No More Learning

In the science of characterology, here formuliited for the first time, we have a strenuous scientific achievement of the first importance. All former psychologies have been the psy- chology of the male, written by men, and more or less consciously applicable only to man as distinguished from humanity. " Woman does not betray her secret," said Kant, and this has been true till now. But now she has revealed it --^by the voice of a man. The things women say about them- selveshavebeensuggestedbymen; theyrepeatthediscoveries, more or less real, which men have made about them. By a
? VI PUBLISHER'S NOTE
highly original method of analysis, a man has succeeded for the first time in giving scientific and abstract utterance to that which only some few great artists have suggested by concrete images hitherto. Weininger, working out an original system of characterology (psychological typology) rich in prospective possibilities, undertook the construction of a universal psy- chology of woman which penetrates to the nethermost depths, and is based not only on a vast systematic mastery of scientific knowledge, but on what can only be described as an appalling comprehension of the feminine soul in its most secret recesses. This newly created method embraces the whole domain of humanconsciousness; researchmustbecarriedoutonthelines laid down by Nature--in three stages, and from three distinct points of view : the biologico-physiological, the psychologically descriptive, and the philosophically appreciative. I will not dwell here on the equipment essential for such a task, the neces- sary combination of a comprehensive knowledge of natural history with a minute and exhaustive mastery of psychological and philosophical science--a combination destined, perhaps, to prove unique.
The general characterisation of the ideal woman, " W," is followed by the construction of individual types, which are finally resolved into two elemental figures (Platonic concep- tions to some extent), the Courtesan and the Mother. These are differentiated by their pre-occupation with the sexual act
(the main, and ir^the ultimate sense, sole interest of " W"), in the first case, as an end in itself, in the second as the process which results in the possession of a child. The abnormal type, the hysterical woman, leads up to a psychological (not physio- logical) theory of hysteria, which is acutely and convincingly defined as " the organic mendacity of woman. "
Weininger himself attached the highest importance to the ethico-philosophical chapters that conclude his work, in which he passes from the special problem of sexuality to the problems of individual talent, genius, aesthetics, memory, the ego, the Jewish race, and many others, nsing finally to the ultimate logical and moral principles of judgment. From his most universal standpoint he succeeds in estimating woman as a part ofhumanity,and,aboveall,subjectively. Herehedeliberately
;:
? PUBLISHER'S NOTE vu?
comes into sharp conflict with the fashionable tendencies towards an unscientific monism and its accompanying phe- nomena, pan-sexuality and the ethics of species, and charac- terises very aptly the customary superficialities of the many non-philosophical modern apostles, of whom Wilhelm Bo? lsche and Ellen Key are perhaps the most representative types. Weininger, in defiance of all reigning fashions, represents a consolidated dualism, closely related to the eternal systems of Plato, of Christianity, and of Kant, which finds an original issue in a bitterly tragic conception of the universe. Richard
Wagner gives artistic expression in his Parsifal to the con- ception Weininger sets forth scientifically. It is, in fact, the old doctrine of the divine life and of redemption to which the whole book, with its array of detail, is consecrated. In Kundry, Weininger recognises the most profound conception of woman in all literature. In her redemption by the spotless Parsifal, the young philosopher sees the way of mankind marked out; he contrasts with this the programme of the modern feminist movement, with its superficialities and its lies and so, in conclusion, the book returns to the problem, which, in spite of all its wealth of thought, remains its governing idea the problem of the sexes and the possibility of a moral relation between them--a moral relation fundamentally different from
whatiscommonlyunderstoodbytheterm,ofcourse. Inthis volume is revealed the mind of one who was, it may be believed, a conscientious student, and to whom life brought only unhap- pinessandtragedy. Nothoughtfulmancanlaydownthebook without being impressed by the earnestness and the honesty of the author's investigations.
? AUTHOR'S PREFACE
This book is an attempt to place the relations of Sex in a new and decisive light. It is an attempt not to collect the greatest possible number of distinguishing characters, or to arrange into a system all the results of scientific measur- ing and experiment, but to refer to a single principle the whole contrast between man and woman. In this respect the book differs from all other works on the same subject. It does not linger over this or that detail, but presses on to its ultimate goal ; it does not heap investigation on investi- gation, but combmes the psychical differences between the sexes into a system ; it deals not with women, but with woman. It sets out, mdeed, from the most common and obvious facts, but intends to reach a smgle, concrete prin- ciple. This is not " inductive metaphysics "
approach to the heart of psychology.
The investigation is not of details, but of principles ; it
does not despise the laboratory, although the help of the laboratory, with regard to the deeper problems, is limited as compared with the results of introspective analysis. An artist who wishes to represent the female form can construct a type without actually giving formal proof by a series of measurements. The artist does not despise experimental results ; on the contrary, he regards it as a duty to gain experience ; but for him the collection of experimental knowledge is merely a starting-point for self-exploration,
and in art self-exploration is exploration of the world.
The psychology used in this exposition is purely philo- sophical, although its characteristic method, justified by the subject, is to set out from the most trivial details of ex- perience. Thetaskofthephilosopherdiffersfromthatof
; it is a gradual
? X AUTHOR'S PREFACE
the artist in one important respect. The one deals in sym- bols, the other in ideas. Art and philosophy stand to one anotherasexpressionandmeaning. Theartisthasbreathed in the world to breathe it out again ; the philosopher has the world outside him and he has to absorb it.
There is always something pretentious in theory ; and the real meaning--which in a work of art is Nature herself and in a philosophical system is a much condensed generalisa- tion, a thesis going to the root of the matter and proving itself--appears to strike against us harshly, almostoffensively. Where my exposition is anti-feminine, and that is nearly everywhere, men themselves will receive it with little hearti- ness or conviction ; their sexual egoism makes them prefer to see woman as they would like to have her, as they would like her to be.
I need not say that I am prepared for the answer women will have to the judgment I have passed on their sex. My investigation, indeed, turns against man in the end, and although in a deeper sense than the advocates of women's rights could anticipate, assigns to man the heaviest and mostrealblame. Butthiswillhelpmelittleandisofsuch a nature that it cannot in the smallest way rehabilitate me in the minds of women.
The analysis, however, goes further than the assignment ofblame; itrisesbeyondsimpleandsuperficialphenomena to heights from which there opens not only a view into the nature of woman and its meaning in the universe, but also the relation to mankind and to the ultimate and most lofty problems. AdefiniterelationtotheproblemofCultureis attained, and we reach the part to be played by woman in thesphereofidealaims. There,also,wheretheproblems of Culture and of Mankind coincide, I try not merely to explain but to assign values, for, indeed, in that region explanation and valuation are identical.
To such a wide outlook my investigation was as it were driven,notdeliberatelysteered,fromtheoutset. Theinade- quacy of all empirical psychological philosophy follows directly from empirical psychology itself. The respect for
? AUTHOR'S PREFACE xi
empirical knowledge will not be injured, but rather will the meaning of such knowledge be deepened, if man recognises in phenomena, and it is from phenomena that he sets out, any elements assuring him that there is something behind phenomena, if he espies the signs that prove the existence of something higher than phenomena, something that supports phenomena. We may be assured of such a first principle, although no living man can reach it. Towards such a principle this book presses and will not flag.
(Within the narrow limits to which as yet the problem of woman and of woman's rights has been confined, there has been no place for the venture to reach so high a goal. None the less the problem is bound intimately with the deepest riddles of existence. It can be solved, practically or theoretically, morally or metaphysically, only in relation to an interpretation of the cosmos.
