But was the former that especially
occupied
the attention of speculative reason, and which afterwards became so celebrated under the name of metaphysics.
Kant - Critique of Pure Reason
The whole is thus an organism (articulatio), and not an aggregate (coacervatio) ; it may grow from within (per intutsutceplionem), but it cannot increase by external additions (per appositionem).
It is thus like an animal body, the growth of which does not add any limb, but, without changing their proportions, makes each in its sphere stronger and more active.
We require, for the execution of the idea of a system, a
? content and an arrangement of parts deter the principle which the aim of the system schema which not projected in accordance with an idea, that from the stand-point of the highest aim
of reason, but merely empirically, in accordance with acciden tal aims and purposes (the number of which cannot be pre determined), can give us nothing more than technical unity. But the schema which originated from an idea (in which case reason presents us with aims priori, and does not look for them to experience), forms the basis of architeetonical unity. science, in the proper acceptation of that term, cannot be formed technically, that front observation of the similarity existing between different objects, and the purely contingent use we make of our knowledge in eoncreto with reference to all kinds of arbitrary external aims its consti tution must be framed on architeetonical principles, that
its parts must be shown to possess au essential affinity, and he capable of being deduced from one supreme and internal aim or end, which forms the condition of the possibility of the scientific whole. The schema of science must give a priori the plan of (monogramma), and the division of the whole into parts, in conformity with the idea of the science and must also distinguish this whole from all others, according to certain understood principles.
No one will attempt to construct science, unless he havo some idea to rest on as proper basis. But, in the elaboration of the science he fipds that the schema, nay, even the defi
schema, that mined priori
prescribes.
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? THE ABCJUTECTONIO OF PtTRE REASOI. 505
nition which he at first gave of the science, rarely corresponds
with his idea ; for this idea lies, like a germ, in our reason,
its parts undeveloped and hid even from microscopical obser vation. For this reason, we ought to explain and define
sciences, not according to the description which the originator gives of them, but according to the idea which we find base,d in reason itself, and which is suggested by the natural unity of the parts of the science already accumulated. For it will often be found, that the originator of a science, and even his latest successors, remain attached to an erroneous idea, which they cannot render clear to themselves, and that they thus fail in determining the true content, the articulation or systematic unity, and the limits of their science.
It is unfortunate that, only after having occupied ourselvei for a long time in the collection of materials, under the guid ance of an idea which lies undeveloped in the mind, but not according to any definite plan of arrangement, --nay, only after we have spent much time and labour in the technical dispo sition of our materials, does it become possible to view the idea of a science in a clear light, and to project, according to
architectonical principles, a plan of the whole, in accordance with the aims of reason. Systems seem, like certain worms, to be formed by a kind of generatio aquivoca --by the mere confluence of conceptions, and to gain completeness only with the progress of time. But the schema or germ of all lies in reason ; and thus is not only every system organized accord-, ing to its own idea, but all are united into one grand system of human knowledge, of which they form members. For this reason, it is possible to frame an architectonic of all hu man cognition, the formation of which, at the present time, considering the immense materials collected or to be found in the ruins of old systems, would not indeed be very difficult. Our purpose at present is merely to sketch the plan of the
? Architectonic of all cognition given by pure reason ; and we begin from the point where the main root of human know ledge divides into two, one of which is reason. By reason I understand here the whole higher faculty of cognition, the rational being placed in contradistinction to the empirical.
If I make complete abstraction of the content of cognition, objectively considered, all cognition fr>m subjective point of view, either historical or rational. Historical cogni
? ? is,
a
? B06 THAWsCENDEirTAI/ DOCTRISE OF METHOD.
tion is cognitio ex datis, rational, ingnitio ex principiiz. What ever may be the original source of a cognition, it in relation to the person who possesses merely historical,
be knows only what has been given him from another quarter, whether that knowledge was communicated direct experience or instruction. Thus the person who has learned system of philosophy, -- say the Wolfian, -- although he has perfect knowledge of all the principles, definitions and arguments in that philosophy, as well as of the divisions that have been made of the system, he possesses really no more than historical knowledge of the Wolfian system he knows only what has been told him, his judgments are only those which he has received from his teachers. Dispute the validity of definition, and he at completely loss to find another. He has formed his mind on another's but the imitative faculty not the productive. His knowledge has not been drawn from reason and, although, objectively consi dered, rational knowledge, subjectively, merely histo rical. He has learned this or that philosophy, and
? merely plaster-cast of living man. Rational cognitions which are
philosophical,
the latter mathematical. have already shewn
which have their source in reason, can be
objective, that
so termed from
have been drawn
of reason, that
that criticism, or even the rejection of what has been already learned, can spring up in the mind.
All rational cognition again, based either on conceptions, or on the construction of conceptions. The former termed
subjective point of view, only when they the individual himself from the sources from principles and in this way alone
the essential difference of these two methods of cognition in
cal and subjectively historical, --as the case with the majority of scholars and those who cannot look beyond the limits of their system, and who remain in state of pupillage all their lives. But remarkable that mathematical knowledge, when committed to memory, valid, from the subjective point of view, as rational knowledge also, and that the same distinction cannot be drawn here as in the case of philosophi cal cognition. The reason that the only way of arriving at this knowledge through the essential principles of reason, *nd thus always certain and indisputable because reason
the first chapter. cognition may be objectively philosophi
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? top: aucittteotontc of tuhe beasok. 507 Is employed in concrete -- but at the same time a prion--
tha;
Philosophy the system of all philosophical cognition We must use this term in an objective sense, we understand
the archetype of all attempts at philosophizing, and the standard by which all subjective philosophies are to be judged. In this sense, philosophy merely the idea of possible science, which does not exist in concreto, but to which we endeavour in various ways to approximate, until we have disco vered the right path to pursue -- path overgrown the errors and illusions of sense, -- and the image we have hitherto tried to shape in vain, has become perfect copy of the great proto type. Until that time, we cannot learn philosophy-- does not exist does, where who possesses and how shall we know it? We cm only learn to philosophize in other words, we can only exercise our powers of reasoning in accordance with general principles, retaining at the same time, the right of investigating the sources of these principles, of testing, and even of rejecting them.
Until then, our conception of philosophy only a scho lastic conception-- conception, that of a system of cogni tion which we are trying to elaborate into science all that we at present know, being the systematic unity of this cogni tion, and consequently the logical completeness of the cogni tion for the desired end. But there also cosmical concep
pure, and therefore, infallible intuition and thai all causes of illusion and error are excluded. Of all the priori sciences of reason, therefore, mathematics alone can be learned. Philosophy -- unless be an historical manner -- cannot be le. 'irned we can at most learn to philosophize.
