In
the Far East they abrogated extra-territorial privileges and es-
tablished friendly relations with Japan and China; but, in 1929,
due to difficulties with Manchurian troops, relations with China
?
the Far East they abrogated extra-territorial privileges and es-
tablished friendly relations with Japan and China; but, in 1929,
due to difficulties with Manchurian troops, relations with China
?
Soviet Union - 1944 - Meet the Soviet Russians
You may enjoy discussing it with your English teacher
also.
29. The "middle school" in the U. S. S. R. offers a ten-year course of study
for pupils from the ages of eight to seventeen. Since 1943 these schools
have not been coeducational for students in large cities. Can you find
out why this change was made? Chapter XII in Beatrice King's
Changing Man: The Education System of the U. SS. R. describes the
ten-year school. You may want to read it so that you can compare
and contrast life in the Soviet schools with that of your own school.
30. The Soviets have become tremendously interested in athletics. You
may be interested in making a special study of this topic. A detailed
report on Soviet athletics by Eric A. Starbuck is soon to be pub-
lished as a pamphlet by the National Council of American-Soviet
Friendship.
F. The Position of Women
The vocational opportunities and special protection afforded
women in the Soviet Union are best stated in the words of
Article 122 of the Constitution of 1936: "Women in the U. S. S. R.
are accorded equal rights with men in all spheres of economic,
state, cultural, social, and political life. The possibility of exer-
cising these rights is ensured to women by granting them an
equal right with men to work, payment for work, rest and
leisure, social insurance and education, and by state protection
of mother and child, pre-maternity and maternity leave with
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? 64 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
full pay, and the provision of a wide network of maternity
homes, nurseries, and kindergartens. " In 1940 there were eleven
million women wage-earners in the Soviet Union, representing
thirty-seven per cent of the total number of wage-earners. Nine-
teen million more were working on collective farms. More and
more women are becoming technicians and are entering the
professions. With the coming of the present war the number of
women in industry increased from eleven million to fifteen
million. Soviet women are not only at work on farms, in mines,
and in factories in increasing numbers; they are also serving
as nurses, as guerilla fighters, pilots, ambulance drivers, and in
many other types of work. While the Soviet Union does not
encourage women to join the fighting fronts, they may do so if
they wish, and many of them have performed great feats of
daring.
References on the Position of Women:
Halle, Fannina, Woman in Soviet Russia, The Viking Press, N. Y. , 1935.
Maurer, Rose, "Those Russian Women," Survey Graphic, February,
1944-
Williams, The Russians, Chapter 16.
Some Suggested Activities on the Position of Women:
1. You will be interested in the contrast between the attitude toward
women in the Soviet Union and in Nazi Germany. Form a committee
to study this question, and arrange to report your findings to the class
in a panel discussion. See the pamphlet, Soviet Russia versus Nazi
Germany by Corliss Lamont.
2. Prepare a paper on the subject, "The Status of Women in the Soviet
Union. " Refer to the book by Fannina W. Halle, Women in Soviet
Russia.
3. Collect a set of clippings from newspapers and magazines on how the
women of the U. S. S. R. have contributed to victory in the war. Mount
these clippings and place them in a folder so that they may be of
use to others who are studying this topic. Remember that the source
and date of each clipping should be given.
4. The pamphlet, Soviet Women in the War Against Hitlerism, contains
highly dramatic descriptions of the exploits of individual Soviet hero-
ines. Read several of these, and select one to tell to the class. A group
may plan this together, and present one or more brief, interesting ac-
counts to the class.
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 65
5. Using the pamphlet mentioned above, write the script for a radio
interview with one of the famous Soviet heroines.
6. Prepare an exhibit of pictures showing how Soviet women have helped
to promote victory in the war. You may wish to include sketches of
your own. (Pictures may be obtained for a modest rental fee from
the National Council of American-Soviet Friendship, ' 232 Madison
Avenue, New York City. )
G. Family Life
In the early years of the post-revolutionary period family
relationships were unstable. The tendency toward the disinte-
gration of the family was accentuated by the new economic in-
dependence of women, the socialization of many of the functions
of the home, and the decline of religion. The war, the Revolu-
tion, and the famine were disruptive forces, and many of the
old standards were discarded. The economic independence
of women required new ways of caring for children, and new
methods of feeding people. Nursery schools were set up to
care for infants up to two or three years of age, thus releasing
the mother for, work. Public kitchens and dining halls were
organized. At present the main meal of the day is usually eaten
at the place of work. However, many women still do double
duty in carrying on household duties as well as a job. This is
especially true of women over twenty-five years of age.
The Soviets have come to regard the home and family as the
central agency for child care, with public institutions supple-
menting this work. Members of the family all have the same
free day, and all go to the club for amusement together. A
tightening up of the marriage and divorce laws has tended to
strengthen the family as a social institution. When divorce
occurs, any children of the marriage must be protected from
hardship. In spite of the loss of some of its social functions,
the family is held together by love for the children and by the
common bond of work, as well as by the mutual affection of
husband and wife. During the war every effort has been made
to protect the family. When large numbers of people and fac-
tories were moved eastward, whole families were moved as a
unit when possible.
