The total
financial
contribution of the Indian states was more than
Rs.
Rs.
Cambridge History of India - v4 - Indian Empire
If, after the deposit of a new security, a newspaper pub-
lished objectionable matter, the provincial Government could for-
## p. 959 (#1003) ###########################################
INDIAN PRESS (EMERGENCY POWERS) ACT
959
feit the new security also. Provisions which applied to keepers of
printing presses applied equally to the publishers of newspapers.
Section 11 penalised the keeping of printing presses and the publish-
ing of newspapers without making the security deposit as required
by the provincial Government or the magistrate. If a press did
not deposit the security but continued to do its work, it could
be forfeited to His Majesty and the declaration of the publi-
sher was liable to be cancelled Any police officer empowered
for that purpose by the provincial Government could seize
any unauthorised news sheets or unauthorised newspapers wher-
ever found and the same could be ordered to be destroyed by a
magistrate. The Government was given the power to seize and
forfeit undeclared presses producing unauthorised news sheets and
newspapers. The penalty for disseminating unauthorised news
sheets and newspapers was imprisonment up to 6 months, with or
without fine. The provincial Government was given the power to
declare certain publications forfeited to His Majesty and also issue
search warrants for the same. The Customs Officers were autho-
rised to detain packages containing certain publications when im-
ported into British India. No unauthorised news sheets or news-
papers could be transmitted by post.
The powers conferred by the Act were undoubtedly sweeping in
their nature and scope. Those were actually used by the Provin-
cial Governments to prohibit the publication of the names and por-
traits of well-known leaders of the Civil Disobedience Movement
as the publication of such pictures tended to encourage the move-
The other restraints included the prohibition of the publi-
cation of Congress propaganda of any kind including messages
from the persons arrested, messages issued or purported to be issued
from persons in jail, exaggerated reports of political events, notices
and advertisements of meetings, processions and other activities
tending to promote Civil Disobedience Movement or any other
matter in furtherance of the same. Under this Act, the Govern-
ment took action against many newspapers. The printers and
publishers of the Bombay Chronicle were called upon to deposit
Rs. 3,000 each for publishing an article by Mr. Horniman. The
printer and publisher of the Anand Bazar Patrika each received a
demand for Rs. 1,000. A security of Rs. 6,000 was demanded from
the Amrit Bazar Patrika. Rs. 6,000 were deposited by The Liberty
of Calcutta. A security of Rs. 6,000 was deposited by the Free
Press Journal and later on forfeited by the Bombay Government.
Similar action was taken against other newspapers. There was
virtually a reign of terror in the country.
The Foreign Relations Act, 1932 replaced an Ordinance of 1931.
## p. 960 (#1004) ###########################################
960
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
Its object was to penalise publications calculated to interfere with
the maintenance of good relations between His Majesty's Govern-
ment and friendly foreign states. The necessity of this law arose
when the Indian newspapers criticised the administration in certain
states adjoining the frontiers of India. The Act provided that
where an offence under Chapter XXI of the Indian Penal Code
was committed against the ruler of a State outside but adjoining
India or against the consort or son of principal minister of such a
ruler, the Governor-General in Council could make or autho-
rise any person to make a complaint in writing of such an offence
and any court competent in other respects to take cognizance of
such offence could take cognizance of such a complaint. Any
book, newspaper or other document containing defamatory matter
which tended to prejudice the maintenance of friendly relations
between His Majesty's Government and the Government of such
State, could be detained in the same manner as seditious literature.
In January 1933, four Ordinances were promulgated which con-
ferred certain powers on the Government for the maintenance of
law and order and widened the operative section of the Indian Press
(Emergency Powers) Act, 1931 so as to permit action against the
publication of matter calculated to encourage the Civil Disobe-
dience Movement.
The object of the Indian States (Protection) Act, 1934 was to
prevent unreasonable attacks on the administration of the Indian
States in the newspapers of British India and to provide the author-
ities in British India with powers to deal with bands or demons-
trators organised on semi-military lines for the purpose of entering
and spreading dis-affection in the territories of Indian States.
LORD LINLITHGOW (1936-1943)
Before his appointment as Governor-General, Lord Linlithgow
had a brilliant career. He was the Chairman of the Royal Com-
mission on Indian Agriculture. He was also the Chairman of the
Joint Select Committee on Indian Constitutional Reforms. He had
a hand in the drafting of the Government of India Act, 1935. No
wonder, he was sent to India to work out the law in the making
of which he had a hand.
It goes without saying that Lord Linlithgow did all that he
could to bring the states into the Federation so that the whole of
the Government of India Act could be enforced. It was partly
due to opposition from the Congress and the Muslim League to
the Federal part of the Government of India Act and also due to
unwillingness on the part of the Indian States to join the Federation
## p. 961 (#1005) ###########################################
LORD LINLITHGOW
961
E
3
2
3
3
E
.
1
ces.
that the whole of the Government of India Act was not brought
into force on 1 April, 1937. Only that part of the Act which relat-
ed to Provincial Autonomy was brought into force on 1 April, 1937.
The Government hoped that the rest of the Act would be brought
into force later on.
It is true that the Indian National Congress did not approve of
the Act of 1935, but in spite of it, the Congress fought the Provin-
cial elections in the beginning of 1937. Although the Congress
got a majority in 7 Provinces, it refused to form ministries unless
and until a guarantee was given by the Governors concerned that
they would not interfere in the day to day working of the Provin-
cial Government. As the Governors refused to give such an under-
taking, a constitutional deadlock followed. Ultimately, Lord Lin-
lithgow asked the Governors to give such an undertaking as would
help the Congress Ministries to take office. To begin with, the
Congress formed ministries in 7 Provinces and later on in 8 Provin-
This state of affairs continued for more than two years and
during this period, the Congress ministries did a lot of useful work
in their respective Provinces.
The Congress Ministries resigned in October-November, 1939,
on account of differences between the Governor-General and the
Congress on the question of the second World War. What actu-
ally happened was that when the second World War broke out in
September, 1939, Lord Linlithgow declared war on behalf of India
against Germany. This he did without consulting the Congress.
It is true that constitutionally the stand taken by him was correct
but the view of the Congress was that the Viceroy should have
declared the war only after consulting the leaders and the people
of India. The Congress was also of the view that before declaring
war, the British Government ought to have declared its war-aims.
As nothing of the kind had been done, it showed that the Govern-
ment of India did not ask for help from the people. On 19 Octo-
ber, 1939, Lord Linlithgow reaffirmed the promise that Dominion
Status and complete equality were the goals of British policy in
India. However, the Congress was not satisfied and asked the Con-
gress Ministries to resign and the same was actually done.
The Congress started its campaign of opposition to the Govern-
ment and its war efforts. The opposition took the form of indivi-
dual civil disobedience. This was to be done by private persons in
their individual capacity and the same was not required to be done
on a nation-wide scale.
The Viceroy continued his negotiations with the various political
parties in the country with a view to secure their cooperation in the
administration of the country and the prosecution of the war. While
TO
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与
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## p. 962 (#1006) ###########################################
962
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
the attitude of the Congress was positively hostile, that of the
Muslim League was a mild one. The Muslim League under Mr.
Jinnah did nothing to hamper the war-effort of the Government.
In 1940, Lord Linlithgow made the famous August Offer but the
same was rejected by the Congress. The result was that the Vice-
roy took into his Executive Council the leaders of other political
parties and there the matter arrested for the time being, and the
war continued.
Another attempt was made by the British Government to resolve
the deadlock in India in March, 1942. This was done under
very pressing circumstances. On 8 March, 1942, the Japanese
Army entered Rangoon. Colombo was bombarded and some
bombs fell on the Eastern coast of India. Calcutta was also
threatened and people began to leave the city in large numbers.
It was under these circumstances that Sir Stafford Cripps who at
that time was the Leader of the House of Commons in England,
was sent to India with certain proposals with a view to end the
constitutional deadlock in the country. Sir Stafford did not im-
press Mahatma Gandhi and the Cripps proposals were rejected by
the Congress. The Mahatma described the Cripps proposals as a
"post-dated cheque on a crashing bank. ” Although Cripps did
not say so in so many words, his proposals virtually granted Pakis-
tan to the Muslim League. The Congress which stood for the
unity of India could not be expected to be a party to such proposals.
After the departure of Cripps, the Congress was in a desperate
mood. It was determined to do something which could bring the
independence of India nearer. With that object in view, the All-
India Congress Committee met at Bombay and passed the famous
Quit India resolution on 8 August, 1942, calling on the British to
quit the country forthwith. The Government also hit back. All
the top-ranking Congressmen were arrested throughout the coun-
try and they remained in jails for about 3 years. As the people
were left without any leadership, they resorted to whatever came
in their minds. There was a wave of disturbances in various parts
of the country. So great was the mob fury that in certain parts
of India, British authority disappeared completely for a few days.