Comprehension of the universe, or what passes for such, stands in no opposition to knowledge of details ; on the other hand all special knowledge acquires a deeper meaning because of it. Comprehension of the universe is self- creative ; it cannot arise, although the empirical knowledge of every age expects it, as a synthesis of however great a sum of empirical knowledge.
In this book there lie only the germs of a world-scheme, and these are allied most closely with the conceptions of Plato, Kant and Christianity. I have been compelled for the most part to fashion for myself the scientific, psycho- logical, philosophical, logical, ethical groundwork. I think that at the least I have laid the foundations of many things into which I could not go fully. I call special attention to the defects of this part of my work because I attach more importance to appreciation of what I have tried to say about the deepest and most general problems than to the interest which will certainly be aroused by my special investigation of the problem of woman.
The philosophical reader may take it amiss to find a treatment of the loftiest and ultimate problems coinciding with the investigation of a special problem of no great
? xii AUTHOR'S PREFACE
dignity ; I share with him this distaste. I may say, how- ever, that I have treated throughout the contrast between the sexes as the starting-point rather than the goal of my research. The investigation has yielded a harvest rich in its bearing on the fundamental problems of logic and their relations to the axioms of thought, on the theory of aesthetics, of love, and of the beautiful and the good, and on problems such as individuality and morality and their relations, on the phenomena of genius, the craving for immortality and Hebraism. Naturally these comprehensive interrelations aid the special problem, for, as it is considered from so many points of view, its scope enlarges. And if in this wider sense it be proved that culture can give only the smallest hope for the nature of woman, if the final results are a depreciation, even a negation of womanhood, there will be
no attempt in this to destroy what exists, to humble what has a value of its own. Horror of my own deed would overtake me were I here only destructive and had I left only a clean sheet. Perhaps the affirmations in my book are less articulate, but he that has ears to hear will hear them.
The treatise falls into two parts, the first biological- psychological, the second logical-philosophical. It may be objected that I should have done better to make two books, the one treating of purely physical science, the other intro- spective. It was necessary to be done with biology before turnmg to psychology. The second part treats of certain psychical problems in a fashion totally different from the method of any contemporary naturalist, and for that reason
I think that the removal of the first part of the book would have been at some risk to many readers. Moreover, the first part of the book challenges an attention and criticism from natural science possible in a few places only in the second part, which is chiefly introspective. Because the second part starts from a conception of the universe that is anti-positivistic, many will think it unscientific (although there is given a strong proof against Positivism). For the present I must be content with the conviction that I have rendered its due to Biology, and that I have established
? AUTHOR'S PREFACE xiii
an enduring position for non-biological, non-physiological psychology.
'My investigation may be objected to as in certain points notbeingsupportedbyenoughproof,butI seelittleforce in such an objection. For in these matters what can " proof " mean ? I am not dealing with mathematics or with the theory of cognition (except with the latter in two cases) ; I am dealing with empirical knowledge, and in that one can do no more than point to what exists ; in this region proof means no more than the agreement of new experience with old experience, and it is much the same whether the new phenomena have been produced experi- mentally by men, or have come straight from the creative hand of nature. Of such latter proofs my book contains many.
Finally, I should like to say that my book, if I may be allowed to judge it, is for the most part not of a quality to be understood and absorbed at the first glance. I point out this myself, to guide and protect the reader.
The less I found myself able in both parts of the book (and especially in the second) to confirm what now passes for knowledge, the more anxious I have been to point out coincidences where I found myself in agreement with what has already been known and said.
I have to thank Professor Dr. Laurenz Mu? llner for the great assistance he has given me, and Professor Dr. Friedrich Jodl for the kindly interest he has taken in my work from the beginning. I am specially indebted to the kind friends who have helped me with correction of the proofs.
CONTENTS Author's Preface to the First German Edition
FIRST OR PREPARATORY PART SEXUAL COMPLEXITY
Introduction
. . ix
On the development of general conceptions--Male and female --Contradictions--Transitional forms--Anatomyand natural endowment--Uncertainty of anatomy
CHAPTER I
Males and Females 5
Embryonic neutral condition -- Rudiments in the adult Degrees of " gonochorism "--Principle of intermediate forms Male and female--Need for typical conceptions--Resum6 Early anticipations
CHAPTER II
Male and Female Plasmas XI
Position of sexuality--Steenstrup's view adopted--Sexual characters--Internal secretions--Idioplasm--Arrhenoplasm --Thelyplasm--Variations--Proofs from the effects of cas- tration--Transplantation and transfusion--Organotherapy Individual differences between eells--Origin of intermediate sexual conditions--Brain--Excess of male births--Determi- nation of sex--Comparative pathology
--
? -- -- xvi CONTENTS
CHAPTER III
. . .
Pofe <<6
? The Laws of Sexual Attractiom
. .
Sexual preference--Probability of these being controlled by a law--First formula--First interpretation--Proofs--Hetero- stylism--Interpretation of heterostylism--Animal kingdom Furtherlaws--Secondformula Chemotaxis--Resemblances and differences--Goethe, " elective affinities--Marriage and free love--Effects on progeny
CHAPTER IV
Homo-sexuality and Pederasty
Homo-sexuals as intermediate forms--Inborn or acquired, healthy or diseased ? --A special instance of the law of attrac- tion--All men have the rudiments of homo-sexuality--Friend- ship and sexuality--Animals--Failure of medical treatment --Homo-sexuality, punishment and ethics--Distinction between homo-sexuality and pederasty
CHAPTER V
45
The Science of Character and the Science of Form . 53
Principle of sexually intermediate forms as fundamental prin- ciple ol the psychology rf>f individuals--Simultaneity or periodicity? --Methods of psychological investigation EJcamples--Individualised education--Conventionalising-- Parallelism between morphology and characterology--Phy- siognomy and the principles of psycho-physics--Method of the doctrine of variation--A new way of stating the prob- lem--Deductive morphology--Correlation--Outlook
Emancipated Women
. . .