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? 66 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
References on Family Life:
Kingsbury and Fairchild, Factory Family and Woman in the Soviet
Union, G. P. Putnam's Sons, N. Y. , 1935, pp. 238-250.
Maurer, Rose, "Recent Trends in the Soviet Family," American Socio-
logical Review, June, 1944.
Maurer, Rose, Soviet Children and Their Care, pamphlet.
Sigerist, Henry E. , Socialized Medicine in the Soviet Union.
Some Suggested Activities on Family Life:
1. "The air is good in the country because the peasants use so little of
it" goes an old Russian saying. Housing in the Soviet Union has been
pitifully inadequate, but even so the majority of the people are better
housed than they were in the past.
Read Section 49 in Albert Rhys Williams, The Soviets, and you will
find some amusing anecdotes on the subject of housing. After you have
read this, draw a series of cartoons illustrating some of the ideas which
interested you.
2. The Russian people take a particular delight in festivals and holidays.
Make a calendar of important holidays in the Soviet Union, identi-
fying each. Make a similar calendar for our own national holidays.
3. The "Young Pioneers" is an organization of Soviet children from ten
to sixteen years of age. Read the section in Williams, The Soviets, on
the Young Pioneers. You will also find information on this organiza-
tion in Beatrice King's Changing Man: The Education System of
the U. S. S. R. What similarities and differences do you note between
this organization and our own Scout organization? Form a group of
students who are interested in discussing this topic.
4. Lenin said, "The actual building of the new society will begin only
when women are freed from petty, dreary, futile drudgery. Housework
in itself is utterly inconsequential and stultifying. "
As a preparation for a class discussion on home life and the position
of women in the Soviet Union, answer the following questions:
a. How have the Soviets tried to free women from household
duties?
b. What effect does such a provision have upon home life?
c. How has the independence of women affected the U. S. S. R. dur-
ing the present war?
5. Arrange an attractive bulletin board exhibit of the pictures in the set,
"Life of a Family in Russia. " (Obtainable from The East and West
Association, 40 East 49th Street, New York City, for fifty cents. )
6. The film, "One Day in Soviet Russia," was written and narrated by
Quentin Reynolds. It gives a very complete account of many phases of
life in the Soviet Union. If this film is available, a small group may
preview it and mention to the class points of importance to be noted.
After the showing of the film, be prepared to discuss it with the class
and try to answer the questions it has provoked.
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 67
V. Foreign Relations
A. Pre-Revolutionary Policy
Russia had little influence upon general European history
before the end of the seventeenth century. Her isolation was
due, among other factors, to two centuries of Tatar rule, and
to her geographic position. Peter the Great ascended the throne
in 1689, after the Tatars had been driven eastward into Siberia
and southward into the Black Sea region by his predecessors. It
was his ambition to make Russia into a great European power.
He annexed Azov, a seaport on an arm of the Black Sea, and
succeeded in expanding Russian territory toward the north-
west, securing strategic porti in the Baltic Sea. He acquired
Latvia and Estonia in 1721; he also sent Vitus Bering to explore
the region now known as the Bering Sea and Bering Strait.
Peter the Great did not, however, succeed in securing a sea-
port in warm water which would be a secure outlet to the main
ocean routes.
Catherine II annexed the Crimea, and shared in the parti-
tioning of Poland, along with the rulers of Austria and Prussia.
In the nineteenth century, imperialistic Russia gained territories
in the Middle and Far East, and in the Caucasus region. During
the Napoleonic wars she secured Finland, and gained a larger
portion of Poland at the Congress of Vienna. Russian influence
over the Slavic peoples of the Balkans became extensive.
These activities naturally aroused antagonism among the
other powers. Great Britain feared Russian expansion toward
India, Japan opposed her expansion down the Pacific coast,
and Austria-Hungary feared the growth of Russian influence in
the Balkan states. Moreover, Russia's desire for an outlet to the
sea brought her into armed conflict with the Ottoman Empire,
which continued to hold Constantinople.
In the system of alliances which preceded the First World War,
Russia and France were bound in a military alliance, while
Russia and England settled their differences in the Anglo-Rus-
sian Agreement of 1907, thus completing the Triple Entente.
Russia's entrance into the war came, not only because of this
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? 68 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
alliance, but because of obligations she had assumed toward
Serbia.
The coming of war in 1914 intensified the domestic problems
of Russia; losses in the war were very great. These tremendous
casualties, successive military defeats, growing shortages of food
and other goods, and widespread dissatisfaction led to the abdi-
cation of the Tsar in March, 1917. The Provisional Government
then established was overthrown by Lenin and his followers in
November, 1917, thus leaving the Bolsheviks in control of the
government. They advocated peace with Germany, and in March,
1918, withdrew from the war under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
As a result of this treaty and of later developments, Russia lost
all of its western provinces, Poland, Finland, the Ukraine, Lithu-
ania, Latvia, Estonia and Bessarabia. However, acceptance of
the terms of the peace gave the Bolsheviks the opportunity to
strengthen their own position. The revolutionary government,
in order to seize and hold power, resorted to harsh and ruthless
means, which led to resentment and further civil strife within
the country. Revolution and counter-revolution, foreign inter-
vention and economic stress combined to produce a period of
great turbulence and struggle.