People set fire to whatever fell into their hands. It is stated that
250 Railway Stations and 300 Post Offices were either damaged or
destroyed. 150 Police Stations were attacked. A number of offi-
cials and soldiers were killed. About 900 civilians lost their lives.
In 1943 there took place a terrible famine in Bengal. The
famine was due to many causes.
As a result of the third year of
the war, prices were soaring. In order to take advantage of the
high prices the agriculturists sold their crops and paid off their
## p. 963 (#1007) ###########################################
BENGAL FAMINE
963
debts and did not care to keep sufficient foodgrains for their own
sustenance. There was no import of food-stuffs from outside ex-
cept from Burma and that also was cut off after the fall of Burma
into the hands of the Japanese. Rice completely disappeared from
the market. Food shortage was in every part of the country and
there was no surplus in any part of India which could be sent to
Bengal. There was no system of rationing in the country by which
the available food-stuffs all over the country could be equitably dis-
tributed among all the people of India. The demand for food-
grains had also increased in India on account of war-conditions in
the country. Black market developed in foodgrains and what-
ever grains were available were sold at very high prices which the
poor people of Bengal could not afford to pay. The result was the
worst type of famine in Bengal in 1943. Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit
reported in October 1943 that about 700 persons were dying every
day in Calcutta. It was estimated that between August and Octo-
ber, 1943, 4,794 persons died in the streets and this figure did not
include 2,492 who had died in the hospitals during the same period.
It was estimated that between 16 October and 23 October, 1943,
2,155 persons died. On 28 July, 1944, Mr. Amery, Secretary of
State for India declared in the House of Commons that "in Bengal
last year about 700,000 human beings died as a consequence of
that famine. ” Another estimate is that 1/2 million human lives
were lost during that famine. The famine situation continued to
worsen till Lord Wavell took over as Governor-General in Octo-
ber 1943. He handed over the work of relief distribution to the
British Army. A system of rationing was introduced in all the
large towns of India and thus the situation was brought under
control. Lord Linlithgow earned a very bad name on account of
his failure to check the famine.
It cannot be denied that during the regime of Lord Linlithgow,
the Muslim League became a powerful organisation. When the
Congress ministries were in office, the Muslim League was allowed
to condemn them without any rhyme or reason. The Government
failed to stop the baseless allegations levelled by one political party
against the other. After the beginning of the second World War
in September 1939, the Viceroy was drawn nearer the Muslim
League and its President Mr. Jinnah. With the passage of time,
the Viceroy decided to favour the Muslim League even at the cost
of the Congress. This is clear from the contents of the August
Offer of 1940 in which the Viceroy declared that the interests of
the minorities will not be sacrificed in any way and nothing would
be done which was opposed by any minority. In other words it
gave a clear power of veto to the Muslim League. The Cripps
1
1
P
be
## p. 964 (#1008) ###########################################
964
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
proposals were also a concession to the Muslim League demand for
the creation of Pakistan. The division of India was obvious in the
Cripps proposals. During his regime, the Congress leaders were
in jails and the Muslim League and its leaders were allowed to carry
on their propaganda in favour of Pakistan without any let or hin-
drance from any quarter. It could safely be said that by the
time Lord Linlithgow left India, the situation in the country became
such that nothing could stop the creation of Pakistan in the long
run.
It seems desirable to refer to the attitude of India towards the
World War II. When the war started, the general feeling in the
country was that it was Britain's affair and India had nothing to do
with it. It was contended that there could be no popular war
effort without the grant of responsible Government to the people
of India. The Congress Ministries resigned in October-November,
1939 on the ground that the Congress was not consulted by the
Viceroy before declaring war against Germany. It is true that
there were individuals and groups who were willing to help the
Government in its war effort, but the people in general were in-
different to the war which was being fought far away in Europe.
This attitude lasted till the fall of France in June, 1940. The
Battle of Britain was watched with admiration. When the danger
of German invasion of India faded, it was realized in India that the
war would be a long one and India would have to play an import-
ant part. There was willingness to help but it was not possible to
do so on account of the constitutional deadlock prevailing in the
country. There could be no popular support of war effort as the
Congress leaders were in jails and they alone could call upon the
people to make all kinds of sacrifices. The people of India were
not expected to fight for the freedom of others when they them-
selves were not free. When Japan entered the war in 1941 and
Singapore and Rangoon fell into her hands and bombs fell on
Colombo and Vizagapatam, it was realized in India that war had
come nearer home and they had to do something about it. The
Americans appeared in Delhi. India became the centre of war
effort. Prices began to rise and shortages occurred in everything.
Rationing was introduced at many places and the common man
could feel that the war was near.
One thing to be noticed about India's war-effort is that no cons-
cription was enforced in the country and in spite of it the strength
of the Indian Army which was 182,000 before the war rose to
more than two million men in the middle of 1945.
Indian troops
played an important part in liquidating the Italian Empire in
Africa and this was admitted by the Viceroy in December 1941 to
## p. 965 (#1009) ###########################################
INDIA AND WORLD WAR II
965
be "of the first significance and of the greatest value. ” The Fourth
and the Seventh Divisions added laurels to Indian arms.
It was
found that with modern equipment, Indian troops were second to
none in the world. Indian participation lasted throughout the
commands of Wavell, Auchinleck and Montgomery.
Indian troops rendered valuable assistance to the Allies through-
out their struggle for the liberation of Europe till the collapse of
the Axis Powers in May 1945. Lieutenant-General Mark Clark,
the American General in command of the Allied armies in Italy,
paid the following tribute to the valour of the India troops: "The
achievements in combat of these Indian soldiers are noteworthy.
They have carried on successfully a grim and bloody fighting
against a tenacious enemy helped by terrain particularly favourable
for defence. No obstacle has succeeded in delaying them for long
or in lowering their high morale or fighting spirit. . . . . . . . The
Fourth, Eighth and Tenth Indian Divisions will for ever be associat-
ed with the fighting for Cassino, the capture of Rome, the Arno
valley, the liberation of Florence and the breaking of the Gothic
Line. I salute the brave soldiers of these three great Indian divi-
sions. "
The Indian troops took part in the operations in Iraq, Syria
and Persia. In Iraq, Indian intervention was decisive. Indian troops
were used to garrison Malaya. When the Japanese stroke fell
in December 1941, Indian troops shared in the long retreat to the
south and in the disaster of Singapore. As many as 90,000 Indian
troops surrendered. From 1943, the Indian Army passed under
Mountbatten's South-East Asia Command and became a part of
Sir William Slim's Fourteenth Army. Their moment of trial and
triumph came when the Japanese invaded Assam in the spring of
1944. The stand of the Seventh Division at Kohima when it was
cut off from all sides except by air, broke the spear-head of the
Japanese advance and after that the Indian troops had victories and
victories to their share. Rangoon was recaptured. The Indian
Army proved that it could stand the rigours of war. The Japa-
nese were terribly afraid of the Gurkha soldiers. When the Japa-
nese war ended in August 1945, Indian troops were poised for the
assault on Malaya under the Command of Mountbatten. General
Sir William Slim paid the following tribute to the wonderful services
rendered by the Indians in this theatre of war: “India was our base
and three-quarters of everything we got from there. The best
thing of all we got from India was the Indian army. Indeed, the
campaign in Burma was largely an Indian Army campaign. The
bulk of the fighting troops and almost the whole of those on the
lines of communication were soldiers of the Indian Army, and
## p. 966 (#1010) ###########################################
966
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
magnificent they were. India, too, trained and sent us our re-
inforcements. ”
During the war, the casualties in the ranks of the Indian troops
numbered 180,000 of whom "one in six was killed besides 6,500
merchant seamen who were either killed or missing. ” In addition
to this, 4,000 civilians were killed as a result of bombing. There
might have been more casualties if the Civil Defence Corps consist-
ing of 82,000 had not done an excellent job.
There was a large increase in the number of the King's Commis-
sioned Officers and Viceroy's Commissioned Officers. The Indian
Military Academy at Dehradun was admitting 200 cadets before
the war but the number was increased to 600 cadets. Officer
Training Schools were opened. Before the war, there were only
400 Indian Officers in the Army but the number had gone beyond
10,000 in 1945. A large number of Training Schools were set up
to facilitate the mechanisation of the Army and also to give better
training. The Indian Artillery was also expanded and developed.
