From the same circle of ideas arose also the writings
circulated
under the name of Hermes Trismegistus, which belong to the third century (French tr.
Windelband - History of Philosophy
J.
Neumann, Der rdmische Staat und die allgemeine Kirche bis auf Diocletian (Vol.
I.
Leips.
1890).
a It will be understood as a matter of course that the following exposition has left at one side all specifically dogmatic elements, except where they are quite inseparably interwoven with philosophical principles.
Cmaf. 2. ] The Religion* Period. 213
The geographical centre of the movement, however, is found in that city which, by its history, as well as by its population, repre sented most distinctly the mingling of peoples and of religions, — Alexandria. Here, where in the active work of the museum all treasures of Grecian culture were garnered, all religions and forms of worship crowded together in the great throngs of the commercial metropolis to seek a scientific clarification of the feelings that surged and stormed within them.
The first line of the Alexandrian philosophy is the so-called Neo- Pythagoreanism, a mode of thought which, proceeding from the religious practice of the Pythagorean mysteries, makes only an external use of the number-mysticism of the old Pythagoreans after whom it calls itself and its writings, while it finds the theoretical setting for its world-renouncing, religious-ascetic ethics in a trans formation of the Platonic metaphysics, which became of the pro- foundest value for the conception of the spiritual nature in the following period. Apollonius of Tyana, the founder of a religion, is to be regarded as typical representative of this school.
Not without influence from this school, the Stoa, also, in the time of the Empire, brought out more energetically the religious elements in its theory of the world, so that not only did the anthropological dualism of the system become sharpened, but a more theistic mode of thought gradually became substituted for the original pantheism of the school. In men like Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius, the Stoic doctrine became completely a philosophy of deliverance or redemption.
Even Cynicism revived again about this time in a religious garb, as a rude, popular preaching of renunciation, and Demonax passes for its best-known representative.
Scarcely to be separated from the Neo-Pythagoreans are the Edectie Platonists of the first centuries of our era, such as Plutarch of Chaeronea and Apuleiux of Madaura. Later appear Numenius of Apamea and Xicomachns of Gerasa, who, besides, already stand ■oder Jewish and Christian influences as witnesses of a complete fusion of the two tendencies.
But while, in all these forms, the Hellenic element ever maintains the ascendency over the Oriental, the latter makes its appearance in very much stronger force in the Jewish philosophy of religion. As the sect of the Essenes ' probably proceeded from a contact of Neo- Y\ thagoreanism with the Hebrew religious life, so the various attempts of learned Jews to draw nearer to Greek science in the
» Cf. E. Zeller V. « 277 ff.
214 Hellenistic- Roman Thought. [Part EL
presentation of their dogmas, led ultimately to the doctrine of Philo of Alexandria, whose original elaboration of these fermenting bodies of thought influenced their further formation and movement in the most important points.
The philosophy of Christianity, which for these first centuries is usually designated by the name Patristics, unfolded in an analogous manner upon a larger scale. This philosophical secularisation of the gospel begins with the Apologists, who sought to present its re ligious belief as the only true philosophy, with the purpose of pro tecting Christianity in the eyes of the cultured world from contempt and persecution, and therefore began to adapt this content of re ligious faith to the conceptional forms of Greek science : the most important of them are Justin and Minucius Felix.
But the need of changing faith (irurrts) into knowledge or wisdom (■yvuMTis) asserted itself vigorously in the Christian communities, even without this polemical tendency. The first attempts, how
ever, which the Gnostics made to create an adequate view of the world for the new religion, proceeded from the excited phantasies of a Syrian mingling of religions, and, in spite of the employment of Hellenistic philosophemes, led to such grotesque constructions, that the Church as it grew stronger and more definitive was obliged to reject them. Saturninus, Basileides, and Valentinus are to be named as the best known of this class.
In reaction against such over-hasty attempts of religious fantasti- calness, a violent aversion toward all philosophical interpretation and adjustment of Christian faith set in, for a time, in Christian literature in the writings of men like Tatian, TertuUian, and Arno- bius. An express anti-rationalism thus came forward which never theless found it necessary on its part also to return to the related doctrines of Greek philosophy. Without this one-sidedness and with a closer approximation to the older
Hellenising Apologists, Gnosticism was combated by Irenmus and his disciple Hippolytus.
It was not until the beginning of the third century, and after all these preceding attempts, that a positive Christian theology, a sys tem of dogmatics in a complete conceptional form, was established. This came about in the School for Catechists at Alexandria, through the leaders of the school, Clement and Origen. The latter especially is to be regarded as philosophically the most important representa tive of Christianity in this period.
By his side, however, there went out from the Alexandrian phil osophic school the man who undertook to bring the religion-forming tendency of philosophy to an issue solely upon the Hellenistic basis, —Plotinus, the greatest thinker of this period. His attempt to
Chak 2. ] The Religious Period. 215
systematise all the main doctrines of Greek and Hellenistic phil osophy under the religious principle is designated as Neo- Plntonism. His doctrine is the most definitive and thoroughly constructed sys tem of science that antiquity produced. His disciple Porphyry, however, showed himself already inclined to make a religion out of this religious teaching, and Jamblichus, who is termed the leader of Syrian Neo-Platonism, transformed it into a dogmatic theology of poly theism, with which the learned and political opponents of Christianity, such as the Emperor Julian, hoped to revive the forms of worship of the heathen religions, then in a state of dissolution. After this attempt had miscarried, the Athenian school of Neo-Platonism, as the heads of which Plutarch of Athens, Proclus, and Damascitis appear, returned finally to a methodical, scholastic development of the system of Plotinus.