B. Policy from 1918 to 1941
The Soviets were excluded from the Versailles Conference, but
Allied intervention and blockade continued until 1920. From
1922 to 1933, a primary concern of the Soviets was the stabili-
zation of their system of government, and they were successful
in establishing diplomatic and commercial relations with the
major powers. The United States was the last of these powers to
recognize the Soviet government, in 1933. Treaties were nego-
tiated with all neighboring countries, including Germany. The
Soviets participated in the disarmament conferences, and in
August, 1928, they became a signatory of the Kellogg-Briand
Treaty to outlaw war as an instrument of national policy.
In
the Far East they abrogated extra-territorial privileges and es-
tablished friendly relations with Japan and China; but, in 1929,
due to difficulties with Manchurian troops, relations with China
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 69
were broken. After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931,
friendly relations with the Chinese Republic were resumed.
The Soviet Union attempted to cooperate in building up a
system of collective security when it joined the League of
Nations in 1934. It favored sanctions when Italy invaded Ethi-
opia, and also aid to China in its difficulties with Japan. The
Soviets consistently advocated the value of collective security, but ?
at Munich, when collective security was threatened, they were
not consulted. The Soviet Union was ready and willing to par-
ticipate in invoking sanctions, and sent substantial aid to the
Loyalists in Spain and to the Chinese after the Japanese attacks
on Manchuria and China proper.
During the uncertainty of 1939, negotiations with Great Brit-
ain and France were unsuccessful, and in August of that year,
the U. S. S. R. entered into a non-aggression pact with Germany.
The conclusion of this pact resulted in greater suspicion of the
Soviet Union by the western democracies. Even though the agree-
ment was apparently one of friendship, the Soviets were aware
of ultimate danger from the Nazis. "From this pact," Stalin
said in 1941, following Germany's attack on the U. S. S. R. , "we
secured for our country peace for a year and a half and the op-
portunity of preparing its forces to repulse Fascist Germany
should she risk an attack on our country despite the pact. "1
When Polish resistance to the German attack was weakening
in 1939, the U. S. S. R. sent troops into Poland to occupy the
eastern areas. In November,- 1939, the Soviet Union attacked
Finland, ostensibly to gain strategic areas for her own defense.
The attack upon Finland weakened the Soviet international po-
sition; it almost created a break with France and England; and
the U. S. S. R. was expelled from the League of Nations. In the
ensuing struggle, the Soviets, apparently depending upon com-
munistic support within Finland which was not forthcoming,
were unprepared for the strong defense displayed by the Finns
and for the encouragement and assistance which came to Fin-
land from almost every country in the world. Through victory
lThe Soviet Union Today--An Outline Study, p. 74.
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? 70 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
in this war, the Soviet Union gained in 1940 the Karelian
Isthmus, the city and district of Viipuri, and a thirty-year lease
on the Hango Peninsula. The experience had served to make
the Soviet leaders aware of deficiencies in their military strength,
and they immediately began to concentrate on plans for the
defense of the Soviet Union.
The Soviets had initiated negotiations with the Baltic States
in 1939, and at that time secured the right to establish bases
within these countries. After the collapse of France in 1940,
the Baltic States were incorporated into the Soviet Union, and in
June, 1940, troops occupied Bessarabia and northern Bukovina.
Thus, within a few months, the western boundaries of the former
Russian Empire, with the exception of the Nazi-occupied part
of Poland, to which the Soviets laid no claim, had been restored;
and northern Bukovina and eastern Galicia, part of old Austria-
Hungary, added.
C. Policy from 1941 to 1944
During 1940-1941, preparation for war became the prime in-
terest of the Soviets. Armies were trained; armament plants
were moved beyond the Urals; new plants were constructed. The
Germans apparently decided to strike before full organization
could be accomplished, and on June 22, 1941, Germany invaded
Soviet territory.
The suspicion that existed between the Soviet Union and the
western democracies delayed the arrival at common understand-
ing. Following the invasion of the U. S. S. R. by Germany, how-
ever, Soviet funds which had been frozen in the United States
at the time of the Soviet-Finnish War were released. In Sep-
tember, 1941, the Soviet Union announced through its ambas-
sador its willingness to adhere to the fundamental principles
of the Atlantic Charter, in which the signatories declare that they
seek no territorial or other aggrandizement, and no territorial
changes not in accord with the peoples concerned, and that
they recognize the right of self-determination of nations. On
January 1, 1942, in Washington, one month after America's
entry into World War II, the Soviet Union, with twenty-five
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 71
other nations, signed a declaration of adherence to the Atlantic
Charter.
In October, 1941, Lend-Lease aid was extended to the U. S. S. R.
by the United States for the purchase of arms and supplies; in
certifying the arrangement in November, 1941, President Roose-
velt stated that the defense of the U. S. S. R. was vital to the
defense of the United States. In June, 1942, the amount of the
United States Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union was increased
from one to three billion dollars. In June, 1942, the Soviet
Union signed a twenty-year alliance with Great Britain for
common action not only during the war, but also for post-war
collaboration aiming toward security and economic prosperity
in Europe. By July, 1943, Lend-Lease supplies were moving from
the United States into the U. S. S. R. over the Iran route at the
rate of a million tons a month, in addition to those entering
through the ports of Vladivostok and Murmansk.