The Corps of Indian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers was
formed on 1 May, 1943, for the repair, recovery and maintenance
of the technical equipment of the Indian Army. The Indian Signal
Corps was expanded during the Second World War. The Indian
Army Medical Corps was formed in 1943. The Women's Auxi-
liary Corps numbering more than 10,000 was formed to relieve the
soldiers and technicians for active service. The Indian Air Force
which had been started in 1932 and later on called the Royal Indian
Air Force was strengthened during the war. It was equipped with
modern aircraft, both fighters and bombers and it made its own
contribution towards the winning of the war. The number of air-
craft was increased from 200 to 27,000. The Indian Navy was
also expanded during the war and it also played its part in the
war.
The Indian princes supplied more than 375,000 recruits for the
fighting forces of India. They also provided men for technical
work. They also provided some material like steel, blankets, wool-
len cloth, silk for parachutes, webbing cloth and rubber products.
The total financial contribution of the Indian states was more than
Rs. 65 millions.
Indian factories turned out uniforms at the rate of 500,000 a
month. They also supplied blankets, tents and millions of jute
sand-bags. India was largely responsible for the supply of pipe-lines,
rolling stock and locomotives. Indian villages made cotton cloth,
blankets, camouflage netting and pith helmets. The Government
of India constructed 200 aerodromes for the Allied Forces. There
were 18 centres for assembling aircrafts and some types were actu-
## p. 967 (#1011) ###########################################
LORD WAVELL
967
ally built in India. The Government built not less than 130 new
hospitals. A large number of roads were built by the army in
jungles.
Before the War, Lord Chatfield's Committee had recommended
in September, 1939 that provision should be made for a gift of
Rs. 331/2 crores by the United Kingdom to India for modernising
its defence equipment. A loan of Rs. 11-3/4 crores was to be given
by the United Kingdom to India free of interest for the same pur-
pose. To begin with, this was considered to be sufficient. How-
ever, after the fall of France, India was considered as a centre for
the Commonwealth group for the supply of the Middle Eastern
theatre. The Supply Mission of Sir Alexander Roger visited India
in the autumn of 1940 and it coincided with the holding of the
Eastern Group Conference which was attended by representatives
from Australia, New Zealand, Ceylon, South Africa, Southern
Rhodesia, Burma, Malaya, Hongkong, Palestine and East Africa.
India became the principal supplier of cotton textiles, jute and jute
products, leather products and wooden furniture. In the first year
of the working of the Eastern Group Supply Council, India sup-
plied sixty per cent of its total demands and later on 75% of its total
demands. After the entry of the United States into War, things
changed and she was able to make good the deficiencies through-
out the Allied world. The Tatas expanded their plants to meet
the new demands. The Bengal Steel Corporation's Works at Burn-
fur were expanded. The Cement Industry was also expanded to
meet the new demands. The Indian deposits of bauxite were
exploited to develop the new aluminium industry. The Mica in-
dustry was also expanded. In short, it can be said that India
made a tremendous contribution towards war-effort in spite of the
constitutional deadlock prevailing in the country.
LORD WAVELL (1943-47)
-
At the time of his appointment as Governor-General and Viceroy
of India in October, 1943, Lord Wavell was the Commander-in-
Chief of India. He had a brilliant military career. He had won
laurels in the military operations in the Middle-East, and he was
occupying a crucial position when he was asked to relieve Lord
Linlithgow. The latter had failed to meet the situation created
by the Bengal famine and it was felt that only a strong man could
handle the situation. The new Governor-General brought with
him energy, zeal for work and a determination to meet the crisis
created by the Bengal famine. He took the help of the army to
rush food and medical supplies to the famine-stricken areas. How-
## p. 968 (#1012) ###########################################
968
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
ever, it took some time before the situation was brought under con-
trol. Although the people were grateful to the new Governor-
General for all that he did to relieve their sufferings, the terrible loss
of life in Bengal left behind very unhappy memories. It was not
forgotten that the British Government was also partly responsible
for the famine in Bengal. It should not have exported food-stuffs
from Bengal to feed troops overseas. It should not have forgotten
that Burma which could send rice to Bengal, was in the hands of
the Japanese and there was no way to fill up the gap created by
the Government even if without thinking. The people contended
that both in times of peace and war it was the duty of the Govern-
ment to see that the people had enough to eat and they put all
the blame on Lord Linlithgow for his failure. It could not be said
in his defence that he had no time or energy to look to this aspect
of the matter as his mind was otherwise busy with the war-effort.
India under Wavell had a stable government. The Congress
leaders were in jails. The Muslim League was carrying on its
propaganda in favour of Pakistan without any opposition from any
quarter. It was towards the end of his regime that the Muslim
League became a menace which was difficult to control. It was
during his regime that the Indian army steadily moved forward
into Burma and ultimately captured it. The war was also won
in his time.
As soon as the war ended, the Congress leaders were released
from their jails and they were invited to the Simla Conference
alongwith other leaders. In a very sincere spirit, Lord Wavell
tried to resolve the constitutional deadlock. He tried to prevail
upon the Congress and the Muslim League to join his Executive
Council and help him in the administration of the country. How-
ever, the Simla Conference failed on account of the attitude adopt-
ed by Mr. Jinnah. He was not prepared to allow the Congress to
nominate a Muslim from their quota and the Congress would not
give up its claim to di so. Critics point out that the Congress was
not acting wisely. It is contended that the Congress made a mis-
take in 1939 when it advised the Congress Ministries to resign. If
the Congress Ministries had not resigned, they could have fought
with the British Government from a position of strength. As the
Congress decided to go into exile, its enemies took advantage of it
and during the period between 1939 and 1942, they added to their
strength. They got all the help from the British Government in
this matter. It is contended that the Congress again made a mis-
take in 1942 when it did not accept the Cripps proposals and lost
an opportunity to come to power. This again gave a chance to the
Muslim League to be in the good books of the Government and
## p. 969 (#1013) ###########################################
I. N. A. TRIAL
969
also carry on uninterrupted its propaganda for Pakistan. If the
Congress Ministries had been in office between 1942 and 1945, the
Muslim League would not have got a free hand to do whatever it
pleased. The Congress leaders would have been there to check it.
However, it may be said in defence of the Congress that all these
are the “ifs” of history and nothing can be said with certainty as
to what would have happened if the Congress Ministries had not
resigned or had taken up office again in 1942. Experience shows
that if the Muslim League and its leaders were determined to divide
the country and if there were Englishmen who were equally deter-
mined to help them, the Congress leaders would not have been able
to stop them. Anyway, the failure of the Simla Conference was
unfortunate. Mr. Jinnah got the impression that the things as
they were, the British Government was not prepared to displease
him and this fact he could always keep in his mind in future while
dealing with the British Government. The British Government
would not impose a solution on India which was not acceptable to
Mr. Jinnah.
Two important events took place at this time. The Conserva-
tive Government was replaced by the Labour Government in Eng-
land in July, 1945. The Japanese war also came to a sudden end
in August, 1945. The British Government decided to test the
strength of the Congress and the Muslim League by means of fresh
provincial and Central elections. These elections had been post-
poned throughout the war. The situation was such that the elec-
tions should have been held as soon as possible but the machinery
of the Government moved slowly and it took about six months to
accomplish the job. The electoral machinery proved itself to be
very slow moving. During this period, tension continued to mount.
At this time, the I. N. A. trials took place. The Indian National
Army consisted of those Indian soldiers who had surrendered after
the fall of Singapore and who were later on organized by Subhash
Chandra Bose into a fighting force to assist the Japanese. The
ultimate aim of the Indian National Army was to hoist the National
flag on the Red Fort in Delhi. When the British conquered
Burma, most of the I. N. A. soldiers lost their lives. A few of them
fell into British hands. They were brought to India and court-
martialled in the Red Fort at Delhi. The Congress and the people
of India refused to consider these soldiers as traitors and there was
a lot of resentment in the country. The most prominent Indian
lawyers, headed by Bhulabhai Desai, defended them. Even Jawa-
harlal Nehru put on his gown to defend them. They were found
guilty but the Government remitted their sentences.
When the elections were held, it was found that the Congress
## p. 970 (#1014) ###########################################
970
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
had won most of the Hindu seats and the Muslim League had won
most of the Muslim seats. It could be pointed out that the two Nation
Theory of Mr. Jinnah had been found to be true. The situation
was such that the Congress could block any solution by the British
Government which did not give India complete independence and
the Muslim League could block any solution acceptable to the
Congress which did not give Pakistan to the Muslims. At this
stage, a new development took place. The British ability to im-
pose a decision or even to maintain the status quo began to dwindle
rapidly. The old attitude "we will hold the ring until the two
parties come to an agreement” began to disappear. The British
had neither the physical force nor the will to power nor the moral
conviction to do so. The public opinion in England was not pre-
pared to make any sacrifices to maintain British supremacy in
India. Power was in the hands of the Labour party which believ-
ed that India should be made independent as soon as possible and
hence there was no point in making sacrifices when India was going
to be given independence as soon as possible. The public opinion
in England demanded that the army must be demobilised as soon as
possible. By the spring of 1946, most of the war military units had
disappeared. It is this fact which explains that the British Govern-
ment had no longer sufficient physical force at its disposal to im-
pose its will on the Muslim League. The result was that the British
Government decided to play the role of a peace-maker and nego-
tiator and under these circumstances the Muslim League which
believed in force was bound to have the upper hand in the race with
the Congress which believed in the policy of non-violence. This
explains as to why the Muslim League had its way in August, 1946,
when it resorted to violence in Calcutta and later on in Noakhali.
