virgin hears:
Aue uirgo cuius clamor nostri fuit pius amor.
Qui de monte exauditur uerbum carni cum unitur.
Hail, virgin, whose shout (clamor) was pious love for us,
Which was heard (exauditur) om the mountain (de monte) when the
Word was joined to esh.
According to Conrad, Mary is the "holy mountain" because it is she from whom the stone, Christ, was cut without hands (cf. Daniel 2:45), and because she is lo y in her life and manners and excellent in her merits. 178 Her shout (clamor) of love (amor) which the Lord heard (exauditur) from his mountain was the con- sent that she gave to the angel's words: "Let it be to me according to your word" (Luke 1:38), at which the Word became esh (unitur) in her womb. Likewise, the Ave suggests, she is a mountain for others from which they may li their voices to God.
e psalmist prays:
Signatum est super nos lumen uultus tui domine; dedisti leticiam in corde meo. (Psalm 4:7)
Lord, let the light of your face (uultus tui) set its mark (signatum est) upon us; you gave me gladness in my heart.
On which the Ave re ects:
Aue cuius refulgentem splendor patris fecit mentem. De splendore reuultus tui fac signentur serui tui.
Hail, the one whose mind the splendor of the Father made to re ect
[a shining light].
Let your servants be marked (signentur) with the splendor of your counte-
nance (vultus tui).
Mary's mind (mentem) shone with a great splendor (refulgentem) because it was there that the Lord rested on his throne. 179 Indeed, as Conrad explained, citing Bernard of Clairvaux: "Heavenly Wisdom built for himself a house in Mary: for he so lled her mind that from the very fullness of her mind her esh became fecund, and the Virgin by a singular grace brought forth that same Wisdom, covered with a garb of esh, whom she had rst conceived in her mind. "180 Because, moreover, her mind was so marked by her contempla- tion of God, her face shone in likeness to her Son's, whose mirror she was both in spirit and in esh. 181 A er the Son, indeed, she was the true light (as Richard put it) "illuminating all those who come into the world. "182 Likewise, her servants are marked by her and lled with joy when "irradiated by her life and example" and "illuminated by her patronage and mercy," they are incited to good. 183
e psalmist rejoices:
Introibo in domum tuam domine; adorabo ad templum sanctum tuum et con- tebor nomini tuo. (Psalm 5:8, with changes)
I will enter into your house, O Lord; I will worship in your holy temple (templum sanctum) and I will confess your name.
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Aue templum sanctum dei ad quod currunt omnes rei. Vt ab hoste liberentur a quo capti detinentur.
Hail, holy temple (templum sanctum) of God, to which sinners run, at they may be liberated om the enemy by whom, taken captive, they
have been detained.
As Bonaventure put it, Mary's womb was the temple "made by the power of the Father, adorned by the wisdom of the Son, dedicated by the grace of the Holy Spirit, and lled with the presence of the Incarnate Word. "184 Jacobus would agree: the Father founded the temple, the Holy Spirit consecrated it, and the Son inhabited it. Accordingly, it--that is, Mary--is full in four ways: her womb for receiving God in the esh; her intellect for receiving the understanding of the divine light directly, not just through God's works; her a ect for hav- ing compassion on sinners "for whom she obtains God's mercy," the tempted "whom she protects from the Devil," and those leaving this world "whom she leads with her hands into heaven"; and her merit for assisting all those in the world and at judgment. 185 Likewise, for Richard of Saint-Laurent: "Mary is the temple because it is through her that we o er prayers to Christ. "186 e Ave verse likewise recalls the medieval legal tradition of sanctuary, whereby those who took refuge in a church would be safe from arrest, as well as the Virgin's fabled intervention on behalf of those who sought her protection from their captivity to the devil and sin, most notably, eophilus. 187 As the temple of God, that is, his habitation, Mary is also the house built by Wisdom (Proverbs 9:1), founded, constructed, and stabilized by the three Persons of the Trinity. 188 It is there that "I will confess your name," because it was through Mary that God as Trinity revealed himself to the world. Accordingly, as Richard put it, "the heart of the Virgin may be rightly called the tabernacle and triclinium of the whole Trinity," because the whole Trinity rested in her soul while he who was wandering as a soldier in the world rested in her esh: "For Christ about to come forth to ght against the world and the Devil armed himself in the womb of the Virgin, putting on poverty against pride and virgin esh like a shield against luxury and excess. "189
And so forth, as the titles of the individual psalms put it, in nem, "to the end.