64
CHAPTER VI
The woman question--Claim for emancipation and maleness^ Emancipation and homo-sexuality--Sexual preferences of emancipated women--Physiognomy of emancipated women Other celebrated womeo--Femaleness and emancipation
--
--"
? CONTENTS
Practical rules Genius essentially male--Movements of women in historical times--Periodicity--Biology and the conception of history--Outlook of the woman movement Its fundamental error
SECOND OR PRINCIPAL PART THE SEXUAL TYPES
CHAPTER I
Man and Woman
Bisexuality and unisexuality--Man or woman, male or female --Fundamental difficulty in characterology--Experiment, analysis of sensation and psychology--Dilthey--Conception of empirical character--What is and what is not the object of psychology--Character and individuality--Problem of characterology and the problem of the sexes
xvii Pagt
CHAPTER II
Male and Female Sexuality
The problem of a female psychology--Man as the interpreter of female psychology--Differences in the sexual impulse The absorbing and liberating factors--Intensity and activity --Sexual irritability of women--Larger field of the sexual life in woman--Local diff'erences in the perception of sexuality Local and periodical cessation of male sexuality--Differ- ences in the degrees of consciousness of sexuality
CHAPTER III
Male and Female Consciousness
Sensation and feeling--Avenarius' division into " element and '? character. " These inseparable at the earliest stage Process of " clarification "--Presentiments--Grades of under- standing--Forgetting--Paths and organisation--Conception of " henids "--The henid as the simplest, psychical datum
--Sexual differences in the organisation of the contents of b
85
79
93
--
? xviii CONTENTS
the mind--Sensibility--Certainty of judgment--Developed consciousness as a male character
CHAPTER IV
Talent and Genius
Genius and talent-- Genius and giftedness--Methods--Com- prehension of many men--What is meant by comprehending men--Great complexity of genius--Periods in psychic hfe No disparagement of famous men--Understanding and notic- ing--Universal consciousness of genius--Greatest distance from the henid stage--A higher grade of maleness--Genius always universal--The female devoid of genius or of hero- worship--Giftedness and sex
CHAPTER V
Talent and Memory
Organisation and the power of reproducing thoughts--Memory of experiences a sign of genius--Remarks and conclusions Remembrance and apperception--Capacity for comparison and acquisition--Reasons for the masculinity of music, drawing and painting--Degrees of genius--Relation of genius to ordinary men--Autobiography--Fixed ideas--Remem- brance of personal creations--Continuous and discontinu- ance memory--Continuity and piety--Past and present Past and future--Desire for immortality--Existing psycho- logical explanations--True origin--Inner development of man until death--Ontogenetic psychology or theoretical biography-- Woman lacking in the desire for immortality Further extension of relation of memory to genius--Memory and time--Postulate of timelessness--Value as a timeless quality--First law of the theory of value--Proofs--Individua- tion and duration constituents of value--Desire for immor- tality a special case--Desire for immortality in genius con- nected with timelessness, by his universal memory and the duration of his creations--Genius and history--Genius and nations--Genius and language--Men of action and men of science, not to be called men of genius--Philosophers, founders of reUgion and artists have genius
Pmft
CONTENTS
CHAPTER VI
Memory, Logic and Ethics
Psychology and " psychologismus "--Value
xix Page
. 14a
of memory Theory of memory--Doctrines of practice and of association
--Confusion with recognition --Memory peculiar to man Moral significance--Lies--Transition to logic-- Memory and the principle of identity--Memory and the syllogism Woman non-logical and non-ethical--Intellectual and moral knowledge--The intelligible ego
CHAPTER VII
Logic, Ethics and the Ego 153
Critics of the conception of the Ego--Hume: Lichtenberg, Mach--The ego of Mach and biology--Individuation and individuaUty--Logic and ethics as witnesses for the exist- ence of the ego--Logic--Laws of identity and of contraries --Their use and significance--Logical axioms as the laws of essence--Kant and Fichte--Freedom of thought and freedom of the will--Ethics--Relation to logic--The psychology of the Kantian ethics--Kant and Nietzsche
CHAPTER VIII
The ? ' I " Problem and Genius 165
Characterology and the belief in the *' I "--Awakening of the ego--Jean Paul, Novalis, Schelling--The awakening of the ego and the view of the world--Self-consciousness and arro- gance--The view of the genius to be more highly valued than that of other men--Final statements as to the idea of genius--The personality of the genius as the perfectly-con- scious microcosm--The naturally- synthetic activity of genius --Significant and symbolical--Definition of the genius in relation to ordinary men--Universality as freedom--Morality or immoraUty of genius ? --Duties towards self and others What duty to another is--Criticism of moral sympathy and social ethics--Understanding of other men as the one require-
--
? CONTENTS
ment of morality and knowledge--I and thou--Individualism and universalism--Morality only in monads--The man of greatest genius as the most moral man--Why man is faop voXiTiKov--Consciousness and morality--The great criminaf --Genius as duty and submission--Genius and crime Genius and insanity--Man as his own creator
CHAPTER IX
Male and Female Psychology i86^
SouUessness of woman--History of this knowledge--Woman devoid of genius--No masculine women in the true sense The unconnectedness of woman's nature due to her want of an ego--Revision of the henid-theory--Female " thought " --Idea and object--Freedom of the object--Idea and judg- ment--Nature of judgment--Woman and truth as a criterion of thought--Woman and logic --Woman non-moral, not immoral--Woman and soUtude--Womanly sympathy and modesty--The ego of women--Female vanity--Lack of true self-appreciation --Memory for compliments--Introspection and repentance--Justice and jealousy--Name and individu- aUty--Radical difference between male and female mental life--Psychology with and without soul--Is psychology a science ? --Soul and psychology--Problem of the influence of the psychical sexual characters of the male or the female
CHAPTER X
Motherhood and Prostitution <<14
Special characterology of woman--Mother and prostitute Relation of two types to the child--Woman polygamous Analogies between motherhood and sexuality--Motherhood and the race--Maternal love ethically indifferent--The pros- titute careless of the race--The prostitute, the criminal and the conqueror--Emperor and prostitute--Motive of the pros- titute--Coitus an end in itself--Coquetry--The sensations of the woman in coitus in relation to the rest of her life--The prostitute as the enemy--The friend of life and its enemy No prostitution amongst animals--Its origin a mystery
XX
--
? --
? CONTENTS xxi Fage
CHAPTER XI
Erotics and iEsxHETics 236
Women, and the hatred of women--Erotics and sexuality Platonic love--The idea of love--Beauty of women--Relation to sexual impulse--Love and beauty--Difference between aesthetics, logic and ethics--Modes of love--Projection phe- nomena--Beauty and morality--Nature and ethics--Natural and artistic beauty--Sexual love as guilt--Hate, love and morality--Creation of the devil--Love and sympathy--Love
and shyness--Love and vanity--Love of woman as a means to an end--Relation between the child and love, the child and sexuahty--Love and murder--Madonna-worship--Madonna, a male idea, without basis in womanhood--Woman sexual, not erotic--Sense of beauty in women--How man acts on woman--The fate of the woman--Why man loves woman
CHAPTER XII
The Nature of Woman and Her Significance in the Universe 252
Meaning of womanhood--Instinct for pairing or matchmaking --Man, and matchmaking--High valuation of coitus--Indi- vidual sexual impulse, a special case--Womanhood as pairing or universal sexuality--Organic falseness of woman Hysteria--Difference between man and beast, woman and man--The higher and lower life--Birth and death--Freedom and happiness--Happiness and man--Happiness and woman --Woman and the problem of existence--Non-existence of woman--Male and female friendship--Pairing identical with womanhood--Why women must be regarded as human Gantrast between subject--Object, matter, form, man,
woman--Meaning of henids--Formation of woman by man --Significance of woman in the universe--Man as something, woman as nothing--Psychological problem of the fear of woman--Womanhood and crime--Creation of woman by man's crime--Woman as his own sexuality accepted by man --Woman as the guilt of man--What man's love of woman is. in its deepest significance
Differences amongst men--Intermediate forms and racial anthropology -- Comparison of Judaism and femaleness --Jud. dsm as an idea--Antisemitism--Rictiard Wagner Similarities between Jews and women--Judaism in science The Jew not a monad--The Jew and the Englishman Natureofhumour--Humourandsatire--TheJewess--Deepest significance of Judaism--Want of faith--The Jew not non- mystical, yet impious--Want of earnestness, and pride--The Jew as opposed to the hero--Judaism and Christianity Origin of Christianity--Problem of the founders of religion --Christ as the conqueror of the Judaism in Himself--The founders of religions as the greatest of men--Conquest of
inherent Judaism necessary for all founders of reUgion Judaism and the present time--Judaism, femaleness, culture and humanity
CHAPI ERXIV
Woman and Mankind
The idea of humanity, and woman as the match-maker Goethe-worship--Womanising of man--Virginity and purity --Maleoriginoftheseideas- Failureofwomantounderstand the erotic--Woman's relation to sexuality--Coitus and love --Woman as the enemy of her own emancipation--Asceticism immoral--Sexual impulse as a want of respect-- Problem of the Jew--Problem of the woman--Problem of slavery--Moral relation to women--Man as the opponent of emancipation Ethical postulates--Two possibilities--The problem of women as the problem of humanity--Subjection of women Persistence or disappearance of the human race--True ground of the immorality of the sexual impulse--Earthly paternity--Inclusion of women in the conception of humanity --The mother and the education of the human race--Last questions
331
Index ? 350
--
? xxu? CONTENTS CHAPTER XIII
Judaism
^'^
301
? FIRST OR PREPARATORY PART SEXUAL COMPLEXITY
? INTRODUCTION
All thought begins with conceptions to a certain extent generalised, and thence is developed in two directions. On the one hand, generalisations become wider and wider, binding together by common properties a larger and larger number of phenomena, and so embracing a wider field of the world of facts. On the other hand, thought approaches more closely the meeting-point of all conceptions, the individual, the concrete complex unit towards which w^e approach only by thinking in an ever-narrowing circle, and by continually being able to add new specific and differen- tiating attributes to the general idea, " thing," or " some- thing. " It was known that fishes formed a class of the animal kingdom distinct from mammals, birds, or inverte- brates, long before it was recognised on the one hand that fishes might be bony or cartilaginous, or on the other that fishes, birds and mammals composed a group differing from
the invertebrates by many common characters.