? tion (conceptus cosmicus) of philosophy, which has always formed the true basis of this term, especially when philosophy was personified and presented to us in the ideal of philoso pher. In this view, philosophy the science of the relation of all cognition to the ultimate and essential aims of human reason (teleologia rationis humante), and the philosopher not merely an artist --who occupies himself with conceptions, but
law-giver --legislating for human reason. In this sense of the word, would be in the highest degree arrogant to as sume the title of philosopher, and to pretend that we had reached the perfection of the prototype which lies the idea alone
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a is in is
it ;
;
? 508 TH4KSCJS5DEKTAL DOOTHllTE OF METHOD.
The mathematician, the natural philosopher, and the logi cian, --how far soever the first may hare advanced in rational, and the two latter in philosophical knowledge, --are merely k rti-ts, engaged in the arrangement and formation of concep tions ; they cannot be termed philosophers. Above them all, there is the ideal teacher, who employs them aa instruments for the advancement of the essential aims of human reason. Him alone can we call philosopher ; but he nowhere exists. But the idea of his legislative power resides in the mind of every man, and it alone teaches us what kind of systematic unity philosophy demands in view of the ultimate aims of rea
son. This idea therefore, cosmical conception. *
In view of the complete systematic unity of reason, there can only be one ultimate end of all the operations of the mind. To this all other aims are subordinate, and nothing more than
means for its attainment. This ultimate end the destina tion of roan, and the philosophy which relates to termed Moral Philosophy. The superior position occupied moral
philosophy, above all other spheres for the operations of reason, sufficiently indicates the reason why the ancients always iucluded the idea -- and in an especial manner -- of Moralist in that of Philosopher. Even at the present day, we call man who appears to have the power of self-govern ment, even although his knowledge may be very limited,
? the name of philosopher.
The legislation of human reason, or philosophy, has two
objects -- Nature and Freedom, and thus contains not only the laws of nature, but also those of ethics, at first in two separate systems, which, finally, merge into one grand philosophical
system of cognition. The philosophy of Nature relates to that which is, that of Ethics to that which ought to be.
But nll philosophy either cognition on the basis of pnre reason, or the cognition of reason on the basis of empirical principles. The former termed pure, the latter empirical philosophy.
The philosophy of pure reason either propcedeutie, that is, an inquiry into the powers of reason in regard to pure priori
By comical conception, mean one in which all men necessarily take an interest the aim of science must accordingly be determined ac cording 10 scholastic [or partial] conceptions, regarded merely at amcaaa to certain arbitrarily proposed ends.
? ? if it it
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is I is
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a
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is
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? THE ARCHITECTONIC Of SOBE EEAsOJT. SOil
cognition, aud is termed Critical Philosophy ; or it secondly, the system of pure reason-- science containing the syste matic presentation of the whole body of philosophical know ledge, true as well as illusory, given pure reason, and called Metaphysic. This name may, however, be also given to the whole system of pure philosophy, critical philosophy included, and may designate the investigation into the sources or possibility of priori cognition, as well as the presentation of the a priori cognitions which form system of pure philo sophy --excluding, at the same time, all empirical and mathe
matical elements.
divided into that of the speculative and that of the practical use of pure reason, and accordingly, either the Metaphysic Nature, or the Metaphysic 0/ Ethics. The former contains all the pure rational principles -- based upon
conceptions alone (and thus excluding mathematics) --of all
? Metaphysic
the latter, the principles which deter priori all action. Now moral philo
theoretical cognition
mine and necessitate
sophy alone contains
actions --which are deduced from principles entirely a priori. Hence the Metaphysic of Ethics the only pure moral philo sophy, as not based upon anthropological or other empi rical considerations. The metaphysic of speculative reason what commonly called Metaphysic in the more limited sense. But as pure Moral Philosophy properly forms part of this system of cognition, we must allow to retain the name of Metaphysic, although not requisite that we should insist on so terming in our present discussion.
of the highest importance to separate those cognitions which differ from others both in kind and in origin, and to take great care that they are not confounded with those, with which they are generally found connected. What the chemist does in the analysis of substances, what the mathematician in pure mathematics, in still higher degree, the duty of the philosopher, that the value of each different kind of cognition, and the part takes in the operations of the mind, may be clearly defined. Human reason has never wanted Metaphysic of some kind, since attained the power of thought, or rather of reflection but has never been able to keep this sphere of thought and cognition pure from all admixture of foreign
elements. The idea of science of this kind az old as
code of laws -- for the regulation of our
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? 510 TRANSCENDENTAL BOCTRINE OF ltWUOD.
speculation itself ; and what mind does not apeculute --eithei in the scholastic or in the popular fashion ? At the same time, it must be admitted that even thinkers by profession have been unable clearly to explain the distinction between the two elements of our cognition -- the one completely a priori, the other a posteriori; and hence the proper definition of a peculiar kind of cognition, and with it the just idea of a science which has so long and bo deeply engaged the attention of the human mind, has never been established. When it was said--Metaphysic is the science of the first principles of human cognition, this definition did not signalise a peculiarity in kind, but only a difference in degree ; these first principles were thus declared to be more general than others, but no criterion ot distinction from empirical principles was given. Of these some are more general, and therefore higher, than others ; and -- as we cannot distinguish what is completely a priori, from that which is known to be a posteriori -- where shall we draw the line which is to separate the higher and so-called first principles, from the lower and subordinate principles of cognition ? What would be said if we were asked to be satis fied with a division of the epochs of the world into the earlier centuries and those following them ? Does the fifth, or the tenth century belong to the earlier centuries? it would be asked. In the same way I ask : Does the conception of ex tension belong to metaphysics ? You answer, yes. Well, that of body too? Yes. And that of a fluid body? You stop, you are unprepared to admit this ; for if you do, everything will belong to metaphysics. From this it is evident that the mere degree of subordination -- of the particular to the general --cannot determine the limits of a science ; and that, in the present case, we must expect to find a difference in the con ceptions of metaphysics both in kind and in origin. The fun
damental idea of metaphysics was obscured on another side, by the fact that this kind of & priori cognition showed a certain similarity in character with the science of mathematics. Both have the property in common of possessing an a priori origin ; but, in the one, our knowledge is based upon conceptions, in the other, on the construction of conceptions. Thus a de cided dissimilarity between philosophical and mathematical cognition comes out -- a dissimilarity which was always felt,
but which could not be made distinct for want of an insight
? ? ? ? THE AHCHITECTONIC OF PtfRE BEASOIT
511
into the criteria of the difference. And thus it happened that, as philosopher* themselves failed in the proper development ot the idea of their science, the elaboration of the science could not proceed with a definite aim, or under trustworthy guid ance. Thus, too, philosophers, ignorant of the path they ought to pursue, and always disputing with each other re garding the discoveries which each asserted he had made, brought their science into disrepute with the rest of the world, and finally, even among themselves.