Thus the Hellenistic efforts to attain to a new religion by means of science remained without result in this form : the scholars dis covered no church. On the other hand, the need felt by positive religion to complete and strengthen itself in a scientific doctrine did attain its goal : the Church created its dogma. And the great course of history in this movement was, that the defeated Hellenism in its powerful death-struggle still created the conceptions by means of which the new religion shaped itself into a dogma.
While the Pythagorean mysteries had maintained their existence through all antiquity, scientific Pythagoreanism vanished as a proper school after its incorporation into the Academy (cf. p. 31). It is not until during the first ct-ntury b. c. that specifically Pythagorean doctrines become noticeable again : they appear in the Pythagorean writings, of which Diogenes Laertius (VIII. 34 ■. ). following Alexander Polyhiator, gives an account that leads us to infer an essentially Stoic influence. They are renewed expressly by Cicero's learned friend, P. Nlgidius Figulus (died 45 n. c), and And approval also with other men in Home. Cf . M. Here, Dr P. Xig. Fig. Sludiit atque Ojitribus (Berlin, 1846).
But Ifeo-Pythagoreanlsm proper was first presented in literary form by the great number of writings which became public in Alexandria at about the beginning of our era, under the names of l*ythagoras, or Philolaus, or Archytas, at other older Pythagoreans, the fragments of which give rise to so great diffi culties in forming a conception of genuine Pythagoreanisni. Cf. the lit. p. 31.
<H the personalities of the new school, on the contrary, very little is known. The only distinct figure is Apollonina of Tyana, of whose life and nature the rhetorician Philostratus (ed. by C. L. Kayser, I^eips. 1870) gava a romantic representation at the beginning of the third century, in order to portray in it the ideal of the Pythagorean life. Of the works of Apollnniua himself, who liTtd in the first century a. d. , fragments of a biography of Pythagoras and of a treatise on Sacrifice are extant. Cf. Chr. Baur, Apolloniua unit ChriMut in Drti Abhandl. zur Ge»ch. d. alt. l'hilo$. (helps. 1876). [Treiiwell, Life of AfiUluniut of Tyana, contains a good bibliography, N. Y. 188)1. ] ilia con temporary, Biodaratna of Gades, might perhaps also be mentioned.
Neo- Pythagorean and Stoic doctrines appear mingled in the Eclectic Botlon of Alexandria, who was affiliated with the Sextains (cf. p. 103). His disciple, L Annaeua Bsnaca of Cordova (4-66 ad. ), was the leader of the Stoics in tht time of the Empire. He was instructor of Nero, was well known because of sis tragic fate, and also as tragic poet unfolded the rigid conceptions of life held
216 Hellenutic-Roman Thought. [Part II.
by bis school. Of his writings a considerable number of mainly ethical trea tises are preserved besides his EpistoUe (ed. by Haase, 3 vols. , Leips. 1862-3) [Eng. tr. (or rather paraphrase) by T. Lodge. Loud. 16U, Selections from this and from L'Estrange's Sentca't Moral* by Way of Abstract. Load. 1888, Came- lot series]. Cf. Chr. Baur, S. und Paulas in the Drri Abhandl. ; see above.
Besides him we mention L. Annxus Cornutus ^Phurnuius), a chief repre sentative of the Stoic interpretation of myths (Ilcpt r^t rir Mr ^iV«n, ed. by Osann, Gottingen, 1844), the satiric poetPenrae, the moralist C. Muaonina Rufus, and especially Eplctetua. who lived at the time of Douiitian. and whose doctrines were published by Arrian in two works, Aurpt/iai and ' Eyx'f*^1" ve<l- together with the commentary of Simplicios by J. Scbweighausrr. Leips. 1799 f. ) [tr. by G. Long, Bonn's library ; also by T. W. Higginson, Boston, I860]. Cf. A. Bonhoffer E. und die Stoa (Stuttgart, 1890).
With the noble Marcos Aurelius Antoninus the Stoa mounted the Roman imperial throne (161-180). His reflections t& tit alrrtr (ed. by J. Stich, Leips. 1882) are the characteristic monument of this eclectic-religious Stoicism. [Eng. tr. by G. Long. The Thoughts of the Emperor, M. Aurelius Antoninus, Lond. Bohn's lib. ; \V. Pater, Marias the Epicurean, Lond. and H. Y. 1888 ; M. Arnold in Essays. ]
In the ancient Grecian period, an original figure, that of the monkish wan dering preacher Teles, had gone out from the Cynic school (cf. v. Wilamovitz- Mullendorf, Philol. Unters, IV. 292 ff. ). In the time of the Empire this quaint creature was frequently copied and exaggerated even to the most ridiculous extent. Demetrius, Oinomaos of Gadara, Demonax (cf. Fritsche, Leips. I860), and Peregrinus Proteus, known through Lucian. belong to these figures. Cf. J. Bernays, Lukian und die Kyniker (Berlin, 1879).