The self-assertion of the mind over the world of facts in all its complexity of innumerable resemblances and differences has been compared with the rule of the struggle for existence among living beings. Our conceptions stand between us and reality. It is only step by step that we cancontrolthem. Asinthecaseofamadman,wemayfirst have to throw a net over the whole body so that some limit may be set to his struggles ; and only after the whole has been thus secured, is it possible to attend to the proper
restraint of each limb.
Two general conceptions have come down to us from
primitive mankind, and from the earliest times have held our mental processes in their leash. Many a time these
A
;
? 2 SEX AND CHARACTER
conceptions have undergone trivial corrections ; they have been sent to the workshop and patched in head and limbs they have been lopped and added to, expanded here, con- tracted there, as when new needs pierce through and through an old law of suffrage, bursting bond after bond. None the less, in spite of all amendment and alteration, we have still to reckon with the primitive conceptions, male and female.
It is true that among those we call women are some who are meagre, narrow-hipped, angular, muscular, energetic, highly mentalised ; there are " women " with short hair and deep voices, just as there are " men " who are beardless and gossiping. We know, in fact, that there are unwomanly women, man-like women, and unmanly, womanish, woman- like men. \We assign sex to human beings from their birth on one character only, and so come to add contradictory ideastoourconceptions. Suchacourseisillogical/
In private conversation or in society, in scientific or general meetings, we have all taken part in frothy discus- sions on " Man and Woman," or on the " Emancipation of Women. " There is a pitiful monotony in the fashion according to which, on such occasions, "men" and "women" have been treated as if, like red and white balls, they were alike in all respects save colour. In no case has the discussion been confined to an individual case, and as every one had different individuals in their mind, a real agreement was impossible. As people meant different things by the same words, there was a complete disharmony be- tween language and ideas. Is it really the case that all women and men are marked off sharply from each other, the women, on the one hand, alike in all points, the men on the other ? It is certainly the case that all previous treat- ment of the sexual differences, perhaps unconsciously, has implied this view. And yet nowhere else in nature is there such a yawning discontinuity. There are transitional forms between the metals and non-metals, between chemical com- binations and mixtures, between animals and plants, between phanerogams and cryptogams, and between mammals and
;
? INTRODUCTION
3 birds. Itisonlyinobediencetothemostgeneral,practical demand for a superficial view that we classify, make sharp divisions, pick out a single tune from the continuous melody of nature. But the old conceptions of the mind, like the customs of primitive commerce, become foolish in a new age. From the analogies I have given, the improbability may henceforward be taken for granted of finding in nature a sharp cleavage between all that is masculine on the one side and all that is feminine on the other ; or that a living being is so simple in this respect that it can be put wholly on one side or the other of the line. Matters are not so
clear.
In the controversy as to the woman question, appeal has
been made to the arbitration of anatomy, in the hope that by that aid a line could be drawn between those characters of males or females that are unalterable because inborn, and those that are acquired. (It was a strange adventure to attempt to decide the differences between the natural endowment of men and women on anatomical results to suppose that if all other investigation failed to establish the difference, the matter could be settled by a few more grains of brain-weight on the one side. ) ^However, the answer of the anatomists is clear enough, whether it refer to the brain or to any other portion of the body ; absolute sexual distinctions between all men on the one side and all women on the other do not exist) Although the skeleton of the hand of most men is different from that of most women, yet the sex cannot be determined with certainty either from the skeleton or from an isolated part with its muscles, tendons, skin, blood and nerves. The same is true of the chest, sacrum or skull. And what are we to say of the pelvis, that part of the skeleton in which, if anywhere, striking sexual differences exist ? It is almost universally believed that in the one case the pelvis is adapted for the act of parturition, intheothercaseisnotsoadapted. Andyetthecharacter of the pelvis cannot be taken as an absolute criterion of sex. There are to be found, and the wayfarer knows this as well as the anatomist, many women with narrow male-like pelves,
? SEX AND CHARACTER
4
and many men with the broad pelves of women. Are we then to make nothing of sexual differences ? That would imply, almost, that we could not distinguish between men and women.
From what quarter are we to seek help in our problem ? The old doctrine is insufficient, and yet we cannot make shift without it. If the received ideas do not suffice, it must be our task to seek out new and better guides.
;
? CHAPTER I
"MALES" AND "FEMALES"
In the widest treatment of most living things, a blunt separa- tion of them into males or females no longer suffices for the known facts. The limitations of these conceptions have beenfeltmoreorlessbymanywriters. Thefirstpurpose of this work is to make this point clear.
I agree with other authors who, in a recent treatment of the facts connected with this subject, have taken as a start- ing-point what has been established by embryology regard- ing the existence in human beings, plants, and animals of an embryonic stage neutral as regards sex.
In the case of a human embryo of less than five weeks, for instance, the sex to which it would afterwards beiong cannot be recognised. In the fifth week of fcetal life pro- cesses begin which, by the end of the fifth month of preg- nancy, have turned the genital rudiments, at first alike m the sexes, into one sex and have determined the sex of the whole organism. The details of these processes need not be described more fully here. It can be shown that how- ever distinctly unisexual an adult plant, animal or human being may be, there is always a certain persistence of the bisexual character,<never a complete disappearance of the
charactersoftheandevelopedsex) Sexualdifferentiation,in fact, is never complete. All the peculiarities of the male sex may be present in the female in some form, however weakly developed ; and so also the sexual characteristics of the woman persist in the man, although perhaps they are not so completely rudimentary. The characters of the other sex occur in the one sex in a vestigial form. Thus, in the
? 6 SEX AND CHARACTER
case of human beings, in which our interest is greatest, to take an example, it will be found that the most womanly woman has a growth of colourless hair, known as "lanugo" in the position of the male beard ; and in the most manly man there are developed under the skin of the breast masses of glandular tissue connected with the nipples. ^This con- dition of things has been minutely investij^ated in the true genital organs and ducts, the region called the " urino-geni- tal tract," and in each sex there has been found a complete but rudimentary set of parallels to the organs of the other sex. /
These embryological conclusions can be brought into relation with another set of facts. Haeckel has used the word " gonochorism " for the separation ol the sexes, and in different classes and groups of creatures different degrees of gonochorism may be noted. Different kmds of animals and plants may be distinguished by the extent to which the characters of one sex are rudimentary in the other. The most extreme case of sexual differentiation, the sharpest gonochorism, occurs in sexual dimorphism, that is to say, in that condition of affairs in which (as for instance in some water-fleas) the males and females of the same species differ as much or even more from each other as the members of different species, or genera. There is not so sharply marked gonochorism amongst vertebrates as in the caseofCrustaceaorinsects. Amongsttheformertheredoes not exist a distinction betwee i m des and females so complete as to reach sexual dimorphis n. A condition much more frequent amongst them is the occurrence of forms inter- mediate in regard to sex, what is called abnormal hermaph- roditism ; whilst in certain fishes hermaphroditism is the
normal condition.