In April, 1941, the Soviets had signed a neutrality pact with
Japan, by which each contracted to remain neutral in case of hos-
tilities with other nations. Observance of this pact has enabled
the Soviet Union to concentrate on the defeat of Germany in
the west.
In October, 1943, a tripartite conference of the foreign min-
isters of Soviet Russia, Great Britain, and the United States was
held in Moscow. The conference resulted in a joint declaration,
in which the Chinese government also concurred, for unity in
the prosecution of the war and united action for post-war or-
ganization and maintenance of peace and security. A month
later, President Roosevelt, Prime Minister Churchill and Premier
Stalin met at Teheran, capital of Iran. A declaration following
this conference stated again that the three nations should co-
operate in the war and in the peace to follow.
The Communist International, or Comintern, organized in
1919 for the purpose of uniting all workers of the world in a
revolutionary movement to achieve a classless society, proved a
handicap to the Soviets in their foreign relations. Under Stalin's
leadership, the emphasis has been focused upon the development
of socialism within the Soviet Union; and the Comintern official-
ly ceased to exist in May, 1943.
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? 7* MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
D. What of the Future?
The Declaration of the United Nations of January 1, 1942, the
Moscow Conference of October, 1943, and the Conference at
Teheran of November, 1943, promise continuance of collabora-
tion between the Soviet Union and the western democracies.
Reconstruction, rehabilitation of her devastated lands, and
resumption of development of her internal economy will be pri-
mary aims of the U. S. S. R. in the period immediately following
the war. The attainment of these objectives will require inter-
national cooperation for peace and trade. The Soviets will need
further importation from America and other countries of ma-
chinery, machine tools, railway and mining equipment, and
additional services of chemists, builders, and skilled machine
workers; they themselves will sell furs, platinum, manganese and
other products. In the achievement of world peace, world trade,
and collective security, the Soviet Union, with the other United
Nations, is pledged to play a vital role.
When considering the future of American-Soviet relations,
a glance backward may have many useful implications. A his-
torical survey of Russo-American relations previous to the
Bolshevik Revolution reveals many instances of cooperation
between the two countries and many times when mutual benefit
was derived from pursuing a common course of action. Even
though the American and Russian systems of government dif-
fered fundamentally, cooperation was possible and profitable.
Differences in political systems, therefore, do not bar the way to
cooperation.
There are, in fact, several factors which should tend to create
common bonds between the United States and the Soviet Union.
They are the only two great powers in the world which have
direct two-way traffic across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In
the vicinity of the Bering Strait, they are neighbors, with pos-
sessions at one place about three miles apart. Both countries
had their origins in revolutions; both have large-scale social and
economic problems, and they have a similar pioneer heritage.
Optimism, the ideal of the abundant life, and a reliance upon
scientific methods and machine techniques are common to both
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 73
countries. Of prime importance is the fact that the international
aims and ideals of the two countries are in agreement in up-
holding world peace as a goal. Since, when the present war
ends, the United States and the Soviet Union will remain two
of the most powerful and influential nations on earth, the
future of world peace depends in large measure upon the extent
to which the peoples of the two nations can work together in
harmony in the difficult days and years ahead.
References on Foreign Policy:
Dallin, David J. , Soviet Russia's Foreign Policy, 1939-1942.
Dulles, Foster Rhea, The Road to Teheran.
Fischer, Louis, The Soviets and World Affairs.
Vernadsky, George, A History of Russia.
Some Suggested Activities on Foreign Policy:
1. In 1807, Alexander I signed a friendship pact with Napoleon; five years
later, Napoleon invaded Russian soil; in 1939, Stalin signed a non-
aggression pact with Hitler; in 1941 Hitler invaded the U. S. S. R. Many
people have noted an interesting parallel in these two situations. Read
about both; then, using the title "Does History Repeat Itself? " write
a summary of your findings. Be sure to describe the circumstances lead-
ing up to the agreements, and the immediate, as well as the ultimate,
results. See Vernadsky, History of Russia.
2. In connection with the parallel suggested in (1), can you picture the
modern representatives of Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia signing the
1941 non-aggression pact, mutually distrustful, with the shadows of their
1807 predecessors over them? Could you draw a cartoon to represent
this situation? (Suggestion: see cartoon depicted in Vera M. Dean's
Russia at War, Foreign Policy Headline Book, p. 69. )
3. From material in the classroom or public library, obtain as complete
and up-to-date statistics as possible regarding United States Lend-
Lease to the U. S. S. R. , to Britain, and to China. Make a bar graph,
or other chart, depicting clearly the comparative amounts of Lend-
Lease aid to these three Allies.
4. Write to the American Russian Institute, 58' Park Avenue, New York
City, and ask, for information as to the total cost of the war in dollars
to the U. S. S. R. in 1941, 1942, 1943 and 1944. Make a chart showing the
comparison of United States Lend-Lease aid to the total cost of the war
to the U. S. S. R.
5. On a world map entitled "Possible International Trade--1950" indi-
cate, by means of symbols and arrows, the products and the direc-
tion of possible exchange between the U. S. S. R. and the U. S. A. Indicate
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? 74 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
methods and possible routes of transportation. (Suggestion: see "The
Future of American-Soviet Trade Relations" by E. C. Ropes in the
book, The US. S. R. in Reconstruction; also the article "To Bridge the
Gulf Between the U. S. and Russia," by Eric Johnston, Readers Digest,
August, 1944. )
6. Using the references in (5), above, prepare an oral report on the
possibilities of post-war trade with the U.
also.