" Even though we are only to stanza ve, the reader is doubtless already wondering how much longer such an exhaustive itemization could possibly go on. And yet, even if we were to follow the psalter through its remaining 145 stanzas all the
way to the end, this is not to say that the itemizing of Mary's attributes would be in any way complete. Indeed, other psalters would emphasize wholly other verses of the Psalms and consequently di erent images and words. While certain themes would recur (for example, Mary as Tree of Life, temple, and house of God), no two psalters invoke exactly the same set of attributes or give each the same meaning. For the author of the psalter from Pontigny, for example, Psalm 2 was an occasion for meditating on the Virgin's discipline as the way of life (Psalm 2:12), but for archbishop of Canterbury Stephen Langton (d. 1228), it recalled rather the grumbling of the nations (gentes emuerunt) against the one to whom her body had given birth (Psalm 2:1). 190 Like the author from Pontigny, Stephen's later successor as archbishop Saint Edmund of Abingdon (d. 1242) would invoke the Virgin as "salvi c discipline" (disciplina salutaris) in his verse for Psalm 2, but for Psalm 3, he would focus on her as the "healing of our disease" (nostri salus morbi) and on the blessing (benedictio) poured out through her over the people (cf. Psalm 3:3, 9) rather than on her shout. 191 As her medieval devotees read them, the Psalms, like the Virgin herself, were inexhaustible, every word a hint as to her praise.
And yet, remarkably, for some it would seem that even the Psalms were not enough. Whether out of frustration or simply in an attempt to expand even further the scope of their salutations, other poets, for example, the Benedictine abbot Engelbert of Admont (d. 1331) and the Franciscan poet and former schoolmaster Walter of Wimborne, would dispense with the formal psalm structure altogether, retaining only (if that) the number of the psalms. For Engelbert, Mary was preeminently the rose, every stanza of his psalter beginning with the same salutation: "Ave, rosa. " But how many di erent roses he invokes!
Ave, rosa, os aestive, O Maria, lucis vivae suave habitaculum . . .
Hail, rose, ower of summer, O Mary, sweet habitation of the living light!
Ave, rosa non vulgaris, disciplinae puellaris exemplum et regula . . .
Hail, rose uncommon, example and rule of maidenly discipline!
Ave, rosa verni roris, te divini ros amoris totam sic roraverat . . .
Hail, rose of vernal dew, the dew of divine love wholly you bedewed!
Ave, rosa paradisi, per quam morbi sunt elisi. . . .
Hail, rose of paradise, through whom all disease is crushed!
Ave, rosa sola potis, ferre vim rhinocerotis et invictum capere . . .
Hail, rose alone able to bear the strength of the unicorn and to capture the unconquered one! 192
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For Walter, in contrast, like Richard of Saint-Laurent on whom he seems to have depended for many of his images, it is di cult to say what the Virgin was not:
Hail, virgin, mother of Christ,
you who by your modesty merited
to be called phoenix of virgins;
hail, virgin, whose fruit
gave to us the end of sorrow and
the limit of lamentation.
Hail, beautiful virgin,
for whose praise neither prose
nor meter su ces;
hail, virgin, turning-post (meta) of evil,
vein of life, through whom the death (theta) of foul death is accomplished.
Hail, glorious virgin,
you who are the comment and gloss
of prophetic scripture,
whose gloss lays bare
that which is veiled
by the hard shell of the letter.
Hail, virgin, key of heaven,
hail, new ship weighed down
with novel wares,
through whom on full sails
is brought the full light from heaven
to the blind and wandering.
Hail, maidenly gem,
hail, bright star of the sea,
hail, treasure-chest of the divinity,
hail, torch and lantern
whom the supernal light sets light, rebrand of eternal light.
Hail, virgin, whose womb,
diligently sealed (sigillatus),
swelled with a new growth;
without pain or torment,
the splendor and gure of the Father
wished to be born from you.
Hail, virgin, room (zeta) of the Word, chastely pregnant by chaste breath,
not impure seed;
to you worthily we o er odes,
you who knot God with mud,
and mother with virgin.