That also explains why the use of force by the Muslim League in
the month of March, 1947, in the Punjab and the North-Western
Frontier Province won the day and the Congress ultimately decid-
ed to concede Pakistan.
It is pointed out that Lord Wavell had all the qualities of a great
soldier. He was also possessed of great intellectual power and much
goodwill. He could achieve a lot by his initiative. However, he
was out of his element in the dialectical arguments of the current
polemical politics. He was no match for Mr. Jinnah in this field
and no wonder he was not able to play his part well under the
new circumstances.
It was in the month of March, 1946 that the Cabinet Mission
came to India with a determination to resolve the deadlock in the
country.
After a lot of efforts, the Mission was able to prepare an
ingenious plan. It was in two parts. The long term part provid-
## p. 971 (#1015) ###########################################
THE CABINET MISSION
971
ed for a Federal Union of two tiers. The first tier was to consist
of the British Indian provinces which the Indian States were to
join after negotiations. The second tier was to consist of individual
provinces which were to form subordinate Unions of their own.
The Centre was to have powers less than those given to it under
the Cripps proposals of 1942. It was to have control over Defence,
Foreign Affairs and Communications alone. It was hoped that by
giving more powers to the provinces and by creating Regional
Unions of Provinces where the Muslims were in majority and also
by keeping the Centre very weak, the fears of the Muslims would
be met and at the same time the unity of India would be preserved.
To begin with, the Muslim League accepted the Cabinet Mission
plan but the Congress rejected it. Later on, the Congress accepted
it and the Muslim League rejected. The Congress believed that
under the Cabinet Mission Plan the grouping of the Provinces was
not compulsory. The Congress was not prepared to allow Assam
and the North-Western Frontier Province to join their respective
groups. The Muslim League insisted that the grouping of the
Provinces was compulsory and Assam was bound to join Bengal
and the North-Western Frontier Province was bound to join Pun-
jab and Sind. Ultimately, the British Government decided in
favour of the Muslim League. A perusal of the resolution of the
Muslim League by which it accepted the Cabinet Mission Plan
shows that it considered the Plan to be merely a stepping stone to
the realisation of Pakistan in the long run. The Regional Unions
of the Muslim majority provinces could decide at any time to leave
the Indian Union and in that case Pakistan was to consist of the
whole of the Punjab, North-Western Frontier Province, Sind,
Baluchistan, Bengal and Assam. Such an eventuality was not ac-
ceptable to the Congress. The Congress was not in favour of
giving away the whole of Punjab, Bengal and Assam to the Mus-
lim League. Moreover, the Congress did not approve of a weak
Centre. Nothing could be accomplished under such a weak
Centre. Thus there were bound to be differences and misgivings.
When Lord Wavell did not invite the Muslim League to form
the Interim Government in spite of the rejection of the plan by the
Congress, the Muslim League passed a resolution on 29 July, 1946,
by which it withdrew its consent of the Cabinet Mission Plan and
fixed 16 August, 1946, as the Direct Action Day. That Day was
declared a public holiday in Bengal and Sind. What happened on
16 August, in Calcutta and on the subsequent three days is well-
known. There was a terrible loss of life and property in Calcutta.
The same story was repeated when the trouble spread to Noakhali.
There were repercussions in Bihar.
## p. 972 (#1016) ###########################################
972
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
On 2 September, 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru formed the Interim
Government. When the Muslim League found that Lord Wavell
had invited the Congress to form the Interim Government without
it, it decided to enter the Interim Government as it was not pre-
pared to allow power to pass into the hands of the Congress. Lord
Wavell also accommodated the Muslim League and it was allow-
ed to nominate five members to the Executive Council of the Vice-
roy. When the Constituent Assembly met on 9 December, 1946,
the Muslim League boycotted it.
The situation began to worsen in the country and ultimately
Prime Minister Attlee declared on 20 February, 1947 that the Bri-
tish Government would hand over power into the hands of the
Indians by a date not later than June, 1948. He also declared that
the British Government would send Lord Mountbatten to India to
carry out the new policy. It was under these circumstances that
Lord Wavell was recalled before his term of office expired.
LORD MOUNTBATTEN (1947-48)
Before his appointment as the Governor-General and Viceroy of
India, Lord Mountbatten had been the Supreme Allied Comman-
der in South-East Asia during World War II. He played an im-
portant part in the overthrow of the Japanese power in South-East
Asia. From 27 March, 1947 to 15 August, 1947, he was the
Governor-General and Viceroy of the whole of India. After the
partition of India, he became the Governor-General of free India
minus Pakistan. He continued in that position up to June, 1948.
When Lord Mountbatten reached India towards the end of
March 1947, the situation was very critical. The Muslim League
was carrying on its wear and tear campaign all over the country,
particularly in the Punjab, Sind and North-Western Frontier Pro-
vince. The Khizar Hayat Tiwana's ministry was forced to resign
in March and there were riots not only at Lahore but also at
Rawalpindi and its neighbourhood. It is rightly stated that the
Muslims turned upon the Sikhs in Rawalpindi and in a welter of
ferocity, murdered more than 2,000. Even before the announce-
ment of 3 June plan, there were serious disturbances in the Pun-
jab. When the Muslims rioted in Multan, British authority com-
pletely disappeared there. The non-Muslims were completely at
the mercy of the unsocial elements who were instigated and har-
boured by the Muslim League. There were fires in various parts
of Lahore even before 3 June, 1947. Soon after the arrival of Lord
Mountbatten in India, the Muslim League celebrated the Pakistan
Day. The working of the Interim Government was hopelessly un-
## p. 973 (#1017) ###########################################
LORD MOUNTBATTEN
973
satisfactory. On account of the attitude of the Muslim League
members in the Central Government, the work of the Government
was practically at a stand-still. No wonder, Lord Mountbatten
came to the inevitable conclusion that the partition of the country
was the only solution. On the whole, the 3 June plan was accept-
ed by all the political parties and the Indian Independence Act
fixed 15 August, 1947, as the date for making India free and on
that date both India and Pakistan became actually independent.
Credit must go to Lord Mountbatten for the lightning speed with
which he expedited the work of the partitioning of India. Address-
ing the constitution Assembly just before mid-night on 14 August,
1947, Prime Minister Nehru observed: “Long years ago we made
a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem
our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At
the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will
awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but
rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when
an age ends, when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utte-
rance. It is fitting that at this solemn moment we take the pledge
of dedication to the service of India and her people and to still
larger cause of humanity. ” Lord Mountbatten was requested to
continue as the Governor-General of India.
After the declaration of India's independence, the state of Jam-
mu and Kashmir was attacked by the tribal raiders. Prime Mini-
ster Mehr Chand Mahajan protested against the attack and appea-
led both to Pakistan and the British Prime Minister to stop them
but to no avail. Ultimately, the state acceded to India and In-
dian forces were flown to Kashmir to protect the people and drive
out the raiders. India also took the matter to the Security Council
of the United Nations and ultimately a cease-fire was ordered bet-
ween the two countries.
The division of India on communal lines presented insurmoun-
table difficulties. The Boundary Force of 50,000 Indian troops
under the command of Major-General Reese proved inadequate
to maintain law and order in the Punjab after the announcement
of the Radcliffe Boundary Award on 17 August, 1947. The South
Indian troops who could be trusted in that atmosphere were not
readily available. The result was that the Muslims in West Pak-
istan attacked the Hindus and Sikhs and the latter attacked them
in turn in East Punjab. Each tried to exterminate the other.
According to one estimate, “In the nine months between August
1947 and the spring of the following year, between fourteen and
sixteen million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims were forced to leave
their homes and flee to safety from blood crazed mobs. In that
## p. 974 (#1018) ###########################################
974
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
same period, over 600,000 of them were killed. . . . Another
view is that “up to the middle of 1948 about 51/2 million non-
Muslims were brought across the border from West Punjab and
other provinces of Western Pakistan. About the same number of
Muslims moved into Pakistan from East Punjab (including the East
Punjab States), Delhi, the United Provinces, Ajmer-Merwara,
Alwar, Bharatpur, Gwalior and Indore. During the same period
about 114 million non-Muslims crossed the border from East Pakis-
tan into West Bengal. These figures do not of course take into
account about 4,000,000 non-Muslims who later migrated to India
from Sind.
lished objectionable matter, the provincial Government could for-
## p. 959 (#1003) ###########################################
INDIAN PRESS (EMERGENCY POWERS) ACT
959
feit the new security also. Provisions which applied to keepers of
printing presses applied equally to the publishers of newspapers.