Of the representatives of religious Platonism who kept at a distance from the number theory, may be mentioned the eclectic commentators Eudorua and Arius Didymua. Thrasyllus. the editor of the works of Plato and Democritus, and especially Plutarch of Chaeronea (about 100 a. i>. ), from whom, in addition to his famous biographies, a great number of other writings are preserved, especially philosophical treatises of dogmatic and polemical content (Moralia, ed. Dtibner ; Paris, Didot, Vols. III. and IV. 1855) (cf. R. Volkmann, Lebcn, Schriflen und Philosophic des P. , Berlin, 1872). [Plutarch's Morals, trans, ed. by Goodwin, 5 vols. , Boston, 1870 ; also tr. by Shilleto and by C. W. King, both in Bohn's lib. , Lond. 1888 and 1882 resp. ] We mention further **•»■*! tthi« of Tyre of the time of the Antonines ; his contemporary, Apuleius of Madaura, who belongs in this series not only on account of bis philosophical writings (ed. by A. Goldbacher, Vienna, 1876), but also on account of his allegorico-satincal romance, "The Golden Ass" (cf. Hildebrand in the introduction to his col lected works, Leips. 1842) [The Works of Apuleius, Bohn's lib. ] ; the oppo nent of Christianity, Celaus, whose treatise dXr^t XA70* (about 180) is known only from the counter- treatise of Origen, na-rd KA<roi> (cf. Th. Keim, C. " voahres
Wort," ZQrich, 1873); and lastly the physician Claudius Galen, who died about 200, and might, to be sure, with his broad eclecticism be likewise classed as a Peri patetic and also as a Stoic (cf. K. Sprengel, Beitrage zur (reach, d. Medicin, I. 117 ff. ).
From the same circle of ideas arose also the writings circulated under the name of Hermes Trismegistus, which belong to the third century (French tr. by L. Menard, Paris, 1866 ; partially published by G. Parthey, Berlin, 1864).
Among the Platonists of the second century Nicomacbus of Gerasa in Ara bia, of whose writings arithmetical text-books and (through Photius) an extract from a work ' Apitf/irjTucd Btokoyoiiuro. are extant, and Numenius of Apamea, concerning whom we owe our instruction mainly to Eusebius, are strongly Neo- Pythagorean. Cf. F. Thedinga (Bonn, 1875).
The entrance of Greek philosophy into Jewish theology may be traced back to the middle of the second century b. c, where it can be recognised in the Biblical explanation of Aristobuloa ; it appears then in a particularly marked manner, and in a form that is already much nearer the Alexandrian sphere of thought, in the pseudo-Solomonic Book of Wisdom. Yet these are but weak forerunners of the important creation of Philo of Alexandria, of whose life little more is known than that in the year 39, when already in advanced age, he was a member of an embassy from his native community to the Emperor Calig
Chap. •-». ]
The Religion* Period. 217
ola. His numerous writings, among which there is also much that is not genuine, were edited by Th. Mangey (Lond. 1742), Leips. stereotype ed. , 8 vols. , 1861-53 ; [Eng. tr. by C. D. Yonge, 4 vols. , Lond. , Bohn's lib. ].
F. Dihne, Die jiidisch-alexandrinische Beligionsphilosophie (Halle, 1834).
A. Gfrorer, Philon und die alexandrinische Theosophie (Stuttgart, 1835); M. Wolff, Die philonischt Philosophic (Gothenburg, 1858); Ewald, Gesch. de$
Volkes Israel, VI. 231 ff.
Among the Christian Apologists whose writings are collected in the Corpus
Apoioyetarum Christianorvm secundi sceculi, ed. by Otto (Jena, 1842 ff. ), the most prominent is Flavius Justin Martyr of Sichem, who lived in the middle of the second century. Two defensive writings and a dialogue with Trypho the Jew axe preserved [Eng. tr. in Ante-Nicene Ch. lib. , ed. by Roberts and Donald son. Edinburg, T. 4 T. Clark, 1867 —]. K. Semisch (2 vols. , Breslau, 1840-42), and B. Aube (Paris, 18(31) treat of him. Further Apologists from the Hellenic circle of culture are Aristldes (whose discourses, discovered in the Armenian language, were printed with a Latin translation, Venice, 1878), Athenagoras of Athens (rpta-ptla s-tpl Xpia-Ttar&e addressed to Marcus Aurelius about 176), Theophilus of Ant inch (a treatise addressed to Autolycus about 180), Melito of . Sard is, Apollinaris of Hierapolis, and others. — Latin literature presents especially Minucius Felix, whose dialogue Oft an' us was written about 200 >d. in the Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum, by C. Halm, Vienna, 1W7). The rhetorician, Firmianus Lactantius (about 300), is to be placed in the same series. His main treatise is the Institution's Divinoe [tr. of the above authors in Ante-Nicene lib. , see above].
Of the Gnostics our information comes essentially through their opponents, Iren»us (140-200 ; his treatise "EXryxot «al irarpowii ttjs yf>tvSuriiu>v yriiatut, ed. by A. Stieren, Leips. 1863), Hippolytus (Kurd racwr alpioiur f\ryx°*- *'''■ by I>uncker and Schneidewin, Gottingen, 1869), Tertullian (Adversus Valenti- nianos), etc. [Eng. tr. of the above writings in Ante-Nicene lib. , above]. Of Gnostic treatises only one, and that by an unknown author, is extant, VUara npU (ed. by Petermann, Berlin, 1861). Of the main representatives of this doctrine there were active in the first half of the second century Saturninus of Antioch, Basilides, a Syrian, and Carpocrates in Alexandria ; toward the ■riddle of the century VaJentinus. the most important of them (died about let)); and toward the end of the century Bardeaanea of Mesopotamia. — Expo sitions of the Onostif Systems by A. W. Neander (Berlin, 1818) [Eng. tr. by Tnrrey, Boston, 1866], E. Matter (Paris, 1843), Chr. Baur (Tubingen, 1836), A- Hilgenfeld (Jena, 1884), same author, Bardesancs, der letzte Gnostiker <Leips. 1864). — A. Harnack, Zur QucUenkritik der Geschichte des Gnosticismus (Leips. 1873); [H. L. Mansel, Gnostic Heresies, Lond. 1876].