Hail, virgin, cell of the Word,
concealing the light-beam of divinity under a cloud of esh;
hail, virgin, medicine-chest of God, through whom the clouded, bleary, blind mind receives its salve.
Hail, virgin, abyss of honey,
you who drive far away the ancient gall of death and sorrow,
you who with the needle of providence joined God with mud
and the lowest with the highest.
Hail, virgin, saw of death,
whose womb is a casket
of celestial incense;
hail, virgin, whom the power
of the bountiful spirit made sacred, fortunate, and fertile. 193
"Hail, gracious virgin. . . . Hail, sweetness of the mind. . . . Hail, incense of heaven . . . Hail, shield of sinners . . . Hail, cloud shot through with the ames of Phoebus and adorned with the rainbow of divinity. . . . Hail! " And so on for 164 Victorine stanzas, through metaphors even Richard had not explored. 194
"And the virgin's name was Mary" (Luke 1:27)
How, in the end, does one describe the indescribable? Perhaps, as Walter himself suggested at the outset of the second of his great e orts to describe the Virgin (Marie Carmina), one cannot: even if the whole of creation were transformed into pens, parchment, and ink and all its creatures into scribes, one could not hope to praise adequately even the least of the virtues of the one who contained
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the uncontainable in her womb. 195 Her very existence was (and, for the faithful, still is) a paradox, exceeding the capacity of human reason to comprehend. For all the metaphors that one might invoke to describe her (and they were, as we have seen, legion), nothing in truth, or so her medieval devotees insisted, was remotely like her, not the heavens or the earth, not the sun or the moon, not the garden enclosed or the litter of Solomon, not the temple or the ark, not the jewel, gate, ship, house, city, elephant, or dove--for, a er all, she alone of all his creatures had given birth to God. No list of attributes, unless itself in nite, could encompass divinity--and yet, mind-bogglingly, Mary had. As Anselm had put it: "Nothing equals Mary, nothing but God is greater than Mary. " What mere words could one use to describe the one in whom the Word had dwelled? All of them? None of them? Or perhaps, paradoxically--as Walter himself even- tually realized--there was only one: "Mary. " In Walter's words: "All other praise is exiguous. "196
Maria: this--according to the Vulgate tradition on which medieval European Christians depended--was the name of the virgin to whom the angel was sent (Luke 1:27), the name given to her by God as recorded by the evangelist. 197 "Ave Maria": what more needed to be said? "Your name," argued Richard of Saint-Laurent, citing the Song of Songs (1:2),
"is as oil poured out; therefore, the young maidens loved you" exceedingly. Rightly is this name "Maria" compared to oil: because above all the names of the saints this name, a er the name of the Son, refreshes the tired, strengthens the weak, gives light to the blind, penetrates the hard [of heart], restores the weary, anoints the struggling, rots the yoke of the Devil, and oats above all names just as oil above all other liquids. For the whole Trinity gave to her this name that is above all other names a er the name of her Son, that in her name every knee should bend . . . in heaven, earth, and hell; and that every tongue should confess the grace, glory, and virtue of this most holy name (cf. Philippians 2:10-11). For there is no more powerful aid in any other name a er the name of the Son, nor is there any name under heaven given to human beings a er the sweet name of Jesus from which so great a salvation is poured out to humankind (cf. Acts 4:12). 198
Never mind the Virgin's various titles, everything that one needed to know in order to praise her could be learned simply from her name--or so the Franciscan Bernardino de Busti (d. 1513) would argue in his vast but o -printed Mariale of sixty-three sermons in twelve parts, six of which sermons he dedicated to elu- cidating the mysteries of "M. A. R. I. A. "199 In Bernardino's reading, although the
immensity of Mary's glory exceeds the capacity of all human words to express,200 so lled with meaning is her name that even the very shapes of the individual letters are signs pointing Christians to her virtues: "M" with its three "I's" joined into one is for her faith in the Trinity. "A" with its top open and curved to the le is for her hope in adversity. "R" with its two turnings is for her love of God and her neighbor. "I" in its simplicity is for her humility. And "A," again with its open curve to the le , is for her largess. 201
Nor, as Bernardino would have it, was it only Mary's virtues that the letters of her name could reveal, in so many ways and through so many gures did they speak of her glories. Simply to give the outlines of this literal multiplic- ity took Bernardino nearly y double-columned pages in the 1511 black-letter edition of his work, over sixty in the 1588 edition printed in Roman type. Like Richard of Saint-Laurent, Bernardino read Mary's name as a veritable treasury of signi cations, she herself having been lled with him in whom were hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge (Colossians 2:3). 202 And why not? A er all, as "Jerome, Ambrose, Bernard, Anselm, and Bartholomeus of Pisa" all attest (or so Bernardino argued), this was the name her Son gave to her, the name by which the angel greeted her at the Incarnation of the Word, about which the psalmist rightly cries: "How admirable is your name in the whole earth! " (Psalm 8:2), and Mary herself may be heard to say in the words of the prophet Malachi (1:11): "From the rising of the sun even to its going down, my name is great among the peoples and in every place. "203 us buttressed by scripture on the one hand and learned authorities on the other, who would not be embold- ened (or, at the very least, curious) to open her name and discover the many treasures contained therein?