Section 11 penalised the keeping of printing presses and the publish-
ing of newspapers without making the security deposit as required
by the provincial Government or the magistrate. If a press did
not deposit the security but continued to do its work, it could
be forfeited to His Majesty and the declaration of the publi-
sher was liable to be cancelled Any police officer empowered
for that purpose by the provincial Government could seize
any unauthorised news sheets or unauthorised newspapers wher-
ever found and the same could be ordered to be destroyed by a
magistrate. The Government was given the power to seize and
forfeit undeclared presses producing unauthorised news sheets and
newspapers. The penalty for disseminating unauthorised news
sheets and newspapers was imprisonment up to 6 months, with or
without fine. The provincial Government was given the power to
declare certain publications forfeited to His Majesty and also issue
search warrants for the same. The Customs Officers were autho-
rised to detain packages containing certain publications when im-
ported into British India. No unauthorised news sheets or news-
papers could be transmitted by post.
The powers conferred by the Act were undoubtedly sweeping in
their nature and scope. Those were actually used by the Provin-
cial Governments to prohibit the publication of the names and por-
traits of well-known leaders of the Civil Disobedience Movement
as the publication of such pictures tended to encourage the move-
The other restraints included the prohibition of the publi-
cation of Congress propaganda of any kind including messages
from the persons arrested, messages issued or purported to be issued
from persons in jail, exaggerated reports of political events, notices
and advertisements of meetings, processions and other activities
tending to promote Civil Disobedience Movement or any other
matter in furtherance of the same. Under this Act, the Govern-
ment took action against many newspapers. The printers and
publishers of the Bombay Chronicle were called upon to deposit
Rs. 3,000 each for publishing an article by Mr. Horniman. The
printer and publisher of the Anand Bazar Patrika each received a
demand for Rs. 1,000. A security of Rs. 6,000 was demanded from
the Amrit Bazar Patrika. Rs. 6,000 were deposited by The Liberty
of Calcutta. A security of Rs. 6,000 was deposited by the Free
Press Journal and later on forfeited by the Bombay Government.
Similar action was taken against other newspapers. There was
virtually a reign of terror in the country.
The Foreign Relations Act, 1932 replaced an Ordinance of 1931.
## p. 960 (#1004) ###########################################
960
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
Its object was to penalise publications calculated to interfere with
the maintenance of good relations between His Majesty's Govern-
ment and friendly foreign states. The necessity of this law arose
when the Indian newspapers criticised the administration in certain
states adjoining the frontiers of India. The Act provided that
where an offence under Chapter XXI of the Indian Penal Code
was committed against the ruler of a State outside but adjoining
India or against the consort or son of principal minister of such a
ruler, the Governor-General in Council could make or autho-
rise any person to make a complaint in writing of such an offence
and any court competent in other respects to take cognizance of
such offence could take cognizance of such a complaint. Any
book, newspaper or other document containing defamatory matter
which tended to prejudice the maintenance of friendly relations
between His Majesty's Government and the Government of such
State, could be detained in the same manner as seditious literature.
In January 1933, four Ordinances were promulgated which con-
ferred certain powers on the Government for the maintenance of
law and order and widened the operative section of the Indian Press
(Emergency Powers) Act, 1931 so as to permit action against the
publication of matter calculated to encourage the Civil Disobe-
dience Movement.
The object of the Indian States (Protection) Act, 1934 was to
prevent unreasonable attacks on the administration of the Indian
States in the newspapers of British India and to provide the author-
ities in British India with powers to deal with bands or demons-
trators organised on semi-military lines for the purpose of entering
and spreading dis-affection in the territories of Indian States.
LORD LINLITHGOW (1936-1943)
Before his appointment as Governor-General, Lord Linlithgow
had a brilliant career. He was the Chairman of the Royal Com-
mission on Indian Agriculture. He was also the Chairman of the
Joint Select Committee on Indian Constitutional Reforms. He had
a hand in the drafting of the Government of India Act, 1935. No
wonder, he was sent to India to work out the law in the making
of which he had a hand.
It goes without saying that Lord Linlithgow did all that he
could to bring the states into the Federation so that the whole of
the Government of India Act could be enforced. It was partly
due to opposition from the Congress and the Muslim League to
the Federal part of the Government of India Act and also due to
unwillingness on the part of the Indian States to join the Federation
## p. 961 (#1005) ###########################################
LORD LINLITHGOW
961
E
3
2
3
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E
.
1
ces.
that the whole of the Government of India Act was not brought
into force on 1 April, 1937. Only that part of the Act which relat-
ed to Provincial Autonomy was brought into force on 1 April, 1937.
The Government hoped that the rest of the Act would be brought
into force later on.
It is true that the Indian National Congress did not approve of
the Act of 1935, but in spite of it, the Congress fought the Provin-
cial elections in the beginning of 1937. Although the Congress
got a majority in 7 Provinces, it refused to form ministries unless
and until a guarantee was given by the Governors concerned that
they would not interfere in the day to day working of the Provin-
cial Government. As the Governors refused to give such an under-
taking, a constitutional deadlock followed. Ultimately, Lord Lin-
lithgow asked the Governors to give such an undertaking as would
help the Congress Ministries to take office. To begin with, the
Congress formed ministries in 7 Provinces and later on in 8 Provin-
This state of affairs continued for more than two years and
during this period, the Congress ministries did a lot of useful work
in their respective Provinces.
The Congress Ministries resigned in October-November, 1939,
on account of differences between the Governor-General and the
Congress on the question of the second World War. What actu-
ally happened was that when the second World War broke out in
September, 1939, Lord Linlithgow declared war on behalf of India
against Germany. This he did without consulting the Congress.
It is true that constitutionally the stand taken by him was correct
but the view of the Congress was that the Viceroy should have
declared the war only after consulting the leaders and the people
of India. The Congress was also of the view that before declaring
war, the British Government ought to have declared its war-aims.
As nothing of the kind had been done, it showed that the Govern-
ment of India did not ask for help from the people. On 19 Octo-
ber, 1939, Lord Linlithgow reaffirmed the promise that Dominion
Status and complete equality were the goals of British policy in
India. However, the Congress was not satisfied and asked the Con-
gress Ministries to resign and the same was actually done.
The Congress started its campaign of opposition to the Govern-
ment and its war efforts. The opposition took the form of indivi-
dual civil disobedience. This was to be done by private persons in
their individual capacity and the same was not required to be done
on a nation-wide scale.
The Viceroy continued his negotiations with the various political
parties in the country with a view to secure their cooperation in the
administration of the country and the prosecution of the war. While
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## p. 962 (#1006) ###########################################
962
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
the attitude of the Congress was positively hostile, that of the
Muslim League was a mild one. The Muslim League under Mr.
Jinnah did nothing to hamper the war-effort of the Government.
In 1940, Lord Linlithgow made the famous August Offer but the
same was rejected by the Congress. The result was that the Vice-
roy took into his Executive Council the leaders of other political
parties and there the matter arrested for the time being, and the
war continued.
Another attempt was made by the British Government to resolve
the deadlock in India in March, 1942. This was done under
very pressing circumstances. On 8 March, 1942, the Japanese
Army entered Rangoon. Colombo was bombarded and some
bombs fell on the Eastern coast of India. Calcutta was also
threatened and people began to leave the city in large numbers.
It was under these circumstances that Sir Stafford Cripps who at
that time was the Leader of the House of Commons in England,
was sent to India with certain proposals with a view to end the
constitutional deadlock in the country. Sir Stafford did not im-
press Mahatma Gandhi and the Cripps proposals were rejected by
the Congress. The Mahatma described the Cripps proposals as a
"post-dated cheque on a crashing bank. ” Although Cripps did
not say so in so many words, his proposals virtually granted Pakis-
tan to the Muslim League. The Congress which stood for the
unity of India could not be expected to be a party to such proposals.
After the departure of Cripps, the Congress was in a desperate
mood. It was determined to do something which could bring the
independence of India nearer. With that object in view, the All-
India Congress Committee met at Bombay and passed the famous
Quit India resolution on 8 August, 1942, calling on the British to
quit the country forthwith. The Government also hit back. All
the top-ranking Congressmen were arrested throughout the coun-
try and they remained in jails for about 3 years. As the people
were left without any leadership, they resorted to whatever came
in their minds. There was a wave of disturbances in various parts
of the country. So great was the mob fury that in certain parts
of India, British authority disappeared completely for a few days.