29. The "middle school" in the U. S. S. R. offers a ten-year course of study
for pupils from the ages of eight to seventeen. Since 1943 these schools
have not been coeducational for students in large cities. Can you find
out why this change was made? Chapter XII in Beatrice King's
Changing Man: The Education System of the U. SS. R. describes the
ten-year school. You may want to read it so that you can compare
and contrast life in the Soviet schools with that of your own school.
30. The Soviets have become tremendously interested in athletics. You
may be interested in making a special study of this topic. A detailed
report on Soviet athletics by Eric A. Starbuck is soon to be pub-
lished as a pamphlet by the National Council of American-Soviet
Friendship.
F. The Position of Women
The vocational opportunities and special protection afforded
women in the Soviet Union are best stated in the words of
Article 122 of the Constitution of 1936: "Women in the U. S. S. R.
are accorded equal rights with men in all spheres of economic,
state, cultural, social, and political life. The possibility of exer-
cising these rights is ensured to women by granting them an
equal right with men to work, payment for work, rest and
leisure, social insurance and education, and by state protection
of mother and child, pre-maternity and maternity leave with
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? 64 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
full pay, and the provision of a wide network of maternity
homes, nurseries, and kindergartens. " In 1940 there were eleven
million women wage-earners in the Soviet Union, representing
thirty-seven per cent of the total number of wage-earners. Nine-
teen million more were working on collective farms. More and
more women are becoming technicians and are entering the
professions. With the coming of the present war the number of
women in industry increased from eleven million to fifteen
million. Soviet women are not only at work on farms, in mines,
and in factories in increasing numbers; they are also serving
as nurses, as guerilla fighters, pilots, ambulance drivers, and in
many other types of work. While the Soviet Union does not
encourage women to join the fighting fronts, they may do so if
they wish, and many of them have performed great feats of
daring.
References on the Position of Women:
Halle, Fannina, Woman in Soviet Russia, The Viking Press, N. Y. , 1935.
Maurer, Rose, "Those Russian Women," Survey Graphic, February,
1944-
Williams, The Russians, Chapter 16.
Some Suggested Activities on the Position of Women:
1. You will be interested in the contrast between the attitude toward
women in the Soviet Union and in Nazi Germany. Form a committee
to study this question, and arrange to report your findings to the class
in a panel discussion. See the pamphlet, Soviet Russia versus Nazi
Germany by Corliss Lamont.
2. Prepare a paper on the subject, "The Status of Women in the Soviet
Union. " Refer to the book by Fannina W. Halle, Women in Soviet
Russia.
3. Collect a set of clippings from newspapers and magazines on how the
women of the U. S. S. R. have contributed to victory in the war. Mount
these clippings and place them in a folder so that they may be of
use to others who are studying this topic. Remember that the source
and date of each clipping should be given.
4. The pamphlet, Soviet Women in the War Against Hitlerism, contains
highly dramatic descriptions of the exploits of individual Soviet hero-
ines. Read several of these, and select one to tell to the class. A group
may plan this together, and present one or more brief, interesting ac-
counts to the class.
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 65
5. Using the pamphlet mentioned above, write the script for a radio
interview with one of the famous Soviet heroines.
6. Prepare an exhibit of pictures showing how Soviet women have helped
to promote victory in the war. You may wish to include sketches of
your own. (Pictures may be obtained for a modest rental fee from
the National Council of American-Soviet Friendship, ' 232 Madison
Avenue, New York City. )
G. Family Life
In the early years of the post-revolutionary period family
relationships were unstable. The tendency toward the disinte-
gration of the family was accentuated by the new economic in-
dependence of women, the socialization of many of the functions
of the home, and the decline of religion. The war, the Revolu-
tion, and the famine were disruptive forces, and many of the
old standards were discarded. The economic independence
of women required new ways of caring for children, and new
methods of feeding people. Nursery schools were set up to
care for infants up to two or three years of age, thus releasing
the mother for, work. Public kitchens and dining halls were
organized. At present the main meal of the day is usually eaten
at the place of work. However, many women still do double
duty in carrying on household duties as well as a job. This is
especially true of women over twenty-five years of age.
The Soviets have come to regard the home and family as the
central agency for child care, with public institutions supple-
menting this work. Members of the family all have the same
free day, and all go to the club for amusement together. A
tightening up of the marriage and divorce laws has tended to
strengthen the family as a social institution. When divorce
occurs, any children of the marriage must be protected from
hardship. In spite of the loss of some of its social functions,
the family is held together by love for the children and by the
common bond of work, as well as by the mutual affection of
husband and wife. During the war every effort has been made
to protect the family. When large numbers of people and fac-
tories were moved eastward, whole families were moved as a
unit when possible.
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? 66 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
References on Family Life:
Kingsbury and Fairchild, Factory Family and Woman in the Soviet
Union, G. P. Putnam's Sons, N. Y. , 1935, pp. 238-250.
Maurer, Rose, "Recent Trends in the Soviet Family," American Socio-
logical Review, June, 1944.