Appropriatively (quae dicitur appropriationis), or so Bernardino explained, "M" is for pearl (margarita) because pearls staunch the ow of blood and strengthen the heart; likewise, Mary through the grace which she pours out on her lovers has the virtue of staunching the ow of sin. "A" is for diamond (adamas) because it is the gemstone of reconciliation and love, and Mary reconciles the human race with God and establishes them in love. "R" is for ruby (rubinus) because it has the virtue of making its wearers glad; the gracious Virgin makes those devoted to her happy. "I" is for jasper (iaspis) because it pro- tects against harm; likewise, the Virgin protects those who pray to her against all evils and dangers. "A" is for allectorius, a gem found in the maw of a cock, because it brings honors and fortune; Mary brings her devotees great good for- tune, for as "Bernard" (actually the Carolingian monk Paschasius Radbertus) put it, "there is nothing of virtue, nothing of splendor, nothing of glory with which she does not shine. "204
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In similar fashion, according to Bernardino, but on a di erent level, guratively (quae dicitur gurationis), the letters of Mary's name point to the various women mentioned in the scriptures whose lives pre gured hers. "M" is for Michal, the wife of David, king and prophet, between whom and Abner there could be no friendship unless Abner sent her to the king (2 Kings [Samuel] 3); likewise, there could be no friendship between her Son and humankind until the Virgin was born into the world. "A" signi es Abigail, also the wife of David, who pleaded on behalf of her husband Nabal that David not wreak his vengeance upon him (1 Kings [Samuel] 25); in the same way, Mary goes out to meet God adorned with all her virtues so as to turn his wrath away from humankind. "R" denotes Rachel, the wife of Jacob, who bore Joseph, whose name mean "savior" (Genesis 30); Mary bore Christ, the Savior of the world. "I" indicates Judith, who killed Holofernes (Judith 13); likewise, Mary through the merit of her humble virginity killed Lucifer, prince of demons, by crushing his power. "A" is for Abishag, the Sunamite chosen over all the daughters of Israel to attend King David in his old age (3 Kings 1:1-4); in the same way, Mary was chosen over all other women to minister to the heavenly king (Ecclesiasticus 24:14). 205
Again, as Bernardino would have it, on yet another level, signi cantly (quae dicitur signi cationis), the letters of Mary's name point to her various roles in relation to humanity and God. Mary is a mediator (mediatrix) because she mediates between God and humankind, Christ and the Church, the three Persons of the Trinity and the three states of humanity (virgins, continent, and married), reconciling sinners to God, interceding for them daily and commu- nicating between those who are still in the world and the saints who are already on the way to heaven. Likewise, she is her devotees' helper (auxiliatrix); their renewer, restorer, and reconciler (restauratrix, reparatrix, reconciliatrix); their illuminator (illuminatrix), and their advocate (advocata). 206 Yet again, she is the Mother of all things (mater universorum), the of the treasury of God (arca thesaurorum Dei), the Queen of heaven and earth (regina celorum et totius orbis), the Empress of heaven and earth (imperatrix celi et terra), and the Augusta of the whole world (augusta totius orbis). 207 In her prerogatives, she is the hand of God (manus Dei), ve- ngered, rounded, golden, and hyacinth; the bee of God (apis Dei) feeding on the dew of heaven and giving birth to the sweetness of paradise; the rule of life for everyone living (regula omnium viven- tium); the urn of God (ydria Dei); the almond and celestial tree (amygdala, arbor celestis). 208 And she is the mother of mercy (mater misericordiae), the aqueduct (aqueductus) owing out of paradise (Ecclesiasticus 24:41), the earth besprinkled with celestial dew (rore perfusa) giving forth plants (Deuteronomy
32:2), the door (ianua) and gate of paradise, and the forecourt (atrium) and habitation of God. 209