All pure a priori cognition forms, therefore, in view of the peculiar faculty which originates peculiar and distinct unity and metaphysic the term applied to the philo sophy which attempts to represent that cognition this syste matic unity. The speculative part of metaphysic, which has especially appropriated this appellation, --that, which we have called the Metaphysic of Nature, --and which considers every thing, as (not as ought to be), by means of priori conceptions, divided in the following manner.
Metaphysic, in the more limited acceptation of the term, consists of two parts -- Transcendental Philosophy and the Physiology of pure reason. The former presents the system of all the conceptions and principles belonging to the under standing and the reason, and which relate to objects in genernl, but not to any particular given objects (Ontologia) the latter has nature for its subject-matter, that the sum of given objects--whether given to the senses, or, we will, to some other kind of intuition, --and accordingly Physiology,
though only rationales. But the use of the faculty of reason in this rational mode of regarding nature either physical or hyperphysical, or, more properly speaking, immanent or tran scendent. The former relates to nature, in so far as our know
ledge regarding may be applied in experience (in concretn) the latter to that connection of the objects of experience, which transcends all experience. Transcendent Physiology has, again, an internal and an external connection with its object, both, however, transcending possible experience the former the Physiology of nature as whole, or transcenden tal cognition the world, the latter of the connection of the
whole of nature with being above nature, or transcendental tognition God.
Immanent physiology, on the contrary, considers nature ai
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of
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a
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;
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if is, is
;
in a
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? 512 TRAKSCEHDBICTAL DOCTRINE OF itEtHOD.
the sum of all sensuous objects, consequently, as it is pr<<* sented to us --but still according to a priori conditions, for it u under these alone that nature can be presented to our minds at all. The objects of immanent physiology are of two kinds : 1. those of the external senses, or corporeal nature; 2. tht object of the internal sense, the soul, or, in accordance with our fundamental conceptions of thinking nature. Tlie metaphysics of corporeal nature called Physics, but, as must contain only the principles of an priori cognition of nature, we must term rational physics. The metaphysics of thinking nature called Psychology, and for the same reason to be regarded as merely the rational cognition of the soul.
Thus the whole system of metaphysics consists of four principal parts Ontology; Rational Physiology; 3. Rational Cosmology and 4. Rational Theology. The second part -- that of the rational doctrine of nature -- may be sub divided into two, physica rationalis and psychologia ratio- nalis.
The fundamental idea of philosophy of pure reason of necessity dictates this division therefore, architectonical
--
metaphysic of objects, in bo far as they are given posteriori? and how possible to cognize the nature of things accord-
*
great importance as critical test of the application of pure understand ing-cognition to nature. For want of its guidance, even mathematicians, adopting certain common notions -- which are, in fact, metaphysical -- hare unconsciously crowded their theories of nature with hypotheses, the fnllacy of which becomes evident upon the application of the princi ples of this metaphysic, without detriment, however, to the employment if mathematics in this sphere of cognitiou.
? accordance with the highest aims of reason, and not merely technical, or according to certain accidentally-observed similarities existing between the different parts of the whole science. For this reason, also, the division immutable and of legislative authority. But the reader may observe in
few points to which he ought to demur, and which may weaken his conviction of its truth and legitimacy.
In the first place, how can desire an priori cognition or
must not be supposed that mean by this appellation what generally called physica generalis, and which rather mathematics, than philosophy of nature. For the metaphysic of nature completely different from mathematics, nor so rich in results, although of
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? THE ARCHITECTONIC OF PUttB BBA80IT. 518
tog to a priori principles, and to attain to a rational physi ology ? The answer is this. We take from experience no thing more than is requisite to present us with an object (in general) of the external, or of the internal sense ; in the former case, by the mere conception of matter (impenetrable and inanimate extension), in the latter, by the conception of a thinking being --given in the internal empirical representa
/think. As to the rest, we must not
metaphysic of these objects any empirical principles, (which add to the content of our conceptions by means of experience), for the purpose of forming by their help any judgments re specting these objects.
tion,
employ
in our
? Secondly, what place shall we assign to empirical psychology, which has always been considered a part of Metaphysics, and from which in our time such important philosophical results have been expected, after the hope of constructing an a priori system of knowledge had been abandoned? 1 answer: It must be placed by the side of empirical physics or physics proper ; that must be regarded as forming part of applied philosophy, the priori principles of which are contained pure philosophy, which therefore connected, although must not be confounded, with psychology. Empirical psychology must therefore be banished from the sphere of Metaphysics, and indeed excluded by the very idea of that science. In con formity, however, with scholastic usage, we must permit to occupy place metaphysics --but only as an appendix to it. We adopt this course from motives of economy as psychology
not as yet full enough to occupy our attention as an in dependent study, while at the same time, of too great importance, to be entirely excluded or placed where has still less affinity than has with the subject of metaphysics. It
stranger who has been long guest and we make welcome to stay, until it can take up -- more suitable abode
complete system of Anthropology the pendant to em pirical physics.
The above the general idea of Metaphysics, which, as more was expected from than could be looked for with justice, and as these pleasant expectations were unfortunately never realised, fell into general disrepute. Our Critique must have fully convinced the reader, that, although metaphysics cannot form the foundation of religion, must always be one of its moat
Is*
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? 514 T RAN8CE KDEKTAl, DOCTRINE Of METHOD.
important bulwarks, and that human reason, which naturally pursues a dialectical course, cannot do without this science, which checks its tendencies towards dialectic, and, by eleva ting reason to a scientific and clear self-knowledge, prevents the ravages which a lawless speculative reason would infallibly commit in the sphere of morals as well as in that of religion. We may be sure, therefore, whatever contempt may be thrown upon metaphysics by those who judge a science not by its own nature, but according to the accidental effects it may have produced, that it can never be completely abandoned, that we must always return to it as to a beloved one who has been for a time estranged, because the questions with which it is engaged relate to the highest aims of humanity, and reason must always labour either to attain to settled views in regard to these, or to destroy those which others have already estab lished. --
Metaphysic, therefore that of nature, as well as that of ethics, but in an especial manner the criticism which forms the propedeutic to all the operations of reason --forms pro perly that department of knowledge which may be termed, in the truest sense of the word, philosophy. The path which it pursues is that of science, which, when it has once been discovered, is never lost, and never misleads. Mathematics, natural science, the common experience of men, have a high value as means, for the most part, to accidental ends,-- but at last also, to those which are necessary and essential to the existence of humanity. But to guide them to this high goal, they require the aid of rational cognition on the basis of pure conceptions, which, be it termed as it may, is properly nothing but metaphysics.