People set fire to whatever fell into their hands. It is stated that
250 Railway Stations and 300 Post Offices were either damaged or
destroyed. 150 Police Stations were attacked. A number of offi-
cials and soldiers were killed. About 900 civilians lost their lives.
In 1943 there took place a terrible famine in Bengal. The
famine was due to many causes.
As a result of the third year of
the war, prices were soaring. In order to take advantage of the
high prices the agriculturists sold their crops and paid off their
## p. 963 (#1007) ###########################################
BENGAL FAMINE
963
debts and did not care to keep sufficient foodgrains for their own
sustenance. There was no import of food-stuffs from outside ex-
cept from Burma and that also was cut off after the fall of Burma
into the hands of the Japanese. Rice completely disappeared from
the market. Food shortage was in every part of the country and
there was no surplus in any part of India which could be sent to
Bengal. There was no system of rationing in the country by which
the available food-stuffs all over the country could be equitably dis-
tributed among all the people of India. The demand for food-
grains had also increased in India on account of war-conditions in
the country. Black market developed in foodgrains and what-
ever grains were available were sold at very high prices which the
poor people of Bengal could not afford to pay. The result was the
worst type of famine in Bengal in 1943. Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit
reported in October 1943 that about 700 persons were dying every
day in Calcutta. It was estimated that between August and Octo-
ber, 1943, 4,794 persons died in the streets and this figure did not
include 2,492 who had died in the hospitals during the same period.
It was estimated that between 16 October and 23 October, 1943,
2,155 persons died. On 28 July, 1944, Mr. Amery, Secretary of
State for India declared in the House of Commons that "in Bengal
last year about 700,000 human beings died as a consequence of
that famine. ” Another estimate is that 1/2 million human lives
were lost during that famine. The famine situation continued to
worsen till Lord Wavell took over as Governor-General in Octo-
ber 1943. He handed over the work of relief distribution to the
British Army. A system of rationing was introduced in all the
large towns of India and thus the situation was brought under
control. Lord Linlithgow earned a very bad name on account of
his failure to check the famine.
It cannot be denied that during the regime of Lord Linlithgow,
the Muslim League became a powerful organisation. When the
Congress ministries were in office, the Muslim League was allowed
to condemn them without any rhyme or reason. The Government
failed to stop the baseless allegations levelled by one political party
against the other. After the beginning of the second World War
in September 1939, the Viceroy was drawn nearer the Muslim
League and its President Mr. Jinnah. With the passage of time,
the Viceroy decided to favour the Muslim League even at the cost
of the Congress. This is clear from the contents of the August
Offer of 1940 in which the Viceroy declared that the interests of
the minorities will not be sacrificed in any way and nothing would
be done which was opposed by any minority. In other words it
gave a clear power of veto to the Muslim League. The Cripps
1
1
P
be
## p. 964 (#1008) ###########################################
964
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
proposals were also a concession to the Muslim League demand for
the creation of Pakistan. The division of India was obvious in the
Cripps proposals. During his regime, the Congress leaders were
in jails and the Muslim League and its leaders were allowed to carry
on their propaganda in favour of Pakistan without any let or hin-
drance from any quarter. It could safely be said that by the
time Lord Linlithgow left India, the situation in the country became
such that nothing could stop the creation of Pakistan in the long
run.
It seems desirable to refer to the attitude of India towards the
World War II. When the war started, the general feeling in the
country was that it was Britain's affair and India had nothing to do
with it. It was contended that there could be no popular war
effort without the grant of responsible Government to the people
of India. The Congress Ministries resigned in October-November,
1939 on the ground that the Congress was not consulted by the
Viceroy before declaring war against Germany. It is true that
there were individuals and groups who were willing to help the
Government in its war effort, but the people in general were in-
different to the war which was being fought far away in Europe.
This attitude lasted till the fall of France in June, 1940. The
Battle of Britain was watched with admiration. When the danger
of German invasion of India faded, it was realized in India that the
war would be a long one and India would have to play an import-
ant part. There was willingness to help but it was not possible to
do so on account of the constitutional deadlock prevailing in the
country. There could be no popular support of war effort as the
Congress leaders were in jails and they alone could call upon the
people to make all kinds of sacrifices. The people of India were
not expected to fight for the freedom of others when they them-
selves were not free. When Japan entered the war in 1941 and
Singapore and Rangoon fell into her hands and bombs fell on
Colombo and Vizagapatam, it was realized in India that war had
come nearer home and they had to do something about it. The
Americans appeared in Delhi. India became the centre of war
effort. Prices began to rise and shortages occurred in everything.
Rationing was introduced at many places and the common man
could feel that the war was near.
One thing to be noticed about India's war-effort is that no cons-
cription was enforced in the country and in spite of it the strength
of the Indian Army which was 182,000 before the war rose to
more than two million men in the middle of 1945.
Indian troops
played an important part in liquidating the Italian Empire in
Africa and this was admitted by the Viceroy in December 1941 to
## p. 965 (#1009) ###########################################
INDIA AND WORLD WAR II
965
be "of the first significance and of the greatest value. ” The Fourth
and the Seventh Divisions added laurels to Indian arms.
It was
found that with modern equipment, Indian troops were second to
none in the world. Indian participation lasted throughout the
commands of Wavell, Auchinleck and Montgomery.
Indian troops rendered valuable assistance to the Allies through-
out their struggle for the liberation of Europe till the collapse of
the Axis Powers in May 1945. Lieutenant-General Mark Clark,
the American General in command of the Allied armies in Italy,
paid the following tribute to the valour of the India troops: "The
achievements in combat of these Indian soldiers are noteworthy.
They have carried on successfully a grim and bloody fighting
against a tenacious enemy helped by terrain particularly favourable
for defence. No obstacle has succeeded in delaying them for long
or in lowering their high morale or fighting spirit. . . . . . . . The
Fourth, Eighth and Tenth Indian Divisions will for ever be associat-
ed with the fighting for Cassino, the capture of Rome, the Arno
valley, the liberation of Florence and the breaking of the Gothic
Line. I salute the brave soldiers of these three great Indian divi-
sions. "
The Indian troops took part in the operations in Iraq, Syria
and Persia. In Iraq, Indian intervention was decisive. Indian troops
were used to garrison Malaya. When the Japanese stroke fell
in December 1941, Indian troops shared in the long retreat to the
south and in the disaster of Singapore. As many as 90,000 Indian
troops surrendered. From 1943, the Indian Army passed under
Mountbatten's South-East Asia Command and became a part of
Sir William Slim's Fourteenth Army. Their moment of trial and
triumph came when the Japanese invaded Assam in the spring of
1944. The stand of the Seventh Division at Kohima when it was
cut off from all sides except by air, broke the spear-head of the
Japanese advance and after that the Indian troops had victories and
victories to their share. Rangoon was recaptured. The Indian
Army proved that it could stand the rigours of war. The Japa-
nese were terribly afraid of the Gurkha soldiers. When the Japa-
nese war ended in August 1945, Indian troops were poised for the
assault on Malaya under the Command of Mountbatten. General
Sir William Slim paid the following tribute to the wonderful services
rendered by the Indians in this theatre of war: “India was our base
and three-quarters of everything we got from there. The best
thing of all we got from India was the Indian army. Indeed, the
campaign in Burma was largely an Indian Army campaign. The
bulk of the fighting troops and almost the whole of those on the
lines of communication were soldiers of the Indian Army, and
## p. 966 (#1010) ###########################################
966
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
magnificent they were. India, too, trained and sent us our re-
inforcements. ”
During the war, the casualties in the ranks of the Indian troops
numbered 180,000 of whom "one in six was killed besides 6,500
merchant seamen who were either killed or missing. ” In addition
to this, 4,000 civilians were killed as a result of bombing. There
might have been more casualties if the Civil Defence Corps consist-
ing of 82,000 had not done an excellent job.
There was a large increase in the number of the King's Commis-
sioned Officers and Viceroy's Commissioned Officers. The Indian
Military Academy at Dehradun was admitting 200 cadets before
the war but the number was increased to 600 cadets. Officer
Training Schools were opened. Before the war, there were only
400 Indian Officers in the Army but the number had gone beyond
10,000 in 1945. A large number of Training Schools were set up
to facilitate the mechanisation of the Army and also to give better
training. The Indian Artillery was also expanded and developed.
The Corps of Indian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers was
formed on 1 May, 1943, for the repair, recovery and maintenance
of the technical equipment of the Indian Army. The Indian Signal
Corps was expanded during the Second World War. The Indian
Army Medical Corps was formed in 1943. The Women's Auxi-
liary Corps numbering more than 10,000 was formed to relieve the
soldiers and technicians for active service. The Indian Air Force
which had been started in 1932 and later on called the Royal Indian
Air Force was strengthened during the war. It was equipped with
modern aircraft, both fighters and bombers and it made its own
contribution towards the winning of the war. The number of air-
craft was increased from 200 to 27,000. The Indian Navy was
also expanded during the war and it also played its part in the
war.