I must point out here that it must not be assumed that
there exist only extreme males with scanty remnants of the female condition, extreme females with traces of the male, hermaphrodite or transitional forms, and wide gaps between theseconditions. I amdealingspeciallywithhumanbeings, but what I have to say of them might be applied, with more
? I
7 or less modification, to nearly all creatures in which sexual
"MALES" AND "FEMALES"
reproduction takes place.
Amongst human beings the state of the case is as follows :
There exist all sorts of intermediate conditions between male andfemale--sexualtransitionalforms. Inphysicalinquiries an " ideal gas " is assumed, that is to say, a gas, the be- haviour of which follows the law of Boyle-Guy-Lussac exactly, although, in fact, no such gas exists, and laws are deduced from this so that the deviations from the ideal laws maybeestablishedinthecaseofactuallyexistinggases. In the same fashion we may suppose the existence of an ideal man, M, and of an ideal woman, W, as sexual types, although these types do not actually exist. Such types not only can be constructed, but must be constructed. As in
art so in science, the real purpose is to reach the type, the Platonic Idea. The science of physics investigates the behaviour of bodies that are absolutely rigid or absolutely elastic, in the full knowledge that neither the one nor the other actually exists. The intermediate conditions actually existing between the two absolute states of matter serve merely as a starting-point for investigation of the *' types" and in the practical application of the theory are treated as mixtures and exhaustively analysed. So also there exist only the intermediate stages between absolute males and females, the absolute conditions never presenting them- selves.
Let it be noted clearly that I am discussing the existence not merely of embryonic sexual neutrality, but of a per- manent bisexual condition. Nor am I taking into con- sideration merely those intermediate sexual conditions, those bodily or psychical hermaphrodites upon which, up to the present, attention has been concentrated. In
^'anotherrespectmyconceptionisnew. Untilnow,indeal- ing with sexual intermediates, only hermaphrodites were considered ; as if, to use a physical analogy, there were in between the two extremes a single group of intermediate forms, and not an intervening tract equally beset with stages in different degrees of transition.
? 8 SEX AND CHARACTER
The fact is that males and females are like two sub- stances combined in different proportions, but with either element never wholly missing. We find, so to speak, never either a man or a woman, but only the male con- ditionandthefemalecondition. Anyindividual,"A"or " B," is never to be designated merely as a man or a woman, but by a formula showing that it is a composite of male and female characters in different proportions, for instance, as follows :
la'W Xss'M
always remembering that each of the factors a, a, ss, ss' must be greater than o and less than unity.
Further proofs of the validity of this conception are numerous, and I have already given, in the preface, a few of the most general. We may recall the existence of " men " with female pelves and female breasts, with narrow waists, overgrowth of the hair of the head; or of " women " with small hips and flat breasts, with deep bass voices and beards (the presence of hair on the chin is more common than is supposed, as women naturally are at pains to remove it ; I am not speaking of the special growth that often appears on the faces of women who have reached middle age). All such peculiarities, many of them coin- ciding in the same individuals, are well known to doctors and anatomists, although their general significance has not been understood.
One of the most striking proofs of the view that I have been unfolding is presented by the great range of numerical variation to be found where sexual characters have been measured either by the same or by different anthropological oranatomicalworkers. Thefiguresobtainedbymeasuring female characters do not begin where those got from males leaveoff,butthetwosetsoverlap. Themoreobviousthis uncertainty in the theory of sexual intermediate forms may be, the more is it to be deplored in the interests of true science. Anatomists and anthropologists of the ordinary
? <<MALES" AND"FEMALES"
9 :ype have by no means striven against the scientific repre- sentation of the sexual types, but as for the most part they regarded measurements as the best indications, they were overwhelmed with the number of exceptions, and thus, so far, measurement has brought only vague and indefinite
results.
The course of statistical science, which marks off our in-
dustrial age from earlier times, although perhaps on account of its distant relation to mathematics it has been regarded as specially scientific, has in reality hindered the progress of knowledge. It has dealt with averages, not with types. It has not been recognised that in pure, as opposed to applied, science it is the type that must be studied. And so those who are concerned with the type must turn their backs on the methods and conclusions of current morphology and physiology. The real measurements and investigations of details have yet to be made. Those that now exist are inapplicable to true science.
Knowledge must be obtained of male and female by means of a right construction of the ideal man and the ideal woman, using the word ideal in the sense of typical, excluding judg- ment as to value. When these types have been recognised and built up we shall be in a position to consider individual cases, and their analysis as mixtures in different proportions will be neither difficult not fruitless.
I shall now give a summary of the contents of this chap- ter. Living beings cannot be described bluntly as of one sex or the other. The real world from the point of view of sex may be regarded as swaying between two points, no actual individual being at either point, but somewhere be- tweenthetwo. Thetaskofscienceistodefinetheposition of any individual between these two points. The absolute conditions at the two extremes are not metaphysical abstrac- tions above or outside the world of experience, but their construction is necessary as a philosophical and practical mode of describing the actual world.
A presentiment of this bisexuality of life (derived from the actual absence of complete sexual differentiation) is very old.
? 10 SEX AND CHARACTER
TracesofitmaybefoundinChinesemyths,butit became active in Greek thought. We may recall the mythical per- sonification of bisexuality in the Hermaphroditos, the narrative of Aristophanes in the Platonic dialogue, or in later times the suggestion of a Gnostic sect (Theophites) that primitive man was a " man-woman. "
? CHAPTER II
MALE AND FEMALE PLASMAS
The first thing expected of a book like this, the avowed object of which is a complete revision of facts hitherto accepted, is that it should expound a new and satisfactory account of the anatomical and physiological characters of thesexualtypes. Quiteapartfromtheabstractquestionas to whether the complete survey of a subject so enormous isnotbeyondthepowersofoneindividual,I mustatonce disclaim any intention of making the attempt. I do not pretend to have made sufficient independent investigations in a field so wide, nor do I think such a review necessary for the purpose of this book. Nor is it necessary to give a
compilation of the results set out by other authors, for Havelock Ellis has already done this very well. Were I to attempt to reach the sexual types by means of the probable inferences drawn from his collected results, my work would be a mere hypothesis and science might have been spared a new book. The arguments in this chapter, therefore, will be of a rather formal and general nature ; they will relate to biological principles, but to a certain extent will lay stress on the need for a closer investigation of certain definite points, work which must be left to the future, but which may be rendered more easy by my indications.