For the same reason, metaphysics forms likewise the com
pletion of the culture of human reason. In this respect, it
is indispensable, setting aside altogether the influence which it exerts as a science. For its subject-matter is the elements and highest maxims of reason, which form the basis of the possibility of some sciences and of the use of all. That, as a purely speculative science, it is more useful in preventing error, than in the extension of knowledge, does not detract from its value ; on the contrary, the supreme office of censor which it occupies, assures to it the highest authority and importance. This office it administers for the purpose of securing order.
? ? ? ? THE HISIOBT OF PUBE BEASON. 515
harmony, and well-being to science, and of directing its noble and fruitful labours to the highest possible aim -- the happi ness of all mankind.
TRANSCENDENTAL DOCTRINE OF METHOD. CHAPTER FOURTH.
The HisTonr of Pdbe Reason.
This title is placed here merely for the purpose of desig nating a division of the system of pure reason, of which I do not intend to treat at present. I shall content myself with casting a cursory glance, from a purely transcendental point of view -- that of the nature of pure reason, on the labours of philosophers up to the present time. They have aimed at erecting an edifice of philosophy ; but to my eye this edi fice appears to be in a very ruinous condition.
It is very remarkable, although naturally it could not have been otherwise, that, in the infancy of philosophy, the study of the nature of God, and the constitution of a future world, formed the commencement, rather than the conclusion, as we should have of the speculative efforts of the human mind. However rude the religious conceptions generated the remains of the old manners and customs of less cultivated time, the intelligent classes were not thereby prevented from devoting themselves to free inquiry into the existence and nature of God and they easily saw that there could be no surer way of pleasing the invisible ruler of the world, and of attaining to happiness in another world at least, than good and honest course of life in this. Thus theology and morals formed the two chief motives, or rather the points of attrac tion in all abstract inquiries.
But was the former that especially occupied the attention of speculative reason, and which afterwards became so celebrated under the name of metaphysics.
shall not at present indicate the periods of time at which the greatest changes in metaphysics tooic place, but shall
merely give hasty sketch of the different ideas which occa sioned the most important revolutions in this sphere of
? There are three different ends, in relation to which these revolutions have taken place.
thought.
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? 61C TRA>'SCEKDEHTAX. DOOTHJH* OF METHOE.
1. In relation to the object of the cognition of reason, phi losophers may be divided into Sensualists and Intellectuality. Epicurus may be regarded as the head of the former, Plato of the latter. The distinction here signalised, subtle as it is, dates from the earliest times, and was long maintained. The former asserted, that reality resides in sensuous objects alone, and that everything else is merely imaginary ; the tatter, that the senses are the parents of illusion, and that truth is to be fonnd in the understanding alone. The former did not deny to the conceptions of the understanding a cer tain kind of reality ; but with them it was merely logical, with the others it was mystical. The forr. ier admitted in tellectual conceptions, but declared that sensuous
? objects alone possessed real existence. The latter maintained that all real objects were intelligible, and believed that the pure
understanding possessed a faculty of intuition apart from sense, which, in their opinion, served only to confuse the ideas of the understanding.
2. In relation to the origin of the pure cognitions of reason, we find one school maintaining that they are derived entirely from experience, and another, that they have their origin in reason alone. Aristotle may be regarded as the head of the Empiricists, and Plato, of the Noologists. Locke, the follower of Aristotle in modern times, and Leibnitz of Plato (although he cannot be said. to have imitated him in his mysticism), have not been able to bring this question to a settled conclusion. The procedure of Epicurus in his sensual system, in which he always restricted his conclusions to the sphere of experi ence, was much more consequent than that of Aristotle and Locke. The latter especially, after having derived all the conceptions and principles of the mind from experience, goes so far, in the employment of these conceptions and principles, as to maintain that we can prove the existence of God and the immortality of the soul -- both of them objects lying beyond
3. In relation to method. Method is procedure according
to principles. We may divide the methods at present employed in the field of inquiry into the naturalistic and the scientific. The naturalist of pure reason lays it down as his principle, that common reason, without the aid of science--which he calls
the limit* of possible experience --with the same force of demonstration, as any mathematical proposition.
? ? ? THE HISTORY Of PURE BJEISOK.
617
iound reason, or common sense --can give a EC ore satisfactory answer to the most important questions of metaphysics than speculation is able to do. He must maintain, therefore, that we can determine the content and circumference of the moon more certaiily by the naked eye, than by the aid of mathe matical reasoning. But this system is mere misology reduced to principles ; and, what is the most absurd thing in this doctrine, the neglect of all scientific means is paraded as a peculiar method of extending our cognition. As regards those who are naturalists because they know no better, they are certainly not to be blamed. They follow common sense, without parading their ignorance as a method which is to teach us the wonderful secret, how we are to find the truth which lies at the bottom of the well of Democritus.
Quod sapio satis est mini, non ego euro Esse quod Arceailas serumnosique Solones,-- Pees.
is their motto, tinder which they may lead a pleasant and praiseworthy life, without troubling themselves with science,
or troubling science with them.
As regards those who wish to pursue a scientific method,
? they have now the choice of following either the dogmatical or the sceptical, while they are bound never to desert the systematic mode of procedure. When I mention, in relation to the former, the celebrated Wolf, and as regards the latter,
David Hume, I may leave, in accordance with my present in tention, all others unnamed. Thtcritical path alone is still open. If my reader has been kind and patient enough to accom pany me on this hitherto untravelled route, he can now judge whether, if he and others will contribute their exertions towards making this narrow foot-path a high-road of thought, that, which many centuries have failed to accomplish, may
not be executed before the close of the present--namely, to bring Reason to perfect contentment in regard to that which has always, but without permanent results, occupied her powers and engaged her ardent desire for knowledge.
THE ENS.
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We require, for the execution of the idea of a system, a
? content and an arrangement of parts deter the principle which the aim of the system schema which not projected in accordance with an idea, that from the stand-point of the highest aim
of reason, but merely empirically, in accordance with acciden tal aims and purposes (the number of which cannot be pre determined), can give us nothing more than technical unity. But the schema which originated from an idea (in which case reason presents us with aims priori, and does not look for them to experience), forms the basis of architeetonical unity. science, in the proper acceptation of that term, cannot be formed technically, that front observation of the similarity existing between different objects, and the purely contingent use we make of our knowledge in eoncreto with reference to all kinds of arbitrary external aims its consti tution must be framed on architeetonical principles, that
its parts must be shown to possess au essential affinity, and he capable of being deduced from one supreme and internal aim or end, which forms the condition of the possibility of the scientific whole. The schema of science must give a priori the plan of (monogramma), and the division of the whole into parts, in conformity with the idea of the science and must also distinguish this whole from all others, according to certain understood principles.
No one will attempt to construct science, unless he havo some idea to rest on as proper basis. But, in the elaboration of the science he fipds that the schema, nay, even the defi
schema, that mined priori
prescribes.