The Indian princes supplied more than 375,000 recruits for the
fighting forces of India. They also provided men for technical
work. They also provided some material like steel, blankets, wool-
len cloth, silk for parachutes, webbing cloth and rubber products.
The total financial contribution of the Indian states was more than
Rs. 65 millions.
Indian factories turned out uniforms at the rate of 500,000 a
month. They also supplied blankets, tents and millions of jute
sand-bags. India was largely responsible for the supply of pipe-lines,
rolling stock and locomotives. Indian villages made cotton cloth,
blankets, camouflage netting and pith helmets. The Government
of India constructed 200 aerodromes for the Allied Forces. There
were 18 centres for assembling aircrafts and some types were actu-
## p. 967 (#1011) ###########################################
LORD WAVELL
967
ally built in India. The Government built not less than 130 new
hospitals. A large number of roads were built by the army in
jungles.
Before the War, Lord Chatfield's Committee had recommended
in September, 1939 that provision should be made for a gift of
Rs. 331/2 crores by the United Kingdom to India for modernising
its defence equipment. A loan of Rs. 11-3/4 crores was to be given
by the United Kingdom to India free of interest for the same pur-
pose. To begin with, this was considered to be sufficient. How-
ever, after the fall of France, India was considered as a centre for
the Commonwealth group for the supply of the Middle Eastern
theatre. The Supply Mission of Sir Alexander Roger visited India
in the autumn of 1940 and it coincided with the holding of the
Eastern Group Conference which was attended by representatives
from Australia, New Zealand, Ceylon, South Africa, Southern
Rhodesia, Burma, Malaya, Hongkong, Palestine and East Africa.
India became the principal supplier of cotton textiles, jute and jute
products, leather products and wooden furniture. In the first year
of the working of the Eastern Group Supply Council, India sup-
plied sixty per cent of its total demands and later on 75% of its total
demands. After the entry of the United States into War, things
changed and she was able to make good the deficiencies through-
out the Allied world. The Tatas expanded their plants to meet
the new demands. The Bengal Steel Corporation's Works at Burn-
fur were expanded. The Cement Industry was also expanded to
meet the new demands. The Indian deposits of bauxite were
exploited to develop the new aluminium industry. The Mica in-
dustry was also expanded. In short, it can be said that India
made a tremendous contribution towards war-effort in spite of the
constitutional deadlock prevailing in the country.
LORD WAVELL (1943-47)
-
At the time of his appointment as Governor-General and Viceroy
of India in October, 1943, Lord Wavell was the Commander-in-
Chief of India. He had a brilliant military career. He had won
laurels in the military operations in the Middle-East, and he was
occupying a crucial position when he was asked to relieve Lord
Linlithgow. The latter had failed to meet the situation created
by the Bengal famine and it was felt that only a strong man could
handle the situation. The new Governor-General brought with
him energy, zeal for work and a determination to meet the crisis
created by the Bengal famine. He took the help of the army to
rush food and medical supplies to the famine-stricken areas. How-
## p. 968 (#1012) ###########################################
968
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
ever, it took some time before the situation was brought under con-
trol. Although the people were grateful to the new Governor-
General for all that he did to relieve their sufferings, the terrible loss
of life in Bengal left behind very unhappy memories. It was not
forgotten that the British Government was also partly responsible
for the famine in Bengal. It should not have exported food-stuffs
from Bengal to feed troops overseas. It should not have forgotten
that Burma which could send rice to Bengal, was in the hands of
the Japanese and there was no way to fill up the gap created by
the Government even if without thinking. The people contended
that both in times of peace and war it was the duty of the Govern-
ment to see that the people had enough to eat and they put all
the blame on Lord Linlithgow for his failure. It could not be said
in his defence that he had no time or energy to look to this aspect
of the matter as his mind was otherwise busy with the war-effort.
India under Wavell had a stable government. The Congress
leaders were in jails. The Muslim League was carrying on its
propaganda in favour of Pakistan without any opposition from any
quarter. It was towards the end of his regime that the Muslim
League became a menace which was difficult to control. It was
during his regime that the Indian army steadily moved forward
into Burma and ultimately captured it. The war was also won
in his time.
As soon as the war ended, the Congress leaders were released
from their jails and they were invited to the Simla Conference
alongwith other leaders. In a very sincere spirit, Lord Wavell
tried to resolve the constitutional deadlock. He tried to prevail
upon the Congress and the Muslim League to join his Executive
Council and help him in the administration of the country. How-
ever, the Simla Conference failed on account of the attitude adopt-
ed by Mr. Jinnah. He was not prepared to allow the Congress to
nominate a Muslim from their quota and the Congress would not
give up its claim to di so. Critics point out that the Congress was
not acting wisely. It is contended that the Congress made a mis-
take in 1939 when it advised the Congress Ministries to resign. If
the Congress Ministries had not resigned, they could have fought
with the British Government from a position of strength. As the
Congress decided to go into exile, its enemies took advantage of it
and during the period between 1939 and 1942, they added to their
strength. They got all the help from the British Government in
this matter. It is contended that the Congress again made a mis-
take in 1942 when it did not accept the Cripps proposals and lost
an opportunity to come to power. This again gave a chance to the
Muslim League to be in the good books of the Government and
## p. 969 (#1013) ###########################################
I. N. A. TRIAL
969
also carry on uninterrupted its propaganda for Pakistan. If the
Congress Ministries had been in office between 1942 and 1945, the
Muslim League would not have got a free hand to do whatever it
pleased. The Congress leaders would have been there to check it.
However, it may be said in defence of the Congress that all these
are the “ifs” of history and nothing can be said with certainty as
to what would have happened if the Congress Ministries had not
resigned or had taken up office again in 1942. Experience shows
that if the Muslim League and its leaders were determined to divide
the country and if there were Englishmen who were equally deter-
mined to help them, the Congress leaders would not have been able
to stop them. Anyway, the failure of the Simla Conference was
unfortunate. Mr. Jinnah got the impression that the things as
they were, the British Government was not prepared to displease
him and this fact he could always keep in his mind in future while
dealing with the British Government. The British Government
would not impose a solution on India which was not acceptable to
Mr. Jinnah.
Two important events took place at this time. The Conserva-
tive Government was replaced by the Labour Government in Eng-
land in July, 1945. The Japanese war also came to a sudden end
in August, 1945. The British Government decided to test the
strength of the Congress and the Muslim League by means of fresh
provincial and Central elections. These elections had been post-
poned throughout the war. The situation was such that the elec-
tions should have been held as soon as possible but the machinery
of the Government moved slowly and it took about six months to
accomplish the job. The electoral machinery proved itself to be
very slow moving. During this period, tension continued to mount.
At this time, the I. N. A. trials took place. The Indian National
Army consisted of those Indian soldiers who had surrendered after
the fall of Singapore and who were later on organized by Subhash
Chandra Bose into a fighting force to assist the Japanese. The
ultimate aim of the Indian National Army was to hoist the National
flag on the Red Fort in Delhi. When the British conquered
Burma, most of the I. N. A. soldiers lost their lives. A few of them
fell into British hands. They were brought to India and court-
martialled in the Red Fort at Delhi. The Congress and the people
of India refused to consider these soldiers as traitors and there was
a lot of resentment in the country. The most prominent Indian
lawyers, headed by Bhulabhai Desai, defended them. Even Jawa-
harlal Nehru put on his gown to defend them. They were found
guilty but the Government remitted their sentences.
When the elections were held, it was found that the Congress
## p. 970 (#1014) ###########################################
970
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
had won most of the Hindu seats and the Muslim League had won
most of the Muslim seats. It could be pointed out that the two Nation
Theory of Mr. Jinnah had been found to be true. The situation
was such that the Congress could block any solution by the British
Government which did not give India complete independence and
the Muslim League could block any solution acceptable to the
Congress which did not give Pakistan to the Muslims. At this
stage, a new development took place. The British ability to im-
pose a decision or even to maintain the status quo began to dwindle
rapidly. The old attitude "we will hold the ring until the two
parties come to an agreement” began to disappear. The British
had neither the physical force nor the will to power nor the moral
conviction to do so. The public opinion in England was not pre-
pared to make any sacrifices to maintain British supremacy in
India. Power was in the hands of the Labour party which believ-
ed that India should be made independent as soon as possible and
hence there was no point in making sacrifices when India was going
to be given independence as soon as possible. The public opinion
in England demanded that the army must be demobilised as soon as
possible. By the spring of 1946, most of the war military units had
disappeared. It is this fact which explains that the British Govern-
ment had no longer sufficient physical force at its disposal to im-
pose its will on the Muslim League. The result was that the British
Government decided to play the role of a peace-maker and nego-
tiator and under these circumstances the Muslim League which
believed in force was bound to have the upper hand in the race with
the Congress which believed in the policy of non-violence. This
explains as to why the Muslim League had its way in August, 1946,
when it resorted to violence in Calcutta and later on in Noakhali.