Maurer, Rose, Soviet Children and Their Care, pamphlet.
Sigerist, Henry E. , Socialized Medicine in the Soviet Union.
Some Suggested Activities on Family Life:
1. "The air is good in the country because the peasants use so little of
it" goes an old Russian saying. Housing in the Soviet Union has been
pitifully inadequate, but even so the majority of the people are better
housed than they were in the past.
Read Section 49 in Albert Rhys Williams, The Soviets, and you will
find some amusing anecdotes on the subject of housing. After you have
read this, draw a series of cartoons illustrating some of the ideas which
interested you.
2. The Russian people take a particular delight in festivals and holidays.
Make a calendar of important holidays in the Soviet Union, identi-
fying each. Make a similar calendar for our own national holidays.
3. The "Young Pioneers" is an organization of Soviet children from ten
to sixteen years of age. Read the section in Williams, The Soviets, on
the Young Pioneers. You will also find information on this organiza-
tion in Beatrice King's Changing Man: The Education System of
the U. S. S. R. What similarities and differences do you note between
this organization and our own Scout organization? Form a group of
students who are interested in discussing this topic.
4. Lenin said, "The actual building of the new society will begin only
when women are freed from petty, dreary, futile drudgery. Housework
in itself is utterly inconsequential and stultifying. "
As a preparation for a class discussion on home life and the position
of women in the Soviet Union, answer the following questions:
a. How have the Soviets tried to free women from household
duties?
b. What effect does such a provision have upon home life?
c. How has the independence of women affected the U. S. S. R. dur-
ing the present war?
5. Arrange an attractive bulletin board exhibit of the pictures in the set,
"Life of a Family in Russia. " (Obtainable from The East and West
Association, 40 East 49th Street, New York City, for fifty cents. )
6. The film, "One Day in Soviet Russia," was written and narrated by
Quentin Reynolds. It gives a very complete account of many phases of
life in the Soviet Union. If this film is available, a small group may
preview it and mention to the class points of importance to be noted.
After the showing of the film, be prepared to discuss it with the class
and try to answer the questions it has provoked.
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 67
V. Foreign Relations
A. Pre-Revolutionary Policy
Russia had little influence upon general European history
before the end of the seventeenth century. Her isolation was
due, among other factors, to two centuries of Tatar rule, and
to her geographic position. Peter the Great ascended the throne
in 1689, after the Tatars had been driven eastward into Siberia
and southward into the Black Sea region by his predecessors. It
was his ambition to make Russia into a great European power.
He annexed Azov, a seaport on an arm of the Black Sea, and
succeeded in expanding Russian territory toward the north-
west, securing strategic porti in the Baltic Sea. He acquired
Latvia and Estonia in 1721; he also sent Vitus Bering to explore
the region now known as the Bering Sea and Bering Strait.
Peter the Great did not, however, succeed in securing a sea-
port in warm water which would be a secure outlet to the main
ocean routes.
Catherine II annexed the Crimea, and shared in the parti-
tioning of Poland, along with the rulers of Austria and Prussia.
In the nineteenth century, imperialistic Russia gained territories
in the Middle and Far East, and in the Caucasus region. During
the Napoleonic wars she secured Finland, and gained a larger
portion of Poland at the Congress of Vienna. Russian influence
over the Slavic peoples of the Balkans became extensive.
These activities naturally aroused antagonism among the
other powers. Great Britain feared Russian expansion toward
India, Japan opposed her expansion down the Pacific coast,
and Austria-Hungary feared the growth of Russian influence in
the Balkan states. Moreover, Russia's desire for an outlet to the
sea brought her into armed conflict with the Ottoman Empire,
which continued to hold Constantinople.
In the system of alliances which preceded the First World War,
Russia and France were bound in a military alliance, while
Russia and England settled their differences in the Anglo-Rus-
sian Agreement of 1907, thus completing the Triple Entente.
Russia's entrance into the war came, not only because of this
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? 68 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
alliance, but because of obligations she had assumed toward
Serbia.
The coming of war in 1914 intensified the domestic problems
of Russia; losses in the war were very great. These tremendous
casualties, successive military defeats, growing shortages of food
and other goods, and widespread dissatisfaction led to the abdi-
cation of the Tsar in March, 1917. The Provisional Government
then established was overthrown by Lenin and his followers in
November, 1917, thus leaving the Bolsheviks in control of the
government. They advocated peace with Germany, and in March,
1918, withdrew from the war under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
As a result of this treaty and of later developments, Russia lost
all of its western provinces, Poland, Finland, the Ukraine, Lithu-
ania, Latvia, Estonia and Bessarabia. However, acceptance of
the terms of the peace gave the Bolsheviks the opportunity to
strengthen their own position. The revolutionary government,
in order to seize and hold power, resorted to harsh and ruthless
means, which led to resentment and further civil strife within
the country. Revolution and counter-revolution, foreign inter-
vention and economic stress combined to produce a period of
great turbulence and struggle.
B. Policy from 1918 to 1941
The Soviets were excluded from the Versailles Conference, but
Allied intervention and blockade continued until 1920. From
1922 to 1933, a primary concern of the Soviets was the stabili-
zation of their system of government, and they were successful
in establishing diplomatic and commercial relations with the
major powers. The United States was the last of these powers to
recognize the Soviet government, in 1933. Treaties were nego-
tiated with all neighboring countries, including Germany. The
Soviets participated in the disarmament conferences, and in
August, 1928, they became a signatory of the Kellogg-Briand
Treaty to outlaw war as an instrument of national policy.