The most radical opponent of Greek science was TaUan, an Assyrian, whose treatise npkt "EXXijrot arose about 170, but who later became himself an adherent of the Valentinian Gnosticism. The passionate Apologist Qu. Sep- timius Florens Tertullian (195-220, for a time Presbyter in Carthage) ended likewise in opposition to the Catholic Church, in the sect of the Montanists. Hi« works have been edited by Fr. Oehler (3 vols. , Leips. 1853 f. ), recently by A ReifJt-rscheid and Wlssowa (Vol. I. Vienna, 1890, in Corp. script, eccl. tat. ) [Eng tr. in Ante-Ntcene lib. ]. Cf. A. W. Neander, Antignostifus, Geist des
Tertullian, etc. (2d ed. Berlin, 1849) [Eng. tr. Bohn's lib. , 1851J; A. Hauck, 7V» Lef>en und Schriften, Erlangen, 1877). — In the same series, but from a later lime, is the African rhetorician Arnobius, whose seven books, Adversus
G'ntes. were composed about 300 (ed. by A. KeifTerscheid in Corp. script, ecel. 1st. . Vienna, 1876).
<*1 the writings of Clement of Alexandria (died about 217) three treatises are preserved, A470I wporprrTiitit vpii *EXXqra{ — IIai6a>u>>4« — £rpw/iarcit (ed. by J. Potter, Oxford, 1716) [tr. in Ante-Nicene lib. ]. From his school (cf. on the Alex. Catechetical school, Guericke, Halle, 1824 f , and Hasselbaoh, SteUin, 1636) went forth the founder nf Christian theology, Origan, surnamed the Ada- •matine. Born 18ft a. d. in Alexandria, equipped with the full education of the time, he came forward early as a teacher, fell into conflicts on account of his doctrines with the Synod, was by it removed from his nffice, and later lived in Cawarea and Tyre, dying in the latter place 2. 14. of his writings, aside from the above-mentioned treatise against Celsus, his work lUpl ipx&' is of chief importance ; It is extant almost only in the Latin version of Kufinus (ed. by
218 Hellenistic-Roman Thought : Religious Period. [Part II
Uedepenning, Leips. 1836) [tr. in Ante-Nicene lib. ]. Cf. J. Reinkens, De Clemente Presbytero Al. (Breslau, 1851); Redepenning, 0. , Darstellung seines Lebens und seiner Lehre (Bonn, 1841-46) [cf. Bigg, The Christian Platonitts
of Alexandria, Oxford, 1887 ; A. Harnack, Art. Origen in Ene. Brit. l.
A collection of the sources for all the Church writers of this period has been
issued by J. P. Migne, Patrologia; Cursus Computus (Paris, 1840 ff. ).
A certain Ammonius Saccus appears in old traditions as the founder of Neo-Flatonism, but nothing is known to justify this tradition. To his pupils belonged Plotinus, Origen, the rhetorician Iionginua (213-273), to whom the book llepl \nj/ovt was ascribed, and another Origen.
The true founder of the school was Plotinus (204-269). Born in Lycopolis in Egypt, and educated in Alexandria, he became a member of an expedition against the Persians in order to promote his religious studies, made a highly successful appearance as teacher in Rome about 244, and died on a country estate in Campania. His works, written late in life, were published by his disciple Porphyry, arranged in six enneads. Ed. by H. Mliller (Leips. 1878-80), with a German translation [Eng. tr. in part by Th. Taylor, Lond. 1787, 1704, 1817, French tr. by Bouillet, Paris, 1857-60]. Cf. H. Kirchner, Die Philos. des PI. (Halle, 1864). — A. Richter, Neuplatonische Studien (Halle, 1864 ff. ). — H. v. Kleist, Neuplat. Studien (Heidelberg, 1883). — [A. Harnack, Art. JVeo- Platonism in Enc. Brit. }
To the Alexandrian Neo-Platonism are reckoned further Gentilianus Ame lias of Ameria, and the Tyrian Porphyry (about 230-300). Among the ex tant writings, aside from the biographies of Plotinus and Pythagoras, are to be mentioned ' KQopnal irpAt tA mi)T&, an aphoristic abridgment of the system of Plotinus (printed in Creuzer's ed. of the works of Plotinus, Paris, 1855), the treatise On Abstemiousness (irepl iwoxv* ru>i> ^vxw, important on account of its use of the xepl t6<ref3clas of Theophrastus ; cf. J. Bernays, Berlin, 1866), and of the commentaries the Eicrayuyij elt t4i Kariryoplat (ed. by Busse, Berlin, 1877 ; and also in the Berlin ed. of Aristotle, Vol. IV. ).
Syrian Neo-Platonism was founded by Jamblichus of Chalcis in Coale- Syria (died about 330), a hearer of Porphyry. His writings were principally commentaries upon Hellenistic and Oriental theology. The following are par tially preserved : llepl tov IlvBayopucoQ plov (ed. by Westermann, Paris, 1850), A6701 rporptTT wit tit <pi\o<ro<plav (ed. by Kiessling, Leips. 1813), Iltpl rijt monnji vn0TiiuiTiKrjf hrurri)iir\t (ed. by Villoison, Venice, 1781) [Eng. tr. Life of Pyth. by Taylor, Lond. 1818, Egyptian Mysteries, by same, Chiswick, 1821].
a It will be understood as a matter of course that the following exposition has left at one side all specifically dogmatic elements, except where they are quite inseparably interwoven with philosophical principles.