That also explains why the use of force by the Muslim League in
the month of March, 1947, in the Punjab and the North-Western
Frontier Province won the day and the Congress ultimately decid-
ed to concede Pakistan.
It is pointed out that Lord Wavell had all the qualities of a great
soldier. He was also possessed of great intellectual power and much
goodwill. He could achieve a lot by his initiative. However, he
was out of his element in the dialectical arguments of the current
polemical politics. He was no match for Mr. Jinnah in this field
and no wonder he was not able to play his part well under the
new circumstances.
It was in the month of March, 1946 that the Cabinet Mission
came to India with a determination to resolve the deadlock in the
country.
After a lot of efforts, the Mission was able to prepare an
ingenious plan. It was in two parts. The long term part provid-
## p. 971 (#1015) ###########################################
THE CABINET MISSION
971
ed for a Federal Union of two tiers. The first tier was to consist
of the British Indian provinces which the Indian States were to
join after negotiations. The second tier was to consist of individual
provinces which were to form subordinate Unions of their own.
The Centre was to have powers less than those given to it under
the Cripps proposals of 1942. It was to have control over Defence,
Foreign Affairs and Communications alone. It was hoped that by
giving more powers to the provinces and by creating Regional
Unions of Provinces where the Muslims were in majority and also
by keeping the Centre very weak, the fears of the Muslims would
be met and at the same time the unity of India would be preserved.
To begin with, the Muslim League accepted the Cabinet Mission
plan but the Congress rejected it. Later on, the Congress accepted
it and the Muslim League rejected. The Congress believed that
under the Cabinet Mission Plan the grouping of the Provinces was
not compulsory. The Congress was not prepared to allow Assam
and the North-Western Frontier Province to join their respective
groups. The Muslim League insisted that the grouping of the
Provinces was compulsory and Assam was bound to join Bengal
and the North-Western Frontier Province was bound to join Pun-
jab and Sind. Ultimately, the British Government decided in
favour of the Muslim League. A perusal of the resolution of the
Muslim League by which it accepted the Cabinet Mission Plan
shows that it considered the Plan to be merely a stepping stone to
the realisation of Pakistan in the long run. The Regional Unions
of the Muslim majority provinces could decide at any time to leave
the Indian Union and in that case Pakistan was to consist of the
whole of the Punjab, North-Western Frontier Province, Sind,
Baluchistan, Bengal and Assam. Such an eventuality was not ac-
ceptable to the Congress. The Congress was not in favour of
giving away the whole of Punjab, Bengal and Assam to the Mus-
lim League. Moreover, the Congress did not approve of a weak
Centre. Nothing could be accomplished under such a weak
Centre. Thus there were bound to be differences and misgivings.
When Lord Wavell did not invite the Muslim League to form
the Interim Government in spite of the rejection of the plan by the
Congress, the Muslim League passed a resolution on 29 July, 1946,
by which it withdrew its consent of the Cabinet Mission Plan and
fixed 16 August, 1946, as the Direct Action Day. That Day was
declared a public holiday in Bengal and Sind. What happened on
16 August, in Calcutta and on the subsequent three days is well-
known. There was a terrible loss of life and property in Calcutta.
The same story was repeated when the trouble spread to Noakhali.
There were repercussions in Bihar.
## p. 972 (#1016) ###########################################
972
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
On 2 September, 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru formed the Interim
Government. When the Muslim League found that Lord Wavell
had invited the Congress to form the Interim Government without
it, it decided to enter the Interim Government as it was not pre-
pared to allow power to pass into the hands of the Congress. Lord
Wavell also accommodated the Muslim League and it was allow-
ed to nominate five members to the Executive Council of the Vice-
roy. When the Constituent Assembly met on 9 December, 1946,
the Muslim League boycotted it.
The situation began to worsen in the country and ultimately
Prime Minister Attlee declared on 20 February, 1947 that the Bri-
tish Government would hand over power into the hands of the
Indians by a date not later than June, 1948. He also declared that
the British Government would send Lord Mountbatten to India to
carry out the new policy. It was under these circumstances that
Lord Wavell was recalled before his term of office expired.
LORD MOUNTBATTEN (1947-48)
Before his appointment as the Governor-General and Viceroy of
India, Lord Mountbatten had been the Supreme Allied Comman-
der in South-East Asia during World War II. He played an im-
portant part in the overthrow of the Japanese power in South-East
Asia. From 27 March, 1947 to 15 August, 1947, he was the
Governor-General and Viceroy of the whole of India. After the
partition of India, he became the Governor-General of free India
minus Pakistan. He continued in that position up to June, 1948.
When Lord Mountbatten reached India towards the end of
March 1947, the situation was very critical. The Muslim League
was carrying on its wear and tear campaign all over the country,
particularly in the Punjab, Sind and North-Western Frontier Pro-
vince. The Khizar Hayat Tiwana's ministry was forced to resign
in March and there were riots not only at Lahore but also at
Rawalpindi and its neighbourhood. It is rightly stated that the
Muslims turned upon the Sikhs in Rawalpindi and in a welter of
ferocity, murdered more than 2,000. Even before the announce-
ment of 3 June plan, there were serious disturbances in the Pun-
jab. When the Muslims rioted in Multan, British authority com-
pletely disappeared there. The non-Muslims were completely at
the mercy of the unsocial elements who were instigated and har-
boured by the Muslim League. There were fires in various parts
of Lahore even before 3 June, 1947. Soon after the arrival of Lord
Mountbatten in India, the Muslim League celebrated the Pakistan
Day. The working of the Interim Government was hopelessly un-
## p. 973 (#1017) ###########################################
LORD MOUNTBATTEN
973
satisfactory. On account of the attitude of the Muslim League
members in the Central Government, the work of the Government
was practically at a stand-still. No wonder, Lord Mountbatten
came to the inevitable conclusion that the partition of the country
was the only solution. On the whole, the 3 June plan was accept-
ed by all the political parties and the Indian Independence Act
fixed 15 August, 1947, as the date for making India free and on
that date both India and Pakistan became actually independent.
Credit must go to Lord Mountbatten for the lightning speed with
which he expedited the work of the partitioning of India. Address-
ing the constitution Assembly just before mid-night on 14 August,
1947, Prime Minister Nehru observed: “Long years ago we made
a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem
our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At
the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will
awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but
rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when
an age ends, when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utte-
rance. It is fitting that at this solemn moment we take the pledge
of dedication to the service of India and her people and to still
larger cause of humanity. ” Lord Mountbatten was requested to
continue as the Governor-General of India.
After the declaration of India's independence, the state of Jam-
mu and Kashmir was attacked by the tribal raiders. Prime Mini-
ster Mehr Chand Mahajan protested against the attack and appea-
led both to Pakistan and the British Prime Minister to stop them
but to no avail. Ultimately, the state acceded to India and In-
dian forces were flown to Kashmir to protect the people and drive
out the raiders. India also took the matter to the Security Council
of the United Nations and ultimately a cease-fire was ordered bet-
ween the two countries.
The division of India on communal lines presented insurmoun-
table difficulties. The Boundary Force of 50,000 Indian troops
under the command of Major-General Reese proved inadequate
to maintain law and order in the Punjab after the announcement
of the Radcliffe Boundary Award on 17 August, 1947. The South
Indian troops who could be trusted in that atmosphere were not
readily available. The result was that the Muslims in West Pak-
istan attacked the Hindus and Sikhs and the latter attacked them
in turn in East Punjab. Each tried to exterminate the other.
According to one estimate, “In the nine months between August
1947 and the spring of the following year, between fourteen and
sixteen million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims were forced to leave
their homes and flee to safety from blood crazed mobs. In that
## p. 974 (#1018) ###########################################
974
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
same period, over 600,000 of them were killed. . . . Another
view is that “up to the middle of 1948 about 51/2 million non-
Muslims were brought across the border from West Punjab and
other provinces of Western Pakistan. About the same number of
Muslims moved into Pakistan from East Punjab (including the East
Punjab States), Delhi, the United Provinces, Ajmer-Merwara,
Alwar, Bharatpur, Gwalior and Indore. During the same period
about 114 million non-Muslims crossed the border from East Pakis-
tan into West Bengal. These figures do not of course take into
account about 4,000,000 non-Muslims who later migrated to India
from Sind.