Above all, however, Bernardino concluded, Mary is the star: of the heavens, of the pole, of the morning, of the king, and of the sea. 210 As Jerome had explained in his commentary on the Hebrew names, "Maria" means "stella maris" or "star of the sea"; therefore, Bernardino noted, "the Church sings, 'Ave maris stella. ' "211 Some two hundred years earlier Conrad of Saxony had likewise elaborated on this traditional etymology: "Mary is spiritually a 'bitter sea' to the demons, o - cially 'star of the sea' to men, eternally 'illuminatrix' to the angelic spirits, and universally 'lady' to all creatures. "212 As star of the sea, she guides all those "who sail through the sea of the world in the ship of innocence or penance to the shore of the heavenly country," because she is pure by living purely, radiant by bringing forth eternal light, and useful by directing humanity to the shores of its home country. 213 Jacobus de Voragine would concur: Mary's name is pleasing and sweet, like honey in the mouth, a song in the ear, and joy in the heart. She is illuminated like the woman clothed with the sun and the moon at her feet and on her head a crown of twelve stars (Revelation 12:1); she illuminates the dark places of the earth and warms the cold; and she is bitter on account of the blindness of her people, the su erings of her Son, and the separations from her Son that she had to endure. She is the lady to whom angels, human beings, and demons all kneel. And she is the star of the sea on whom the whole court of heaven attends. 214
Why was the virgin's name "Maria"? Again in Richard of Saint-Laurent's words: because she is illuminated by the light of the Father, the grace of the Holy Spirit, and the Son of God who is the true sun of justice. She is the illuminatrix of the world because she bore the True Light. She is a bitter sea by reason of her compassion at her Son's su ering. She is the Lady o ering her Son to the world, as in her images. And she is the star of the sea exalted over all the orders of the angels: because she is xed in the rmament of heaven, that is, the scriptures; because she illuminates the world by light of her virtues; because she is on re with love, especially by him whom she conceived; because she appears little in her humility before God; because she attracts others to her, drawing them through the curtains of the tabernacle, that is, the Church of God; because she shines brilliantly in times of cold, as when at her Son's Passion the love of all others chilled; because she stands in her obedience; because she is scintillating in the excellence of her conversation; because she is continually moving from virtue to virtue and from activity to contemplation; because she illuminates those whom she guards and ghts against the devil for her servants; because she was and is always at the right hand of God; because she serves him through all eternity;
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because she joyfully gives her light; because she is beautiful in the honesty of her life; because in her and through her the Father laughs with his creatures; because she adorns the Church and illumines the night; because she foretells future events and shows the astrologers, that is, the prophets, to have been telling the truth; because she excites the lazy to work and guides those sailing through the sea of the world to the port of salvation. 215
Why was the Virgin's name "Maria"? Mary's "faithful Bernard" ( fedel Bernardo)-- for Dante, he needed no other introduction--put it perhaps most famously in the second of his four homilies super "Missus est," cited by all of the authors whom we have considered above, in full by Richard in his commentary on the Ave:
Surely [the Virgin Mother] is very ttingly likened to a star. e star sends forth its ray without harm to itself. In the same way the Virgin brought forth her son with no injury to herself. e ray no more diminishes the star's brightness than does the Son his mother's integrity. She is indeed that noble star risen out of Jacob (Numbers 24:17) whose beam enlightens this earthly globe. She it is whose brightness both twinkles in the highest heaven and pierces the pit of hell, and is shed upon earth, warming our hearts far more than our bodies, fostering virtue and cauterizing vice. She, I tell you, is that splendid and wondrous star suspended as by necessity over this great wide sea, radiant with merit and brilliant in example.