In
the Far East they abrogated extra-territorial privileges and es-
tablished friendly relations with Japan and China; but, in 1929,
due to difficulties with Manchurian troops, relations with China
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 69
were broken. After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931,
friendly relations with the Chinese Republic were resumed.
The Soviet Union attempted to cooperate in building up a
system of collective security when it joined the League of
Nations in 1934. It favored sanctions when Italy invaded Ethi-
opia, and also aid to China in its difficulties with Japan. The
Soviets consistently advocated the value of collective security, but ?
at Munich, when collective security was threatened, they were
not consulted. The Soviet Union was ready and willing to par-
ticipate in invoking sanctions, and sent substantial aid to the
Loyalists in Spain and to the Chinese after the Japanese attacks
on Manchuria and China proper.
During the uncertainty of 1939, negotiations with Great Brit-
ain and France were unsuccessful, and in August of that year,
the U. S. S. R. entered into a non-aggression pact with Germany.
The conclusion of this pact resulted in greater suspicion of the
Soviet Union by the western democracies. Even though the agree-
ment was apparently one of friendship, the Soviets were aware
of ultimate danger from the Nazis. "From this pact," Stalin
said in 1941, following Germany's attack on the U. S. S. R. , "we
secured for our country peace for a year and a half and the op-
portunity of preparing its forces to repulse Fascist Germany
should she risk an attack on our country despite the pact. "1
When Polish resistance to the German attack was weakening
in 1939, the U. S. S. R. sent troops into Poland to occupy the
eastern areas. In November,- 1939, the Soviet Union attacked
Finland, ostensibly to gain strategic areas for her own defense.
The attack upon Finland weakened the Soviet international po-
sition; it almost created a break with France and England; and
the U. S. S. R. was expelled from the League of Nations. In the
ensuing struggle, the Soviets, apparently depending upon com-
munistic support within Finland which was not forthcoming,
were unprepared for the strong defense displayed by the Finns
and for the encouragement and assistance which came to Fin-
land from almost every country in the world. Through victory
lThe Soviet Union Today--An Outline Study, p. 74.
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? 70 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
in this war, the Soviet Union gained in 1940 the Karelian
Isthmus, the city and district of Viipuri, and a thirty-year lease
on the Hango Peninsula. The experience had served to make
the Soviet leaders aware of deficiencies in their military strength,
and they immediately began to concentrate on plans for the
defense of the Soviet Union.
The Soviets had initiated negotiations with the Baltic States
in 1939, and at that time secured the right to establish bases
within these countries. After the collapse of France in 1940,
the Baltic States were incorporated into the Soviet Union, and in
June, 1940, troops occupied Bessarabia and northern Bukovina.
Thus, within a few months, the western boundaries of the former
Russian Empire, with the exception of the Nazi-occupied part
of Poland, to which the Soviets laid no claim, had been restored;
and northern Bukovina and eastern Galicia, part of old Austria-
Hungary, added.
C. Policy from 1941 to 1944
During 1940-1941, preparation for war became the prime in-
terest of the Soviets. Armies were trained; armament plants
were moved beyond the Urals; new plants were constructed. The
Germans apparently decided to strike before full organization
could be accomplished, and on June 22, 1941, Germany invaded
Soviet territory.
The suspicion that existed between the Soviet Union and the
western democracies delayed the arrival at common understand-
ing. Following the invasion of the U. S. S. R. by Germany, how-
ever, Soviet funds which had been frozen in the United States
at the time of the Soviet-Finnish War were released. In Sep-
tember, 1941, the Soviet Union announced through its ambas-
sador its willingness to adhere to the fundamental principles
of the Atlantic Charter, in which the signatories declare that they
seek no territorial or other aggrandizement, and no territorial
changes not in accord with the peoples concerned, and that
they recognize the right of self-determination of nations. On
January 1, 1942, in Washington, one month after America's
entry into World War II, the Soviet Union, with twenty-five
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 71
other nations, signed a declaration of adherence to the Atlantic
Charter.
In October, 1941, Lend-Lease aid was extended to the U. S. S. R.
by the United States for the purchase of arms and supplies; in
certifying the arrangement in November, 1941, President Roose-
velt stated that the defense of the U. S. S. R. was vital to the
defense of the United States. In June, 1942, the amount of the
United States Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union was increased
from one to three billion dollars. In June, 1942, the Soviet
Union signed a twenty-year alliance with Great Britain for
common action not only during the war, but also for post-war
collaboration aiming toward security and economic prosperity
in Europe. By July, 1943, Lend-Lease supplies were moving from
the United States into the U. S. S. R. over the Iran route at the
rate of a million tons a month, in addition to those entering
through the ports of Vladivostok and Murmansk.
In April, 1941, the Soviets had signed a neutrality pact with
Japan, by which each contracted to remain neutral in case of hos-
tilities with other nations. Observance of this pact has enabled
the Soviet Union to concentrate on the defeat of Germany in
the west.