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? THE ABCJUTECTONIO OF PtTRE REASOI. 505
nition which he at first gave of the science, rarely corresponds
with his idea ; for this idea lies, like a germ, in our reason,
its parts undeveloped and hid even from microscopical obser vation. For this reason, we ought to explain and define
sciences, not according to the description which the originator gives of them, but according to the idea which we find base,d in reason itself, and which is suggested by the natural unity of the parts of the science already accumulated. For it will often be found, that the originator of a science, and even his latest successors, remain attached to an erroneous idea, which they cannot render clear to themselves, and that they thus fail in determining the true content, the articulation or systematic unity, and the limits of their science.
It is unfortunate that, only after having occupied ourselvei for a long time in the collection of materials, under the guid ance of an idea which lies undeveloped in the mind, but not according to any definite plan of arrangement, --nay, only after we have spent much time and labour in the technical dispo sition of our materials, does it become possible to view the idea of a science in a clear light, and to project, according to
architectonical principles, a plan of the whole, in accordance with the aims of reason. Systems seem, like certain worms, to be formed by a kind of generatio aquivoca --by the mere confluence of conceptions, and to gain completeness only with the progress of time. But the schema or germ of all lies in reason ; and thus is not only every system organized accord-, ing to its own idea, but all are united into one grand system of human knowledge, of which they form members. For this reason, it is possible to frame an architectonic of all hu man cognition, the formation of which, at the present time, considering the immense materials collected or to be found in the ruins of old systems, would not indeed be very difficult. Our purpose at present is merely to sketch the plan of the
? Architectonic of all cognition given by pure reason ; and we begin from the point where the main root of human know ledge divides into two, one of which is reason. By reason I understand here the whole higher faculty of cognition, the rational being placed in contradistinction to the empirical.
If I make complete abstraction of the content of cognition, objectively considered, all cognition fr>m subjective point of view, either historical or rational. Historical cogni
? ? is,
a
? B06 THAWsCENDEirTAI/ DOCTRISE OF METHOD.
tion is cognitio ex datis, rational, ingnitio ex principiiz. What ever may be the original source of a cognition, it in relation to the person who possesses merely historical,
be knows only what has been given him from another quarter, whether that knowledge was communicated direct experience or instruction. Thus the person who has learned system of philosophy, -- say the Wolfian, -- although he has perfect knowledge of all the principles, definitions and arguments in that philosophy, as well as of the divisions that have been made of the system, he possesses really no more than historical knowledge of the Wolfian system he knows only what has been told him, his judgments are only those which he has received from his teachers. Dispute the validity of definition, and he at completely loss to find another. He has formed his mind on another's but the imitative faculty not the productive. His knowledge has not been drawn from reason and, although, objectively consi dered, rational knowledge, subjectively, merely histo rical. He has learned this or that philosophy, and
? merely plaster-cast of living man. Rational cognitions which are
philosophical,
the latter mathematical. have already shewn
which have their source in reason, can be
objective, that
so termed from
have been drawn
of reason, that
that criticism, or even the rejection of what has been already learned, can spring up in the mind.
All rational cognition again, based either on conceptions, or on the construction of conceptions. The former termed
subjective point of view, only when they the individual himself from the sources from principles and in this way alone
the essential difference of these two methods of cognition in
cal and subjectively historical, --as the case with the majority of scholars and those who cannot look beyond the limits of their system, and who remain in state of pupillage all their lives. But remarkable that mathematical knowledge, when committed to memory, valid, from the subjective point of view, as rational knowledge also, and that the same distinction cannot be drawn here as in the case of philosophi cal cognition. The reason that the only way of arriving at this knowledge through the essential principles of reason, *nd thus always certain and indisputable because reason
the first chapter. cognition may be objectively philosophi
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? top: aucittteotontc of tuhe beasok. 507 Is employed in concrete -- but at the same time a prion--
tha;
Philosophy the system of all philosophical cognition We must use this term in an objective sense, we understand
the archetype of all attempts at philosophizing, and the standard by which all subjective philosophies are to be judged. In this sense, philosophy merely the idea of possible science, which does not exist in concreto, but to which we endeavour in various ways to approximate, until we have disco vered the right path to pursue -- path overgrown the errors and illusions of sense, -- and the image we have hitherto tried to shape in vain, has become perfect copy of the great proto type. Until that time, we cannot learn philosophy-- does not exist does, where who possesses and how shall we know it? We cm only learn to philosophize in other words, we can only exercise our powers of reasoning in accordance with general principles, retaining at the same time, the right of investigating the sources of these principles, of testing, and even of rejecting them.
Until then, our conception of philosophy only a scho lastic conception-- conception, that of a system of cogni tion which we are trying to elaborate into science all that we at present know, being the systematic unity of this cogni tion, and consequently the logical completeness of the cogni tion for the desired end. But there also cosmical concep
pure, and therefore, infallible intuition and thai all causes of illusion and error are excluded. Of all the priori sciences of reason, therefore, mathematics alone can be learned. Philosophy -- unless be an historical manner -- cannot be le. 'irned we can at most learn to philosophize.
? tion (conceptus cosmicus) of philosophy, which has always formed the true basis of this term, especially when philosophy was personified and presented to us in the ideal of philoso pher. In this view, philosophy the science of the relation of all cognition to the ultimate and essential aims of human reason (teleologia rationis humante), and the philosopher not merely an artist --who occupies himself with conceptions, but
law-giver --legislating for human reason. In this sense of the word, would be in the highest degree arrogant to as sume the title of philosopher, and to pretend that we had reached the perfection of the prototype which lies the idea alone
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? 508 TH4KSCJS5DEKTAL DOOTHllTE OF METHOD.
The mathematician, the natural philosopher, and the logi cian, --how far soever the first may hare advanced in rational, and the two latter in philosophical knowledge, --are merely k rti-ts, engaged in the arrangement and formation of concep tions ; they cannot be termed philosophers. Above them all, there is the ideal teacher, who employs them aa instruments for the advancement of the essential aims of human reason. Him alone can we call philosopher ; but he nowhere exists. But the idea of his legislative power resides in the mind of every man, and it alone teaches us what kind of systematic unity philosophy demands in view of the ultimate aims of rea
son. This idea therefore, cosmical conception. *
In view of the complete systematic unity of reason, there can only be one ultimate end of all the operations of the mind. To this all other aims are subordinate, and nothing more than
means for its attainment. This ultimate end the destina tion of roan, and the philosophy which relates to termed Moral Philosophy. The superior position occupied moral
philosophy, above all other spheres for the operations of reason, sufficiently indicates the reason why the ancients always iucluded the idea -- and in an especial manner -- of Moralist in that of Philosopher. Even at the present day, we call man who appears to have the power of self-govern ment, even although his knowledge may be very limited,
? the name of philosopher.