Accordingly, Bernard "a ame with love" (ond'i? o ardo tutto d'amor, as Dante put it) encouraged his fellow lovers of Mary:
O you, whoever you are, who feel that in the tidal wave of this world you are nearer to being tossed about among the squalls and gales than treading on dry land, if you do not want to founder in the tempest, do not avert your eyes from the brightness of this star. When the wind of temptation blows up within you, when you strike upon the rock of tribulation, gaze up at this star, call out to Mary. Whether you are being tossed about by the waves of pride or ambition or slander or jealousy, gaze up at this star, call out to Mary. When rage or greed or eshly desires are battering the ski of your soul, gaze up at Mary. When the immensity of your sins weighs you down and you are bewildered by the loath- someness of your conscience, when the terrifying thought of judgment appalls you and you begin to founder in the gulf of sadness and despair, think of Mary. In dangers, in hardships, in every doubt, think of Mary, call out to Mary. Keep her in your mouth, keep her in your heart. Follow the example of her life and you will obtain the favor of her prayer. Following her, you will never go astray.
Asking her help, you will never despair. Keeping her in your thoughts, you will never wander away. With your hand in hers, you will never stumble. With her protecting you, you will not be afraid. With her leading you, you will never tire. Her kindness will see you through to the end. en you will know by your own experience how true it is that "the Virgin's name was Mary. "216

All this and more, medieval European Christians hoped and claimed to experience by saluting Mary in the words with which the angel sent from God had greeted her. And yet, much like the angel in many medieval images of the Annunciation, having noted as much, we are arguably only at the threshold of understanding what Mary's devotees said they saw in her. 217 We have, a er all, said only the invitatory antiphon and psalm for her O ce and are in the process of singing its rst hymn. So what if medieval Christians believed their o -repeated saluta- tions of the Virgin brought her great joy and them a sweet taste to the mouth? So what if they insisted that all their attempts at naming her as the "mother of all re-created things" taxed the very limits of human language and understand- ing? Where--other than in their desire to exercise their onomastic skills--did they get the idea to read the scriptures in the way that they did, as lled with names for her, almost none of which (other than her actual name) were invoked by the evangelists Matthew, Mark, or Luke? (John, as we shall see, was another matter, particularly as the author of the book of Revelation. ) More particularly, why did they invoke these metaphors--ark, tabernacle, temple, house, throne, city, mountain, river, tree, mirror, virgin, bride, queen--as a way of describing her relationship with God? And where did they get the idea that it was appropriate to talk about her in the language of the Psalms, as following the invitatory Ave they did hour a er hour, day a er day in the recitation of her O ce?
e thirteenth-century Franciscan preacher Servasanctus of Faenza thought he knew.
"Dearest brothers," Servasanctus invited his readers in the preface to his Mariale, paraphrasing the Venerable Bede's opening to his homily on Luke 1:26-38, "let us listen with intent ear to the exordium of our salvation that we might merit to attain the promised gi of salvation. "218 A er all, the friar reasoned, if there is not a jot or tittle of the law empty of mystery (cf. Matthew 5:18), how much the more must that brief and blessed word of the evange- list (Luke 1:28) be full of signi cance. Accordingly, he proposed, "let us see (videamus) what and how many are the elements (quae et quot sunt elementa) of this exordium! "
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ere are, the learned friar calculated, eighty-three elements or letters, most perfectly summed up (because eight is the number of completion) in the three theological virtues that the Apostle Paul enumerated (1 Corinthians 13:13); thirty-seven syllables, signifying Mary, her faith in the Trinity and the divine law, and the plenitude of sevenfold grace with which she was lled; and een words, signifying the een steps of virtue that she ascended, plus ve dis- tinctions or phrases. e angelic salutation itself contains nine words ("Ave, gratia plena, Dominus tecum: benedicta tu in mulieribus"), signifying that Mary was full of the graces of all the saints and angels. 219 And what do we get once we have counted all the elements? Servasanctus does the arithmetic for us: "Collect, if you will, all these into one, and add that which is customarily added at the end of this salutation, and you will have one hundred and y, the same as the number of the psalms of David. "