Cmaf. 2. ] The Religion* Period. 213
The geographical centre of the movement, however, is found in that city which, by its history, as well as by its population, repre sented most distinctly the mingling of peoples and of religions, — Alexandria. Here, where in the active work of the museum all treasures of Grecian culture were garnered, all religions and forms of worship crowded together in the great throngs of the commercial metropolis to seek a scientific clarification of the feelings that surged and stormed within them.
The first line of the Alexandrian philosophy is the so-called Neo- Pythagoreanism, a mode of thought which, proceeding from the religious practice of the Pythagorean mysteries, makes only an external use of the number-mysticism of the old Pythagoreans after whom it calls itself and its writings, while it finds the theoretical setting for its world-renouncing, religious-ascetic ethics in a trans formation of the Platonic metaphysics, which became of the pro- foundest value for the conception of the spiritual nature in the following period. Apollonius of Tyana, the founder of a religion, is to be regarded as typical representative of this school.
Not without influence from this school, the Stoa, also, in the time of the Empire, brought out more energetically the religious elements in its theory of the world, so that not only did the anthropological dualism of the system become sharpened, but a more theistic mode of thought gradually became substituted for the original pantheism of the school. In men like Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius, the Stoic doctrine became completely a philosophy of deliverance or redemption.
Even Cynicism revived again about this time in a religious garb, as a rude, popular preaching of renunciation, and Demonax passes for its best-known representative.
Scarcely to be separated from the Neo-Pythagoreans are the Edectie Platonists of the first centuries of our era, such as Plutarch of Chaeronea and Apuleiux of Madaura. Later appear Numenius of Apamea and Xicomachns of Gerasa, who, besides, already stand ■oder Jewish and Christian influences as witnesses of a complete fusion of the two tendencies.
But while, in all these forms, the Hellenic element ever maintains the ascendency over the Oriental, the latter makes its appearance in very much stronger force in the Jewish philosophy of religion. As the sect of the Essenes ' probably proceeded from a contact of Neo- Y\ thagoreanism with the Hebrew religious life, so the various attempts of learned Jews to draw nearer to Greek science in the
» Cf. E. Zeller V. « 277 ff.
214 Hellenistic- Roman Thought. [Part EL
presentation of their dogmas, led ultimately to the doctrine of Philo of Alexandria, whose original elaboration of these fermenting bodies of thought influenced their further formation and movement in the most important points.
The philosophy of Christianity, which for these first centuries is usually designated by the name Patristics, unfolded in an analogous manner upon a larger scale. This philosophical secularisation of the gospel begins with the Apologists, who sought to present its re ligious belief as the only true philosophy, with the purpose of pro tecting Christianity in the eyes of the cultured world from contempt and persecution, and therefore began to adapt this content of re ligious faith to the conceptional forms of Greek science : the most important of them are Justin and Minucius Felix.
But the need of changing faith (irurrts) into knowledge or wisdom (■yvuMTis) asserted itself vigorously in the Christian communities, even without this polemical tendency. The first attempts, how
ever, which the Gnostics made to create an adequate view of the world for the new religion, proceeded from the excited phantasies of a Syrian mingling of religions, and, in spite of the employment of Hellenistic philosophemes, led to such grotesque constructions, that the Church as it grew stronger and more definitive was obliged to reject them. Saturninus, Basileides, and Valentinus are to be named as the best known of this class.
In reaction against such over-hasty attempts of religious fantasti- calness, a violent aversion toward all philosophical interpretation and adjustment of Christian faith set in, for a time, in Christian literature in the writings of men like Tatian, TertuUian, and Arno- bius. An express anti-rationalism thus came forward which never theless found it necessary on its part also to return to the related doctrines of Greek philosophy. Without this one-sidedness and with a closer approximation to the older
Hellenising Apologists, Gnosticism was combated by Irenmus and his disciple Hippolytus.
It was not until the beginning of the third century, and after all these preceding attempts, that a positive Christian theology, a sys tem of dogmatics in a complete conceptional form, was established. This came about in the School for Catechists at Alexandria, through the leaders of the school, Clement and Origen. The latter especially is to be regarded as philosophically the most important representa tive of Christianity in this period.
By his side, however, there went out from the Alexandrian phil osophic school the man who undertook to bring the religion-forming tendency of philosophy to an issue solely upon the Hellenistic basis, —Plotinus, the greatest thinker of this period. His attempt to
Chak 2. ] The Religious Period. 215
systematise all the main doctrines of Greek and Hellenistic phil osophy under the religious principle is designated as Neo- Plntonism. His doctrine is the most definitive and thoroughly constructed sys tem of science that antiquity produced. His disciple Porphyry, however, showed himself already inclined to make a religion out of this religious teaching, and Jamblichus, who is termed the leader of Syrian Neo-Platonism, transformed it into a dogmatic theology of poly theism, with which the learned and political opponents of Christianity, such as the Emperor Julian, hoped to revive the forms of worship of the heathen religions, then in a state of dissolution. After this attempt had miscarried, the Athenian school of Neo-Platonism, as the heads of which Plutarch of Athens, Proclus, and Damascitis appear, returned finally to a methodical, scholastic development of the system of Plotinus.