The legislation of human reason, or philosophy, has two
objects -- Nature and Freedom, and thus contains not only the laws of nature, but also those of ethics, at first in two separate systems, which, finally, merge into one grand philosophical
system of cognition. The philosophy of Nature relates to that which is, that of Ethics to that which ought to be.
But nll philosophy either cognition on the basis of pnre reason, or the cognition of reason on the basis of empirical principles. The former termed pure, the latter empirical philosophy.
The philosophy of pure reason either propcedeutie, that is, an inquiry into the powers of reason in regard to pure priori
By comical conception, mean one in which all men necessarily take an interest the aim of science must accordingly be determined ac cording 10 scholastic [or partial] conceptions, regarded merely at amcaaa to certain arbitrarily proposed ends.
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? THE ARCHITECTONIC Of SOBE EEAsOJT. SOil
cognition, aud is termed Critical Philosophy ; or it secondly, the system of pure reason-- science containing the syste matic presentation of the whole body of philosophical know ledge, true as well as illusory, given pure reason, and called Metaphysic. This name may, however, be also given to the whole system of pure philosophy, critical philosophy included, and may designate the investigation into the sources or possibility of priori cognition, as well as the presentation of the a priori cognitions which form system of pure philo sophy --excluding, at the same time, all empirical and mathe
matical elements.
divided into that of the speculative and that of the practical use of pure reason, and accordingly, either the Metaphysic Nature, or the Metaphysic 0/ Ethics. The former contains all the pure rational principles -- based upon
conceptions alone (and thus excluding mathematics) --of all
? Metaphysic
the latter, the principles which deter priori all action. Now moral philo
theoretical cognition
mine and necessitate
sophy alone contains
actions --which are deduced from principles entirely a priori. Hence the Metaphysic of Ethics the only pure moral philo sophy, as not based upon anthropological or other empi rical considerations. The metaphysic of speculative reason what commonly called Metaphysic in the more limited sense. But as pure Moral Philosophy properly forms part of this system of cognition, we must allow to retain the name of Metaphysic, although not requisite that we should insist on so terming in our present discussion.
of the highest importance to separate those cognitions which differ from others both in kind and in origin, and to take great care that they are not confounded with those, with which they are generally found connected. What the chemist does in the analysis of substances, what the mathematician in pure mathematics, in still higher degree, the duty of the philosopher, that the value of each different kind of cognition, and the part takes in the operations of the mind, may be clearly defined. Human reason has never wanted Metaphysic of some kind, since attained the power of thought, or rather of reflection but has never been able to keep this sphere of thought and cognition pure from all admixture of foreign
elements. The idea of science of this kind az old as
code of laws -- for the regulation of our
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? 510 TRANSCENDENTAL BOCTRINE OF ltWUOD.
speculation itself ; and what mind does not apeculute --eithei in the scholastic or in the popular fashion ? At the same time, it must be admitted that even thinkers by profession have been unable clearly to explain the distinction between the two elements of our cognition -- the one completely a priori, the other a posteriori; and hence the proper definition of a peculiar kind of cognition, and with it the just idea of a science which has so long and bo deeply engaged the attention of the human mind, has never been established. When it was said--Metaphysic is the science of the first principles of human cognition, this definition did not signalise a peculiarity in kind, but only a difference in degree ; these first principles were thus declared to be more general than others, but no criterion ot distinction from empirical principles was given. Of these some are more general, and therefore higher, than others ; and -- as we cannot distinguish what is completely a priori, from that which is known to be a posteriori -- where shall we draw the line which is to separate the higher and so-called first principles, from the lower and subordinate principles of cognition ? What would be said if we were asked to be satis fied with a division of the epochs of the world into the earlier centuries and those following them ? Does the fifth, or the tenth century belong to the earlier centuries? it would be asked. In the same way I ask : Does the conception of ex tension belong to metaphysics ? You answer, yes. Well, that of body too? Yes. And that of a fluid body? You stop, you are unprepared to admit this ; for if you do, everything will belong to metaphysics. From this it is evident that the mere degree of subordination -- of the particular to the general --cannot determine the limits of a science ; and that, in the present case, we must expect to find a difference in the con ceptions of metaphysics both in kind and in origin. The fun
damental idea of metaphysics was obscured on another side, by the fact that this kind of & priori cognition showed a certain similarity in character with the science of mathematics. Both have the property in common of possessing an a priori origin ; but, in the one, our knowledge is based upon conceptions, in the other, on the construction of conceptions. Thus a de cided dissimilarity between philosophical and mathematical cognition comes out -- a dissimilarity which was always felt,
but which could not be made distinct for want of an insight
? ? ? ? THE AHCHITECTONIC OF PtfRE BEASOIT
511
into the criteria of the difference. And thus it happened that, as philosopher* themselves failed in the proper development ot the idea of their science, the elaboration of the science could not proceed with a definite aim, or under trustworthy guid ance. Thus, too, philosophers, ignorant of the path they ought to pursue, and always disputing with each other re garding the discoveries which each asserted he had made, brought their science into disrepute with the rest of the world, and finally, even among themselves.
All pure a priori cognition forms, therefore, in view of the peculiar faculty which originates peculiar and distinct unity and metaphysic the term applied to the philo sophy which attempts to represent that cognition this syste matic unity. The speculative part of metaphysic, which has especially appropriated this appellation, --that, which we have called the Metaphysic of Nature, --and which considers every thing, as (not as ought to be), by means of priori conceptions, divided in the following manner.
Metaphysic, in the more limited acceptation of the term, consists of two parts -- Transcendental Philosophy and the Physiology of pure reason. The former presents the system of all the conceptions and principles belonging to the under standing and the reason, and which relate to objects in genernl, but not to any particular given objects (Ontologia) the latter has nature for its subject-matter, that the sum of given objects--whether given to the senses, or, we will, to some other kind of intuition, --and accordingly Physiology,
though only rationales. But the use of the faculty of reason in this rational mode of regarding nature either physical or hyperphysical, or, more properly speaking, immanent or tran scendent. The former relates to nature, in so far as our know
ledge regarding may be applied in experience (in concretn) the latter to that connection of the objects of experience, which transcends all experience. Transcendent Physiology has, again, an internal and an external connection with its object, both, however, transcending possible experience the former the Physiology of nature as whole, or transcenden tal cognition the world, the latter of the connection of the
whole of nature with being above nature, or transcendental tognition God.
Immanent physiology, on the contrary, considers nature ai
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? 512 TRAKSCEHDBICTAL DOCTRINE OF itEtHOD.
the sum of all sensuous objects, consequently, as it is pr<<* sented to us --but still according to a priori conditions, for it u under these alone that nature can be presented to our minds at all. The objects of immanent physiology are of two kinds : 1. those of the external senses, or corporeal nature; 2. tht object of the internal sense, the soul, or, in accordance with our fundamental conceptions of thinking nature. Tlie metaphysics of corporeal nature called Physics, but, as must contain only the principles of an priori cognition of nature, we must term rational physics. The metaphysics of thinking nature called Psychology, and for the same reason to be regarded as merely the rational cognition of the soul.