Those who know little of Biology may scan this section hastily, and yet run little risk of failing to understand what follows.
The doctrine of the existence of different degrees of masculinity and femininity may be treated, in the first place, on purely anatomical lines. Not only the anatomical form,
? 12 SEX AND CHARACTER
but the anatomical position of male and female characters mustbediscussed. Theexamplesalreadygivenofirxual differences in other parts of the body showed that sexuality isnotlimitedtothegenitalorgansandglands. Butwhere are the limits to be placed ? Do they not reach beyond the primary and secondary sexual characters ? In other words, where does sex display itself, and where is it without influence ?
Many points came to light in the last decade, which bring fresh support to a theory first put forward in 1840, but which at the time found little support since it appeared to be in direct opposition to facts held as established alike by the author of the theory and by his opponents. The theory in question, first suggested by the zoologist Steenstrup, of Copenhagen,^^but since supported by many others, is that sexual characters are present in every part of the body. )
Ellis has collected the results of investigations on almost every tissue of the body, which serve to show the universal presence of sexual differences. It is plain that there is a striking difference in the coloration of the typical male and female. This fact establishes the existence of sexual differences in the skin (cutis) and in the blood-vessels, and also in the bulk of the colouring-matter in the blood and in the number of red corpuscles to the cubic centimetre of the blood fluid. Bischoff and Rudinger have proved the exist- ence of sexual differences in brain weight, and more recently Justus and Alice Gaule have obtained a similar result with regard to such vegetative organs as the liver, lungs and spleen. In fact, all parts of a woman, although in different degrees in different zones, have a sexual stimulus for the male organism, and similarly all parts of the male have their effect on the female.
The direct logical inference may be drawn, and is sup- ported by abundant facts, that every cell in the body is sexually characteristic and has its definite sexual signifi- cance. I may now add to the principle already laid down in this book, of the universal presence of sexually intermediate
J. J.
S.
? MALE AND FEMALE PLASMAS
conditions, that these conditions may present different degrees of development. Such a conception of the exist- ence of different degrees of development in sexuality makes it easy to understand cases of false hermaphroditism or even of the true hermaphroditism, which, since the time of Steenstrup, has been established for so many plants and animals, although not certainly in the case of man. Steen- strup wrote : " If the sex of an animal has its seat only in the genital organs, then one might think it possible for an animal really to be bisexual, if it had at the same time two sets of sexual organs. But sex is not limited to one region, it manifests itself not merely by the presence of certain organs ; it pervades the whole being and shows itself in every point. In a male body, everything down to the smallest part is male, however much it may resemble the correspondmg lemale part, and so also in the female the smallest part is female. The presence of male and female sexual organs in the same body would make the body bisexual only if both sexes ruled the whole body and made themselves manifest in every point, and such a condition, as the manifestations of the sexes are opposing forces, would result simply in the negation of sex in the body in question. " If, however, the principle of the existence of innumerable sexually transitional conditions be extended to all the cells of the body, and empirical knowledge supports such a view, Steenstrup's difficulty is resolved, and hermaphroditism no longer appears to be unnatural. There may be conceived for every cell all conditions, from complete masculinity through all stages of diminishing masculinity to its com- plete absence and the consequent presence of complete femininity. Whether we are to think of these gradations in the scale of sexual differentiation as depending on two real substances united in different proportions, or as a single kind of protoplasm modified in different ways (as, for instance, by different spatial dispositions of its molecules), it were wiser not to guess. The first conception is difficult to apply physiologically ; it is extremely difficult to imagine that two sets of conditions should be able to produce the
13
? SEX AND CHARACTER
essential physiological similarities of two bodies, one with a male and the other a female diathesis. The second view recalls too vividly certain unfortunate speculations on heredity. Perhaps both views are equally far from the truth. At present empirical knowledge does not enable us to say wherein the masculinity or the femininity of a cell really lies, or to define the histological, molecular or chemical differences which distinguish every cell of a male from every cell of a female. Without anticipating any dis- covery of the future (it is plain already, however, that the specific phenomena of living matter are not going to be referred to chemistry and physics), it may be taken for granted that individual cells possess sexuality in different degrees quite apart from the sexuality of the whole body. Womanish men usually have the skin softer, and in them the cells of the male organs have a lessened power of division upon which depends directly the poorer develop- ment of the male macroscopic characters.
The distribution of sexual characters affords an important proof of the appearance of sexuality in different degrees. Such characters (at least in the animal kingdom) may be arranged according to the strength of their exciting influ- ence on the opposite sex. To avoid confusion, I shall make use of John Hunter's terms for classifying sexual characters. The primordial sexual characters are the male and female genital glands (testes and epididymis, ovaries and epoophoron) ; the primary sexual characters are the internal appendages of the sexual glands (vasa deferential vesiculae seminales, oviducts and uterus), which may have sexual characters quite distinct from those of the glands and the external sexual organs, according to which alone the sex of human beings is reckoned at birth (sometimes quite erroneously, as I shall show) and their consequent fate in life decided. After the primary, come all those sexual characters not directly necessary to reproduction. Such secondary sexual characters are best defined as those which begin to appear at puberty, and which cannot be developed except under the influence on the system of the internal
14
? i
MALE AND FEMALE PLASMAS
secretions of the genital glands. Examples of these are the beards in men, the luxuriant growth of hair in women, the development of the mammary glands, the character of the voice. Asaconvenientmodeoftreatment,andforpractical rather than theoretical reasons, certain inherited characters, such as the development of muscular strength or of mental obstinacy may be reckoned as tertiary sexual characters. Under the designation "quaternary sexual characters" may be placed such accessories as relative social position, differ- ence in habit, mode of livelihood, the smoking and drinking habit in man, and the dom -stic duties of women. All these characters possess a- potent and direct sexual influence, and in my opinion often may be reckoned with the tertiary characters or even with the secondary. \This classification of sexual characters must not be taken as implying a defi- nite chain of sequence, nor must it be assumed that the mental sexual characters either determine the bodily charac- tersoraredeterminedbytheminsomecausalnexus. The classification relates only to the strength of the exciting influence on the other sex, to the order in time in which this influence is exerted, and to the degree of certainty with
which the extent of the influence may be predicted. ^
Study of secondary sexual characters is bound up with consideration of the eflfect of internal secretions of the genital glands on general metabolism. The relation of this influence or its absence (as in the case of artificially cas- trated animals) has been traced out in the degree of de- velopment of the secondary characters. The internal secretions, however, undoubtedly have an influence on all thecellsofthebody. Thisisclearlyshownbythechanges which occur at puberty in all parts of the body, and not only in the s ;- of the secondary sexual characters. As a matter of fact, ! internal secretions of all the glands must be
regard"(^ r iffecting all the tissues.
The inter'ial secretions of the genital glands must be
regarded as completing the sexuality of the individual. Every eel' must be considered as possessing an original sexuality, 10 which the influence of the internal secretion in
15
? i6 SEX AND CHARACTER
sufficient quantity is the final determining condition under the influence of which the cell acquires its final determinate character as male or female.