Thus the Hellenistic efforts to attain to a new religion by means of science remained without result in this form : the scholars dis covered no church. On the other hand, the need felt by positive religion to complete and strengthen itself in a scientific doctrine did attain its goal : the Church created its dogma. And the great course of history in this movement was, that the defeated Hellenism in its powerful death-struggle still created the conceptions by means of which the new religion shaped itself into a dogma.
While the Pythagorean mysteries had maintained their existence through all antiquity, scientific Pythagoreanism vanished as a proper school after its incorporation into the Academy (cf. p. 31). It is not until during the first ct-ntury b. c. that specifically Pythagorean doctrines become noticeable again : they appear in the Pythagorean writings, of which Diogenes Laertius (VIII. 34 ■. ). following Alexander Polyhiator, gives an account that leads us to infer an essentially Stoic influence. They are renewed expressly by Cicero's learned friend, P. Nlgidius Figulus (died 45 n. c), and And approval also with other men in Home. Cf . M. Here, Dr P. Xig. Fig. Sludiit atque Ojitribus (Berlin, 1846).
But Ifeo-Pythagoreanlsm proper was first presented in literary form by the great number of writings which became public in Alexandria at about the beginning of our era, under the names of l*ythagoras, or Philolaus, or Archytas, at other older Pythagoreans, the fragments of which give rise to so great diffi culties in forming a conception of genuine Pythagoreanisni. Cf. the lit. p. 31.
<H the personalities of the new school, on the contrary, very little is known. The only distinct figure is Apollonina of Tyana, of whose life and nature the rhetorician Philostratus (ed. by C. L. Kayser, I^eips. 1870) gava a romantic representation at the beginning of the third century, in order to portray in it the ideal of the Pythagorean life. Of the works of Apollnniua himself, who liTtd in the first century a. d. , fragments of a biography of Pythagoras and of a treatise on Sacrifice are extant. Cf. Chr. Baur, Apolloniua unit ChriMut in Drti Abhandl. zur Ge»ch. d. alt. l'hilo$. (helps. 1876). [Treiiwell, Life of AfiUluniut of Tyana, contains a good bibliography, N. Y. 188)1. ] ilia con temporary, Biodaratna of Gades, might perhaps also be mentioned.
Neo- Pythagorean and Stoic doctrines appear mingled in the Eclectic Botlon of Alexandria, who was affiliated with the Sextains (cf. p. 103). His disciple, L Annaeua Bsnaca of Cordova (4-66 ad. ), was the leader of the Stoics in tht time of the Empire. He was instructor of Nero, was well known because of sis tragic fate, and also as tragic poet unfolded the rigid conceptions of life held
216 Hellenutic-Roman Thought. [Part II.
by bis school. Of his writings a considerable number of mainly ethical trea tises are preserved besides his EpistoUe (ed. by Haase, 3 vols. , Leips. 1862-3) [Eng. tr. (or rather paraphrase) by T. Lodge. Loud. 16U, Selections from this and from L'Estrange's Sentca't Moral* by Way of Abstract. Load. 1888, Came- lot series]. Cf. Chr. Baur, S. und Paulas in the Drri Abhandl. ; see above.
Besides him we mention L. Annxus Cornutus ^Phurnuius), a chief repre sentative of the Stoic interpretation of myths (Ilcpt r^t rir Mr ^iV«n, ed. by Osann, Gottingen, 1844), the satiric poetPenrae, the moralist C. Muaonina Rufus, and especially Eplctetua. who lived at the time of Douiitian. and whose doctrines were published by Arrian in two works, Aurpt/iai and ' Eyx'f*^1" ve<l- together with the commentary of Simplicios by J. Scbweighausrr. Leips. 1799 f. ) [tr. by G. Long, Bonn's library ; also by T. W. Higginson, Boston, I860]. Cf. A. Bonhoffer E. und die Stoa (Stuttgart, 1890).
With the noble Marcos Aurelius Antoninus the Stoa mounted the Roman imperial throne (161-180). His reflections t& tit alrrtr (ed. by J. Stich, Leips. 1882) are the characteristic monument of this eclectic-religious Stoicism. [Eng. tr. by G. Long. The Thoughts of the Emperor, M. Aurelius Antoninus, Lond. Bohn's lib. ; \V. Pater, Marias the Epicurean, Lond. and H. Y. 1888 ; M. Arnold in Essays. ]
In the ancient Grecian period, an original figure, that of the monkish wan dering preacher Teles, had gone out from the Cynic school (cf. v. Wilamovitz- Mullendorf, Philol. Unters, IV. 292 ff. ). In the time of the Empire this quaint creature was frequently copied and exaggerated even to the most ridiculous extent. Demetrius, Oinomaos of Gadara, Demonax (cf. Fritsche, Leips. I860), and Peregrinus Proteus, known through Lucian. belong to these figures. Cf. J. Bernays, Lukian und die Kyniker (Berlin, 1879).