"But surely," we may imagine Servasanctus's late thirteenth-century readers to have protested, for this is the era of the scholastic disputation, in which friars like Servasanctus's brothers at the studium generale in Florence were trained, "you are not saying that this means the Psalms of David contain the praises of the Virgin Mary? " (Or perhaps if they protested it was only gently; to judge from the widespread distribution of his work, Servasanctus clearly found a sympathetic audience. )
Not exactly: we have not yet nished our calculations. "Seek," Servasanctus would have his readers, "in heaven, on earth, in the sea, in every abyss, in the Scriptures, in its gures and in its creatures, until you nd the same number as it were of harpists playing their harps in praise of Mary (quendam chorum cythar- oedorum cytharizantium cytharis suis laudes Mariae), so as to make up a pleasing psalter with harp (ut sit Psalterium jucundum cum cythara), so that just as the praises of Christ are sung with the psalter of David, so on this harp the praises of the Virgin might be sung. " And how many such harpists do we nd when we search the heavens, the earth, the seas, the abyss, the scriptures, its gures and creatures? Exactly as many as we found elements in the exordium of salvation, subdivided according to their natures. In natural things (in rebus naturalibus), we nd eighty-three; in made things (in rebus arti cialibus), we nd thirty-seven; in moral dispositions (in moralibus), we nd een; in orders of the saints, ve; in orders of the angels, nine; and one that sums up all the others (Magni cata). If, as we have seen, for Bernardino it was possible to discover Mary's virtues in the very shapes of the letters that went together to make her name, so it would seem, according to Servasanctus, all the creatures of creation--or, at the very least, 150 of them--sang out in her praise from the letters, syllables, words, and phrases of the angelic salutation.
And yet, we are still not nished, so intricate a mystery does the exordium contain. To unlock it, or so Servasanctus would have it, we must do more than calculate the number of these creaturely "harpists. " Rather, Servasanctus insisted, in all of these, if we look carefully, we nd (and this is very signi cant for Servasanctus's purposes), the elements (elementa) of Mary's praise, for they show her in their forms (quasi quaedam facies ipsam Virginem utcumque), represent her in gure (quasi in aenigmate repraesentantes), name her (quasi quaedam vocabula nomen Virginis interpretantia), and wrap the plenitude of her graces in parables (quasi quaedam parabola gratiarum eius plenitudinem involutam) through the particulars they contain (pro particulis continentes). For, argued Servasanctus, just as in the words of the Philosopher (that is, Aristotle) "those things which are dispersed in animals by nature are gathered together in man by reason"220--simplicity in the dove, kindness in the lamb, liberality in the lion--so all the graces and blessings that are bestowed upon others in part are gathered together in Mary in full, as indeed, we read about her in Proverbs 31:29: "Many daughters have gathered together riches: you have surpassed them all. "
And yet--Servasanctus continued--for all her riches as a creature, in Mary her- self there is an even greater mystery. "In me," Wisdom says in Ecclesiasticus 24:25, "is all grace of the way (gratia omnis viae), that is [according to Servasanctus], of every creature, which is a way to the Creator (id est omnis creaturae, quae est via ad Creatorem), for Mary, the book of life and the mirror and the exemplar either is or contains all these things (haec enim omnia est aut continet liber vitae et specu- lum et exemplar MARIA). " As Servasanctus would have it, Mary, the "mother of fair love, and of fear, and of knowledge, and of holy hope" (Ecclesiasticus 24:24), is the way to the Creator because she is the book of life containing all the crea- tures of creation, who herself promises, speaking as Wisdom: " ey that explain me shall have life everlasting" (Ecclesiasticus 24:31). "And I wept," says John in Revelation 5:4, cited by Servasanctus, "because no man was found worthy to open the book, nor to see it. "
e elements of the evangelical exordium precisely calculated to the number of the Psalms, the same number of harpists discovered in the natural and arti cial creatures of creation singing the praises of the Virgin, just as King David sang the praises of Christ, the creature Mary as the book of life, mirror, and exemplar of the Creator containing all the creatures of creation, Wisdom promising in Ecclesiasticus that they who explain her shall have eternal life: these are mysteries indeed. We have heard the angel greet her. Clearly, to understand and experience the Virgin's psalter as Servasanctus hoped his fellow Christians might, somehow we need to learn to read this book.
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P l at e 8 Mary of Burgundy is shown praying with her Book of Hours, while through the window she can be seen kneeling before the Virgin and Child for whom she has sung the psalms. Her prayer has made them visible to her and brought her into their presence.