The genital glands are the organs in which the sex of the individual is most obvious, and in the component cells of which it is most conspicuously visible. At the same time it must be noted that the distinguishing characters of the species, race and family to which an organism belongs are alsobestmarkedinthegenitalcells. JustasSteenstrup,on the one hand, was right in teaching that sex extends all over
the body and is not confined to the genital organs, so, on the other hand, Naegeli, de Vries, Oskar Hertwig and others have propounded the important theory, and supported it by weighty arguments, that every cell in a multi-cellular organism possesses a combination of the characters of its species and race, but that these characters are, as it were, specially condensed in the sexual cells. Probably this view of the case will come to be accepted by all investigators, since every living being owes its origin to the cleavage and multiplication of a single cell.
Many phenomena, amongst which may be noticed specially experiments on the regeneration of lost parts and investigations into the chemical differences between the corresponding tissues of nearly allied animals, have led the investigators to whom I have just referred to conceive the existence of an " Idioplasm," which is the bearer of the specific characters, and which exists in all the cells of a multi-cellular animal, quite apart from the purposes of re- production. In a similar fashion I have been led to the conception of an "Arrhenoplasm" (male plasm) and a " Thelyplasm " (female plasm) as the two modes in which
the idioplasm of every bisexual organism may appear, and which are to be considered, because of reasons which I shall explain, as ideal conditions between which the actual conditions always lie. Actually existing protoplasm is to be thought of as moving from an ideal arrhenoplasm through a real or imaginary indifferent condition (true hermaphro- ditism) towards a protoplasm that approaches, but never
? MALE AND FEMALE PLASMAS
actually reaches, an ideal thelyplasm. This conception brings to a point what I have been trying to say. I apolo- gise for the new terms, but they are more than devices to call attention to a new idea.
The proof that every single organ, and further, that every single cell possesses a sexuality lying somewhere between arrhenoplasm and thelyplasm, and further, that every cell received an original sexual endowment definite in kind and degree, is to be found in the fact that even in the same organism the different cells do not always possess their sexuality identical in kind and degree. In fact each cell of a body neither contains the same proportion of M and W nor is at the same approximation to arrhenoplasm or thelyplasm ; similar cells of the same body may indeed lie on different sides of the sexually neutral point. If, instead of writing "masculinity" and "femininity" at length, we choose signs to express these, and without any malicious intention choose the positive sign ( + ) for M and the negative ( -- ) for W, then our proposition may be ex- pressed as follows : The sexuality of the different cells of the same organism differs not only in absolute quantity but is to be expressed by a different sign. There are many men with a poor growth of beard and a weak muscular develop- ment who are otherwise t)^ically males ; and so also many women with badly developed breasts are otherwise typically womanly. There are womanish men with strong beards and masculine women with abnormally short hair who none the less possess well-developed breasts and broad pelves. I know several men who have the upper part of
the thigh of a female with a normally male under part, and some with the right hip of a male and the left of a female. In most cases these local variations of the sexual character affect both sides of the body, although of course it is only in ideal bodies that there is complete symmetry about the middle line. The degree to which sexuality displays itself, however, as, for instance, in the growth of hair, is very often unsymmetrical. This want of uniformity (and the sexual manifestations never show complete uniformity) can hardly
B
17
8
? SEX AND CHARACTER
depend on differences of the internal secretion ; for the blood goes to all the organs, having in it the same amount of the internal secretion; although different organs may receive different quantities of blood, in all normal cases its quality and quantity being proportioned to the needs of the part.
Were we not to assume as the cause of these variations the presence of a sexual determinant generally different in every cell but stable from its earliest embryonic development, then it would be simple to describe the sexuality of any individual by estimating how far its sexual glands conformed to the normal type of its sex, and the facts would be much simpler thantheyreallyare. Sexuality,however,cannotberegarded as occurring in an imaginary normal quantity distributed equally all over an individual so that the sexual character of any cell would be a measure of the sexual characters of any other cells. Whilst, as an exception, there may occur wide differences in the sexual characters of different cells or organs of the same body, still as a rule there is the same specific sexuality for all the cells. In fact it may be taken as certain that an approximation to a complete uniformity of sexual character over the whole body is much more common than the tendency to any considerable divergences amongst the different organs or still more amongst the different cells. How far these possible variations may go
can be determined only by the investigation of individual cases.
There is a popular view, dating back to Aristotle and supported by many doctors and zoologists, that the castra- tion of an animal is followed by the sudden appearance of the characters of the other sex ; if the gelding of a male were to bring about the appearance of female characteristics then doubt would be thrown on the existence in every cell of a primordial sexuality independent of the genital glands. The most recent experimental results of Sellheim and Foges, however, have shown that the type of a gelded male is distinct from the female type, that gelding does not induce the feminine character. It is better to avoid too
1
? MALE AND FEMALE PLASMAS
far-reaching and radical conclusions on this matter ; it may be that a second latent gland of the other sex may awake into activity and sexually dominate the deteriorating organ- ism after the removal or atrophy of the normal gland. There are many cases (too readily interpreted as instances of complete assumption of the male character) in which after the involution of the female sexual glands at the climacteric the secondary sexual characters of the male are acquired. Instances of this are the beard of the human
grandam, the occasional appearance of short antlers in old does, or of a cock's plumage in an old hen. But such changes are practically never seen except in association with senile decay or with operative interference.
In the case of certain crustacean parasites of fish, how- ever (the genera Cymothoa, Anilocra and Nerocila of the family Cytnothoidce), the changes I have just mentioned are part of the normal life history. These creatures are her- maphroditesofapeculiarkind; themaleandfemaleorgans co-exist in them but are not functional at the same period. A sort of protandry exists ; each individual exercises first the functions of a male and afterwards those of the female. During the time of their activity as males they possess ordinary male reproductive organs which are cast off when thefemalegenitalductsandbroodorgansdevelop. That similar conditions may exist in man has been shown by those cases of "eviratio" and "effeminatio" which the sexual pathology of the old age of men has brought to light. So also we cannot deny altogether the actual occur- rence of a certain degree of effeminacy when the crucial operation of extirpation of the human testes has been performed. * On the other hand, the fact that the relation is not universal or inevitable, that the castration of an individual does not certainly result in the appearance of the characters of the other sex, may be taken as a proof that it is necessary to assume the original presence through-
* So also in the opposite case ; it cannot be wholly denied that ovariotomy is followed by the appearance of masculine characters.
19
? 20 SEX AND CHARACTER
out the body of cells determined by arrhenoplastn or thelyplasm.
The possession by every cell of primitive sexuality on which the secretion of the sexual glands has little effect might be shown further by consideration of the effects of graftingmalegenitalglandsonfemaleorganisms. Forsuch an experiment to be accurate it would be necessary that the animal from which the testis was to be transplanted should be as near akin as possible to the female on which the testis was to be grafted, as, for instance, in the case of a brother and sister; theidioplasmofthetwoshouldbeasalikeaspossible. In this experiment much would depend on limiting the conditions of the experiment as much as possible so that the results would not be confused by conflicting factors. Experiments made in Vienna have shown that when an exchange of the ovaries has been made between unrelated female animals (chosen at random) the atrophy of the ovaries follows, but that there is no failure of the secondary sexual characters {e. g. , degeneration of the mammae). More- over, when the genital glands of an animal are removed from their natural position and grafted in a new position in the same animal (so that it still retains its own tissues) the full development of the secondary sexual characters goes on precisely as if there had been no interference, at least in cases where the operation is successful. The failure of the transplantation of ovaries from one animal to another may be due to the absence of family relationship between the tissues; theinfluenceoftheidioplasmprobablyisofprimary importance.