Of the representatives of religious Platonism who kept at a distance from the number theory, may be mentioned the eclectic commentators Eudorua and Arius Didymua. Thrasyllus. the editor of the works of Plato and Democritus, and especially Plutarch of Chaeronea (about 100 a. i>. ), from whom, in addition to his famous biographies, a great number of other writings are preserved, especially philosophical treatises of dogmatic and polemical content (Moralia, ed. Dtibner ; Paris, Didot, Vols. III. and IV. 1855) (cf. R. Volkmann, Lebcn, Schriflen und Philosophic des P. , Berlin, 1872). [Plutarch's Morals, trans, ed. by Goodwin, 5 vols. , Boston, 1870 ; also tr. by Shilleto and by C. W. King, both in Bohn's lib. , Lond. 1888 and 1882 resp. ] We mention further **•»■*! tthi« of Tyre of the time of the Antonines ; his contemporary, Apuleius of Madaura, who belongs in this series not only on account of bis philosophical writings (ed. by A. Goldbacher, Vienna, 1876), but also on account of his allegorico-satincal romance, "The Golden Ass" (cf. Hildebrand in the introduction to his col lected works, Leips. 1842) [The Works of Apuleius, Bohn's lib. ] ; the oppo nent of Christianity, Celaus, whose treatise dXr^t XA70* (about 180) is known only from the counter- treatise of Origen, na-rd KA<roi> (cf. Th. Keim, C. " voahres
Wort," ZQrich, 1873); and lastly the physician Claudius Galen, who died about 200, and might, to be sure, with his broad eclecticism be likewise classed as a Peri patetic and also as a Stoic (cf. K. Sprengel, Beitrage zur (reach, d. Medicin, I. 117 ff. ).
From the same circle of ideas arose also the writings circulated under the name of Hermes Trismegistus, which belong to the third century (French tr. by L. Menard, Paris, 1866 ; partially published by G. Parthey, Berlin, 1864).
Among the Platonists of the second century Nicomacbus of Gerasa in Ara bia, of whose writings arithmetical text-books and (through Photius) an extract from a work ' Apitf/irjTucd Btokoyoiiuro. are extant, and Numenius of Apamea, concerning whom we owe our instruction mainly to Eusebius, are strongly Neo- Pythagorean. Cf. F. Thedinga (Bonn, 1875).
The entrance of Greek philosophy into Jewish theology may be traced back to the middle of the second century b. c, where it can be recognised in the Biblical explanation of Aristobuloa ; it appears then in a particularly marked manner, and in a form that is already much nearer the Alexandrian sphere of thought, in the pseudo-Solomonic Book of Wisdom. Yet these are but weak forerunners of the important creation of Philo of Alexandria, of whose life little more is known than that in the year 39, when already in advanced age, he was a member of an embassy from his native community to the Emperor Calig
Chap. •-». ]
The Religion* Period. 217
ola. His numerous writings, among which there is also much that is not genuine, were edited by Th. Mangey (Lond. 1742), Leips. stereotype ed. , 8 vols. , 1861-53 ; [Eng. tr. by C. D. Yonge, 4 vols. , Lond. , Bohn's lib. ].
F. Dihne, Die jiidisch-alexandrinische Beligionsphilosophie (Halle, 1834).
A. Gfrorer, Philon und die alexandrinische Theosophie (Stuttgart, 1835); M. Wolff, Die philonischt Philosophic (Gothenburg, 1858); Ewald, Gesch. de$
Volkes Israel, VI. 231 ff.
Among the Christian Apologists whose writings are collected in the Corpus
Apoioyetarum Christianorvm secundi sceculi, ed. by Otto (Jena, 1842 ff. ), the most prominent is Flavius Justin Martyr of Sichem, who lived in the middle of the second century. Two defensive writings and a dialogue with Trypho the Jew axe preserved [Eng. tr. in Ante-Nicene Ch. lib. , ed. by Roberts and Donald son. Edinburg, T. 4 T. Clark, 1867 —]. K. Semisch (2 vols. , Breslau, 1840-42), and B. Aube (Paris, 18(31) treat of him. Further Apologists from the Hellenic circle of culture are Aristldes (whose discourses, discovered in the Armenian language, were printed with a Latin translation, Venice, 1878), Athenagoras of Athens (rpta-ptla s-tpl Xpia-Ttar&e addressed to Marcus Aurelius about 176), Theophilus of Ant inch (a treatise addressed to Autolycus about 180), Melito of . Sard is, Apollinaris of Hierapolis, and others. — Latin literature presents especially Minucius Felix, whose dialogue Oft an' us was written about 200 >d. in the Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum, by C. Halm, Vienna, 1W7). The rhetorician, Firmianus Lactantius (about 300), is to be placed in the same series. His main treatise is the Institution's Divinoe [tr. of the above authors in Ante-Nicene lib. , see above].
Of the Gnostics our information comes essentially through their opponents, Iren»us (140-200 ; his treatise "EXryxot «al irarpowii ttjs yf>tvSuriiu>v yriiatut, ed. by A. Stieren, Leips. 1863), Hippolytus (Kurd racwr alpioiur f\ryx°*- *'''■ by I>uncker and Schneidewin, Gottingen, 1869), Tertullian (Adversus Valenti- nianos), etc. [Eng. tr. of the above writings in Ante-Nicene lib. , above]. Of Gnostic treatises only one, and that by an unknown author, is extant, VUara npU (ed. by Petermann, Berlin, 1861). Of the main representatives of this doctrine there were active in the first half of the second century Saturninus of Antioch, Basilides, a Syrian, and Carpocrates in Alexandria ; toward the ■riddle of the century VaJentinus. the most important of them (died about let)); and toward the end of the century Bardeaanea of Mesopotamia. — Expo sitions of the Onostif Systems by A. W. Neander (Berlin, 1818) [Eng. tr. by Tnrrey, Boston, 1866], E. Matter (Paris, 1843), Chr. Baur (Tubingen, 1836), A- Hilgenfeld (Jena, 1884), same author, Bardesancs, der letzte Gnostiker <Leips. 1864). — A. Harnack, Zur QucUenkritik der Geschichte des Gnosticismus (Leips. 1873); [H. L. Mansel, Gnostic Heresies, Lond. 1876].