Thus the whole system of metaphysics consists of four principal parts Ontology; Rational Physiology; 3. Rational Cosmology and 4. Rational Theology. The second part -- that of the rational doctrine of nature -- may be sub divided into two, physica rationalis and psychologia ratio- nalis.
The fundamental idea of philosophy of pure reason of necessity dictates this division therefore, architectonical
--
metaphysic of objects, in bo far as they are given posteriori? and how possible to cognize the nature of things accord-
*
great importance as critical test of the application of pure understand ing-cognition to nature. For want of its guidance, even mathematicians, adopting certain common notions -- which are, in fact, metaphysical -- hare unconsciously crowded their theories of nature with hypotheses, the fnllacy of which becomes evident upon the application of the princi ples of this metaphysic, without detriment, however, to the employment if mathematics in this sphere of cognitiou.
? accordance with the highest aims of reason, and not merely technical, or according to certain accidentally-observed similarities existing between the different parts of the whole science. For this reason, also, the division immutable and of legislative authority. But the reader may observe in
few points to which he ought to demur, and which may weaken his conviction of its truth and legitimacy.
In the first place, how can desire an priori cognition or
must not be supposed that mean by this appellation what generally called physica generalis, and which rather mathematics, than philosophy of nature. For the metaphysic of nature completely different from mathematics, nor so rich in results, although of
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? THE ARCHITECTONIC OF PUttB BBA80IT. 518
tog to a priori principles, and to attain to a rational physi ology ? The answer is this. We take from experience no thing more than is requisite to present us with an object (in general) of the external, or of the internal sense ; in the former case, by the mere conception of matter (impenetrable and inanimate extension), in the latter, by the conception of a thinking being --given in the internal empirical representa
/think. As to the rest, we must not
metaphysic of these objects any empirical principles, (which add to the content of our conceptions by means of experience), for the purpose of forming by their help any judgments re specting these objects.
tion,
employ
in our
? Secondly, what place shall we assign to empirical psychology, which has always been considered a part of Metaphysics, and from which in our time such important philosophical results have been expected, after the hope of constructing an a priori system of knowledge had been abandoned? 1 answer: It must be placed by the side of empirical physics or physics proper ; that must be regarded as forming part of applied philosophy, the priori principles of which are contained pure philosophy, which therefore connected, although must not be confounded, with psychology. Empirical psychology must therefore be banished from the sphere of Metaphysics, and indeed excluded by the very idea of that science. In con formity, however, with scholastic usage, we must permit to occupy place metaphysics --but only as an appendix to it. We adopt this course from motives of economy as psychology
not as yet full enough to occupy our attention as an in dependent study, while at the same time, of too great importance, to be entirely excluded or placed where has still less affinity than has with the subject of metaphysics. It
stranger who has been long guest and we make welcome to stay, until it can take up -- more suitable abode
complete system of Anthropology the pendant to em pirical physics.
The above the general idea of Metaphysics, which, as more was expected from than could be looked for with justice, and as these pleasant expectations were unfortunately never realised, fell into general disrepute. Our Critique must have fully convinced the reader, that, although metaphysics cannot form the foundation of religion, must always be one of its moat
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? 514 T RAN8CE KDEKTAl, DOCTRINE Of METHOD.
important bulwarks, and that human reason, which naturally pursues a dialectical course, cannot do without this science, which checks its tendencies towards dialectic, and, by eleva ting reason to a scientific and clear self-knowledge, prevents the ravages which a lawless speculative reason would infallibly commit in the sphere of morals as well as in that of religion. We may be sure, therefore, whatever contempt may be thrown upon metaphysics by those who judge a science not by its own nature, but according to the accidental effects it may have produced, that it can never be completely abandoned, that we must always return to it as to a beloved one who has been for a time estranged, because the questions with which it is engaged relate to the highest aims of humanity, and reason must always labour either to attain to settled views in regard to these, or to destroy those which others have already estab lished. --
Metaphysic, therefore that of nature, as well as that of ethics, but in an especial manner the criticism which forms the propedeutic to all the operations of reason --forms pro perly that department of knowledge which may be termed, in the truest sense of the word, philosophy. The path which it pursues is that of science, which, when it has once been discovered, is never lost, and never misleads. Mathematics, natural science, the common experience of men, have a high value as means, for the most part, to accidental ends,-- but at last also, to those which are necessary and essential to the existence of humanity. But to guide them to this high goal, they require the aid of rational cognition on the basis of pure conceptions, which, be it termed as it may, is properly nothing but metaphysics.
For the same reason, metaphysics forms likewise the com
pletion of the culture of human reason. In this respect, it
is indispensable, setting aside altogether the influence which it exerts as a science. For its subject-matter is the elements and highest maxims of reason, which form the basis of the possibility of some sciences and of the use of all. That, as a purely speculative science, it is more useful in preventing error, than in the extension of knowledge, does not detract from its value ; on the contrary, the supreme office of censor which it occupies, assures to it the highest authority and importance. This office it administers for the purpose of securing order.
? ? ? ? THE HISIOBT OF PUBE BEASON. 515
harmony, and well-being to science, and of directing its noble and fruitful labours to the highest possible aim -- the happi ness of all mankind.
TRANSCENDENTAL DOCTRINE OF METHOD. CHAPTER FOURTH.
The HisTonr of Pdbe Reason.
This title is placed here merely for the purpose of desig nating a division of the system of pure reason, of which I do not intend to treat at present. I shall content myself with casting a cursory glance, from a purely transcendental point of view -- that of the nature of pure reason, on the labours of philosophers up to the present time. They have aimed at erecting an edifice of philosophy ; but to my eye this edi fice appears to be in a very ruinous condition.
It is very remarkable, although naturally it could not have been otherwise, that, in the infancy of philosophy, the study of the nature of God, and the constitution of a future world, formed the commencement, rather than the conclusion, as we should have of the speculative efforts of the human mind. However rude the religious conceptions generated the remains of the old manners and customs of less cultivated time, the intelligent classes were not thereby prevented from devoting themselves to free inquiry into the existence and nature of God and they easily saw that there could be no surer way of pleasing the invisible ruler of the world, and of attaining to happiness in another world at least, than good and honest course of life in this. Thus theology and morals formed the two chief motives, or rather the points of attrac tion in all abstract inquiries.
But was the former that especially occupied the attention of speculative reason, and which afterwards became so celebrated under the name of metaphysics.
shall not at present indicate the periods of time at which the greatest changes in metaphysics tooic place, but shall
merely give hasty sketch of the different ideas which occa sioned the most important revolutions in this sphere of
? There are three different ends, in relation to which these revolutions have taken place.
thought.