In October, 1943, a tripartite conference of the foreign min-
isters of Soviet Russia, Great Britain, and the United States was
held in Moscow. The conference resulted in a joint declaration,
in which the Chinese government also concurred, for unity in
the prosecution of the war and united action for post-war or-
ganization and maintenance of peace and security. A month
later, President Roosevelt, Prime Minister Churchill and Premier
Stalin met at Teheran, capital of Iran. A declaration following
this conference stated again that the three nations should co-
operate in the war and in the peace to follow.
The Communist International, or Comintern, organized in
1919 for the purpose of uniting all workers of the world in a
revolutionary movement to achieve a classless society, proved a
handicap to the Soviets in their foreign relations. Under Stalin's
leadership, the emphasis has been focused upon the development
of socialism within the Soviet Union; and the Comintern official-
ly ceased to exist in May, 1943.
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? 7* MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
D. What of the Future?
The Declaration of the United Nations of January 1, 1942, the
Moscow Conference of October, 1943, and the Conference at
Teheran of November, 1943, promise continuance of collabora-
tion between the Soviet Union and the western democracies.
Reconstruction, rehabilitation of her devastated lands, and
resumption of development of her internal economy will be pri-
mary aims of the U. S. S. R. in the period immediately following
the war. The attainment of these objectives will require inter-
national cooperation for peace and trade. The Soviets will need
further importation from America and other countries of ma-
chinery, machine tools, railway and mining equipment, and
additional services of chemists, builders, and skilled machine
workers; they themselves will sell furs, platinum, manganese and
other products. In the achievement of world peace, world trade,
and collective security, the Soviet Union, with the other United
Nations, is pledged to play a vital role.
When considering the future of American-Soviet relations,
a glance backward may have many useful implications. A his-
torical survey of Russo-American relations previous to the
Bolshevik Revolution reveals many instances of cooperation
between the two countries and many times when mutual benefit
was derived from pursuing a common course of action. Even
though the American and Russian systems of government dif-
fered fundamentally, cooperation was possible and profitable.
Differences in political systems, therefore, do not bar the way to
cooperation.
There are, in fact, several factors which should tend to create
common bonds between the United States and the Soviet Union.
They are the only two great powers in the world which have
direct two-way traffic across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In
the vicinity of the Bering Strait, they are neighbors, with pos-
sessions at one place about three miles apart. Both countries
had their origins in revolutions; both have large-scale social and
economic problems, and they have a similar pioneer heritage.
Optimism, the ideal of the abundant life, and a reliance upon
scientific methods and machine techniques are common to both
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 73
countries. Of prime importance is the fact that the international
aims and ideals of the two countries are in agreement in up-
holding world peace as a goal. Since, when the present war
ends, the United States and the Soviet Union will remain two
of the most powerful and influential nations on earth, the
future of world peace depends in large measure upon the extent
to which the peoples of the two nations can work together in
harmony in the difficult days and years ahead.
References on Foreign Policy:
Dallin, David J. , Soviet Russia's Foreign Policy, 1939-1942.
Dulles, Foster Rhea, The Road to Teheran.
Fischer, Louis, The Soviets and World Affairs.
Vernadsky, George, A History of Russia.
Some Suggested Activities on Foreign Policy:
1. In 1807, Alexander I signed a friendship pact with Napoleon; five years
later, Napoleon invaded Russian soil; in 1939, Stalin signed a non-
aggression pact with Hitler; in 1941 Hitler invaded the U. S. S. R. Many
people have noted an interesting parallel in these two situations. Read
about both; then, using the title "Does History Repeat Itself? " write
a summary of your findings. Be sure to describe the circumstances lead-
ing up to the agreements, and the immediate, as well as the ultimate,
results. See Vernadsky, History of Russia.
2. In connection with the parallel suggested in (1), can you picture the
modern representatives of Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia signing the
1941 non-aggression pact, mutually distrustful, with the shadows of their
1807 predecessors over them? Could you draw a cartoon to represent
this situation? (Suggestion: see cartoon depicted in Vera M. Dean's
Russia at War, Foreign Policy Headline Book, p. 69. )
3. From material in the classroom or public library, obtain as complete
and up-to-date statistics as possible regarding United States Lend-
Lease to the U. S. S. R. , to Britain, and to China. Make a bar graph,
or other chart, depicting clearly the comparative amounts of Lend-
Lease aid to these three Allies.
4. Write to the American Russian Institute, 58' Park Avenue, New York
City, and ask, for information as to the total cost of the war in dollars
to the U. S. S. R. in 1941, 1942, 1943 and 1944. Make a chart showing the
comparison of United States Lend-Lease aid to the total cost of the war
to the U. S. S. R.
5. On a world map entitled "Possible International Trade--1950" indi-
cate, by means of symbols and arrows, the products and the direc-
tion of possible exchange between the U. S. S. R. and the U. S. A. Indicate
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? 74 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
methods and possible routes of transportation. (Suggestion: see "The
Future of American-Soviet Trade Relations" by E. C. Ropes in the
book, The US. S. R. in Reconstruction; also the article "To Bridge the
Gulf Between the U. S. and Russia," by Eric Johnston, Readers Digest,
August, 1944. )
6. Using the references in (5), above, prepare an oral report on the
possibilities of post-war trade with the U.