The most radical opponent of Greek science was TaUan, an Assyrian, whose treatise npkt "EXXijrot arose about 170, but who later became himself an adherent of the Valentinian Gnosticism. The passionate Apologist Qu. Sep- timius Florens Tertullian (195-220, for a time Presbyter in Carthage) ended likewise in opposition to the Catholic Church, in the sect of the Montanists. Hi« works have been edited by Fr. Oehler (3 vols. , Leips. 1853 f. ), recently by A ReifJt-rscheid and Wlssowa (Vol. I. Vienna, 1890, in Corp. script, eccl. tat. ) [Eng tr. in Ante-Ntcene lib. ]. Cf. A. W. Neander, Antignostifus, Geist des
Tertullian, etc. (2d ed. Berlin, 1849) [Eng. tr. Bohn's lib. , 1851J; A. Hauck, 7V» Lef>en und Schriften, Erlangen, 1877). — In the same series, but from a later lime, is the African rhetorician Arnobius, whose seven books, Adversus
G'ntes. were composed about 300 (ed. by A. KeifTerscheid in Corp. script, ecel. 1st. . Vienna, 1876).
<*1 the writings of Clement of Alexandria (died about 217) three treatises are preserved, A470I wporprrTiitit vpii *EXXqra{ — IIai6a>u>>4« — £rpw/iarcit (ed. by J. Potter, Oxford, 1716) [tr. in Ante-Nicene lib. ]. From his school (cf. on the Alex. Catechetical school, Guericke, Halle, 1824 f , and Hasselbaoh, SteUin, 1636) went forth the founder nf Christian theology, Origan, surnamed the Ada- •matine. Born 18ft a. d. in Alexandria, equipped with the full education of the time, he came forward early as a teacher, fell into conflicts on account of his doctrines with the Synod, was by it removed from his nffice, and later lived in Cawarea and Tyre, dying in the latter place 2. 14. of his writings, aside from the above-mentioned treatise against Celsus, his work lUpl ipx&' is of chief importance ; It is extant almost only in the Latin version of Kufinus (ed. by
218 Hellenistic-Roman Thought : Religious Period. [Part II
Uedepenning, Leips. 1836) [tr. in Ante-Nicene lib. ]. Cf. J. Reinkens, De Clemente Presbytero Al. (Breslau, 1851); Redepenning, 0. , Darstellung seines Lebens und seiner Lehre (Bonn, 1841-46) [cf. Bigg, The Christian Platonitts
of Alexandria, Oxford, 1887 ; A. Harnack, Art. Origen in Ene. Brit. l.
A collection of the sources for all the Church writers of this period has been
issued by J. P. Migne, Patrologia; Cursus Computus (Paris, 1840 ff. ).
A certain Ammonius Saccus appears in old traditions as the founder of Neo-Flatonism, but nothing is known to justify this tradition. To his pupils belonged Plotinus, Origen, the rhetorician Iionginua (213-273), to whom the book llepl \nj/ovt was ascribed, and another Origen.
The true founder of the school was Plotinus (204-269). Born in Lycopolis in Egypt, and educated in Alexandria, he became a member of an expedition against the Persians in order to promote his religious studies, made a highly successful appearance as teacher in Rome about 244, and died on a country estate in Campania. His works, written late in life, were published by his disciple Porphyry, arranged in six enneads. Ed. by H. Mliller (Leips. 1878-80), with a German translation [Eng. tr. in part by Th. Taylor, Lond. 1787, 1704, 1817, French tr. by Bouillet, Paris, 1857-60]. Cf. H. Kirchner, Die Philos. des PI. (Halle, 1864). — A. Richter, Neuplatonische Studien (Halle, 1864 ff. ). — H. v. Kleist, Neuplat. Studien (Heidelberg, 1883). — [A. Harnack, Art. JVeo- Platonism in Enc. Brit. }
To the Alexandrian Neo-Platonism are reckoned further Gentilianus Ame lias of Ameria, and the Tyrian Porphyry (about 230-300). Among the ex tant writings, aside from the biographies of Plotinus and Pythagoras, are to be mentioned ' KQopnal irpAt tA mi)T&, an aphoristic abridgment of the system of Plotinus (printed in Creuzer's ed. of the works of Plotinus, Paris, 1855), the treatise On Abstemiousness (irepl iwoxv* ru>i> ^vxw, important on account of its use of the xepl t6<ref3clas of Theophrastus ; cf. J. Bernays, Berlin, 1866), and of the commentaries the Eicrayuyij elt t4i Kariryoplat (ed. by Busse, Berlin, 1877 ; and also in the Berlin ed. of Aristotle, Vol. IV. ).
Syrian Neo-Platonism was founded by Jamblichus of Chalcis in Coale- Syria (died about 330), a hearer of Porphyry. His writings were principally commentaries upon Hellenistic and Oriental theology. The following are par tially preserved : llepl tov IlvBayopucoQ plov (ed. by Westermann, Paris, 1850), A6701 rporptTT wit tit <pi\o<ro<plav (ed. by Kiessling, Leips. 1813), Iltpl rijt monnji vn0TiiuiTiKrjf hrurri)iir\t (ed. by Villoison, Venice, 1781) [Eng. tr. Life of Pyth. by Taylor, Lond. 1818, Egyptian Mysteries, by same, Chiswick, 1821].