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? 61C TRA>'SCEKDEHTAX. DOOTHJH* OF METHOE.
1. In relation to the object of the cognition of reason, phi losophers may be divided into Sensualists and Intellectuality. Epicurus may be regarded as the head of the former, Plato of the latter. The distinction here signalised, subtle as it is, dates from the earliest times, and was long maintained. The former asserted, that reality resides in sensuous objects alone, and that everything else is merely imaginary ; the tatter, that the senses are the parents of illusion, and that truth is to be fonnd in the understanding alone. The former did not deny to the conceptions of the understanding a cer tain kind of reality ; but with them it was merely logical, with the others it was mystical. The forr. ier admitted in tellectual conceptions, but declared that sensuous
? objects alone possessed real existence. The latter maintained that all real objects were intelligible, and believed that the pure
understanding possessed a faculty of intuition apart from sense, which, in their opinion, served only to confuse the ideas of the understanding.
2. In relation to the origin of the pure cognitions of reason, we find one school maintaining that they are derived entirely from experience, and another, that they have their origin in reason alone. Aristotle may be regarded as the head of the Empiricists, and Plato, of the Noologists. Locke, the follower of Aristotle in modern times, and Leibnitz of Plato (although he cannot be said. to have imitated him in his mysticism), have not been able to bring this question to a settled conclusion. The procedure of Epicurus in his sensual system, in which he always restricted his conclusions to the sphere of experi ence, was much more consequent than that of Aristotle and Locke. The latter especially, after having derived all the conceptions and principles of the mind from experience, goes so far, in the employment of these conceptions and principles, as to maintain that we can prove the existence of God and the immortality of the soul -- both of them objects lying beyond
3. In relation to method. Method is procedure according
to principles. We may divide the methods at present employed in the field of inquiry into the naturalistic and the scientific. The naturalist of pure reason lays it down as his principle, that common reason, without the aid of science--which he calls
the limit* of possible experience --with the same force of demonstration, as any mathematical proposition.
? ? ? THE HISTORY Of PURE BJEISOK.
617
iound reason, or common sense --can give a EC ore satisfactory answer to the most important questions of metaphysics than speculation is able to do. He must maintain, therefore, that we can determine the content and circumference of the moon more certaiily by the naked eye, than by the aid of mathe matical reasoning. But this system is mere misology reduced to principles ; and, what is the most absurd thing in this doctrine, the neglect of all scientific means is paraded as a peculiar method of extending our cognition. As regards those who are naturalists because they know no better, they are certainly not to be blamed. They follow common sense, without parading their ignorance as a method which is to teach us the wonderful secret, how we are to find the truth which lies at the bottom of the well of Democritus.
Quod sapio satis est mini, non ego euro Esse quod Arceailas serumnosique Solones,-- Pees.
is their motto, tinder which they may lead a pleasant and praiseworthy life, without troubling themselves with science,
or troubling science with them.
As regards those who wish to pursue a scientific method,
? they have now the choice of following either the dogmatical or the sceptical, while they are bound never to desert the systematic mode of procedure. When I mention, in relation to the former, the celebrated Wolf, and as regards the latter,
David Hume, I may leave, in accordance with my present in tention, all others unnamed. Thtcritical path alone is still open. If my reader has been kind and patient enough to accom pany me on this hitherto untravelled route, he can now judge whether, if he and others will contribute their exertions towards making this narrow foot-path a high-road of thought, that, which many centuries have failed to accomplish, may
not be executed before the close of the present--namely, to bring Reason to perfect contentment in regard to that which has always, but without permanent results, occupied her powers and engaged her ardent desire for knowledge.
THE ENS.
? ? ? ? LOUDON :
PMNTKD BT WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
? ? ? AN
ALPHABETICAL LIST OK HOOKS CONTAINED IN
BOHN'S LIBRARIES.
Detailed dialogue, arranged according to the various Libraries, will be sent on application.
? ADDISONS Works. With the Notes of Bishop Hurd, Portrait, and 8 Plates of Medals and Coins. Edited by II. G. liohn. 6 vols. 31. 6d. each.
Translated by Prof. C. D. Vonge, M. A. 7s. 6J.
ANDERSEN'S Danish Legends suad Fairy Tales. Translated by Caroline Peachey. With 120 Wocd Engravings. $s.
ANTONINUS (M. Aurelius), The Thoughts Of. Trans, literally, with Notes and Introduction by George Long, M. A. 3r. 6d.
APOLLONIUS RHODIUS. ? The Argonautlca. ' Translated by E. P. Coleridge, B. A.
APPIAN'S Roman Hlstory. Translated by Horace White, M. A. , LL. D. With Maps and Illustrations. 2 vols. 6s. each.
APULEIUS, The Works of. Comprising the Golden Ass, God of Socrates, Florida, and Dis course of Magic.
. ffiSCHYLUS, The Dramas of. Translated into English Verse by Anna Swanwiclc. 4th Edition, revised.
$s.
The Tragedies of. Trans
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AGASSIZ and GOULDS Out line of Comparative Physi ology. Enlarged by Dr. Wright. With 390 Woodcuts. 5*.
ALFIERI 3 Tragedies. Trans lated into English Verse by Edgar A. liowring, C. B. 2 vols. 3s. 6d. each.
ALLEN'S (Joseph, R. N. ) Battles
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AMMIANUS MAKCELLINUS.
History of Rome during the ARISTOPHANES' Comedies.
Reigns of Constantius, Julian, Translated by W. J. Hickie. 2 Jovianus, Valentinian , and Valens. vols. S1. each.
Steel Engravings. 2 vols. 5J"- each.
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An Alphabetical List of books
ARISTOTLE'S Nloomachean Ethics. Translated, with Intro duction and Notes, by the Vener able Archdeacon Browne.
Politics and Economics. Translated by E. Walford, M. A. , with Introduction by Dr. Gillies.
BAX'S Manual of the History of Philosophy, for the use ot Students. By E. Belfort Bax. 51.
BEAUMONT and FLETCHER. their finest Scenes, Lyrics, and other Beauties, selected from the whole of their works, and edited by Leigh Hunt. 31. 6d.
5r-
Metaphysics. Translated by BECHSTEINS Cage and
the Rev. John H. M'Mahon, M. A. s1.
History oi Animals. Trans.
Chamber Birds, their Natural History, Habits, Food, Diseases,
and Modes of Capture. Translated, with considerable additions on Structure, Migration, and Eco nomy, by H . G. Adams. Together with Sweet British Warblers. With 43 coloured Plates Woodcut Illustrations. 51.
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? by Richard Cresswell, M. A.
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Organon; or, Logical Trea tises, and the Introduction of Porphyry. Translated by the Rev. O. F.