These experiments closely resemble those made in the transfusion of alien blood. It is a practical rule with surgeons that when a dangerous loss of blood has to be made good, the blood required for transfusion must be obtained from an individual not only of the same species and family, but also of the same sex as that of the patient. The parallel between transfusion and transplantation is at once evident. If I am correct in my views, when surgeons seek to transfuse blood, instead of being content with injec-
? MALE AND FEMALE PLASMAS
tions of normal salt solution they must take the blood not merely from one of the same species, family and sex, but of a similar degree of masculinity or femininity.
Experiments on transfusion not only lend support to my belief in the existence of sex characters in the blood cor- puscles, but they furnish additional explanations of the failure of experiments in grafting ovaries or testis on indi- viduals of the opposite sex. The internal secretions of the genital glands are operative only in their appropriate en-
t'ironment of arrhenoplasm or thelyplasm.
In this connection, I may say a word as to the curative
value of organotherapy. Although, as I have shown to be the case, the transplantation of freshly extirpated genital glands into subjects of the opposite sex has no effect, it does not follow that the injection of the ovarian secretion into the blood of a male might not have a most injurious effect. On the other hand, the principle of organotherapy has been opposed on the ground that organic preparations procured from non-allied species could not possibly be expected to yield good results. It is more than likely that the medical exponents of organotherapy have lost many valuable dis- coveries in healing because of their neglect of the biological theory of idioplasm.
The theory of an idioplasm, the presence of which gives the specific race characters to those tissues and cells which have lost the reproductive faculty, is by no means generally accepted. But at the least all must admit that the race characters are collected in the genital glands, and that if experiments with extracts from these are to provide more than a good tonic, the nearest possible relationship between theanimalsexperimenteduponmustbeobserved. Parallel experiments might be made as to the effect of transplantation of the genital glands and injections of their extracts on two
castrated cocks of the same strain. For instance, the effects of the transplantation of the testes of one of them into any other part of its own body or peritoneal cavity or into any similar part of the other cock might be compared with the efifects of intravenous injection of testis extract of the one on
21
? 22 SEX AND CHARACTER
the other. Such parallel investigations would also increase our knowledge as to the most suitable media and quantities of the extracts. It is also to be desired, from the theoretical point of view, that knowledge may be gained as to whether the internal secretion of the genital glands enters into chemical union with the protoplasm of the cells or whether it acts as a physiological stimulus independent of the quantity supplied. So far we know nothing that would enable us to come to a definite opinion on this point.
The limited influence of the internal secretions of the sexual glands in formmg the sexual characters must be realised to warrant the theory of a primary, generally slight, difference in each cell, but still determinate sexual influence. * If the existence of distinct graduations of these primary characteristics in all the cells and tissues can be recognised, there follow many important and far-reaching conclusions. The individual egg-cells and spermatozoa may be found to possess different degrees of maleness and femaleness, not only in different individuals, but in the ovaries and testes of the same individual, especially at different times ; for instance, the spermatozoa differ in size and activity. We are still quite ignorant on these matters, as no one has worked on the requisite lines.
It is extremely interesting to recall in this connection that many times different investigators have observed in the testes of amphibia not only the different stages in the developmentofspermatozoa,butmatureeggs. Thisinter- pretation of the observations was at first disputed, and it was suggested that the presence of unusually large cells in the tubes of the testes had given rise to the error, but the matterhasnowbeenfullyconfirmed. Moreover,inthese Amphibia, sexually intermediate conditions are very common, and this should lead us to be careful in making statements as to the uniform presence of arrhenoplasm or thelyplasm in a body. The methods of assigning sex to a new-born
* The existence of sexual distinctions before puberty shows that the power of the internal secretions of the sexual glands does not account for everything.
? MALE AND FEMALE PLASMAS
infant seem most unsatisfactory in the light of these facts. If the child is observed to possess a male organ, even although there may be complete epi- or hypo-spadism, or a double failure of descent of the testes, it is at once described as a boy and is henceforth treated as one, although in other parts of the body, for instance in the brain, the sexual determinant may be much nearer thelyplasm than arrheno- plasm. The so> >>ner a more exact method of sex discrimina- tion is insisted upon the better.
As a result of these long mductions and deductions we may rest assured that all the cells possess a definite primary sexual determinant which mu-^t not be assumed to be alike ornearlyalikethroughoutthesamebody. Everycell,every cell-complex, and every organ have their distinctive indices on the scale between thelyplasm and arrhenoplasm. For the exact definition of the sex, an estimation of the indices over the whole body would be necessary. I should be con- tent to bear the blame of all the theoretical and practical errors in this book did I believe myself to have made the working out of a single case possible.
Differences in the primary sexual determinants, together with the varying internal secretions (which differ in quantity and quality in different individuals) produce the pheno- mena of sexually intermediate forms. Arrhenoplasm and thelyplasm, in their countless modifications, are the micro- scopic agencies which, in co-operation with the internal secretions, give rise to the macroscopic differences cited m the last chapter.
If the correctness of the conclusions so far stated maybe assumed, the necessity is at once evident for a whole series of anatomical, physiological, histological and histo-chemical investigations into those differences between male and female types, in the structure and function of the individual organs by which tue dowers of arrhenoplasm and thelyplasm express themselvesinthetissues. Theknowledgewepossessatthe present time on these matters comes from the study o averages, but averages fail to satisfy the modern statistician, and their scientific value is very small. Investigations into
23
? SEX AND CHARACTER
the sex-differences in the weight of the brain, for instance, have so far proved very little, probably because no care was taken to choose typical conditions, the assignment of sex being dependent on baptismal certificates or on super- ficial glances at the outward appearance. As if every " John " or " Mary " were representative of their sexes because they had been dubbed " male " and " female ! " It would have been well, even if exact physiological data were thought unnecessary, at least to make certain as to a few facts as to the general condition of the body, which might serve as guides to the male or female condition, such as, for instance, the distance between the great trochanters, the iliac spines, and so forth, for a sexual harmony in the different parts of the body is certainly more common than great sexual divergence.
This source of error, the careless acceptance of sexually intermediate forms as representative subjects for measure- ment, has maimed other investigations and seriously retarded the attainment of genuine and useful results. Those, for instance, who wish to speculate about the cause of the superfluity of male births have to reckon with this source of error. In a special way this carelessness will revenge itself on those who are investigating the ultimate causes that de- termine sex. Until the exact degree of maleness or female- ness of all the living individuals of the group on which he is working can be determined, the investigator will have reasontodistrustbothhismethodsandhishypotheses. If he classify sexually intermediate forms, for instance, accord- ing to their external appearance, as has been done hitherto, he will come across cases which fuller investigation would show to be on the wrong side of his results, whilst other instances, apparently on the wrong side, would right them- selves. Without the conception of an ideal male and an ideal female, he lacks a standard according to which to estimate his real cases, and he gropes forward to a super- ficial and doubtful conclusion. Maupas, for instance, who made experiments on the determination of sex in Hydatina senta, a Rotifer, found that there was always an experimental
24
? MALE AND FEMALE PLASMAS
error of from three to five per cent. At low temperatures the production of females was expected, but always about the above proportion of males appeared ; so also at the higher temperatures a similar proportion of females appeared. It is probable that this error was due to sexually intermediate stages, arrhenoplasmic females at the high temperature, thelyplastic males at the low temperature. Where the problem is more complicated, as in the case of cattle, to say nothing of human beings, the process of investigation will yield still less harmonious results, and the correction of the interpretation which will have to be made by allowing for the disturbance due to the existence of sexually intermediate forms will be much more difficult.