No More Learning

Though I am a
schoolmaster's son,' Arnold long afterwards frankly told a meeting
of teachers, 'I confess that school-teaching or school-inspecting is
not the line of life I should naturally have chosen. I adopted it in
order to marry. ' That was in 1851, when he married Frances Lucy
Wightman. The conditions of his official work were anything but
favourable to the production of poetry; but nearly all Arnold's
best poetry was written during the busiest years of his school
inspectorate. As the years went on, he came to discover that even
the drab task-work of school inspection had its compensations.
He loved children, and he took a genuine interest in the welfare of
teachers; moreover, in his journeys from school to school, he
acquired that manysided knowledge of English life and character
i Discourses in America.
2 G. W. E. Russell, Matthew Arnold, 1894, p. 49.
6


## p. 88 (#104) #############################################

88
[ch.
Matthew Arnold
6
of which he made effective use in his social criticisms. He dwelt
with the Philistines' in their tents, was constantly going in and
out among the populace' and, on occasions, broke bread with the
barbarians. '
In 1859, Matthew Arnold was appointed foreign assistant
commissioner on education, and sent on a mission to enquire into
the systems of primary education prevailing in France, Holland,
Belgium, Switzerland and Piedmont. The immediate result of this
continental visit was the issue, in 1861, of his Popular Education
of France, of which the most permanently valuable part, the in-
troductory essay, was subsequently republished under the title
' Democracy' in Mixed Essays (1879). In 1864 appeared a by-
product of the same foreign mission entitled (not, perhaps, very
appropriately) A French Eton, being an account of the general
economy of a lycée at Toulouse. In 1865, he went abroad on a
second educational mission, of which the published record appeared,
in 1868, under the title Schools and Universities on the Continent.
These volumes, and the Reports on Elementary Schools, edited
after his death by Sir Francis Sandford, make up the sum of Arnold's
official educational writings, and they all belong to the period of
his poetical activity, which practically ended with the year 1867.
To the same period, also, belong two other prose works which
stand somewhat apart from the series of writings, beginning with
Culture and Anarchy, which won for him his contemporary renown
as a social and political critic. They are the delightful critical
discourses On Translating Homer (1861) and The Study of Celtic
Literature (1867), in which we find the essence of his prelections
from the chair of poetry at Oxford, a post to which he was elected
in 1857 and which he held for ten years. After 1867, Arnold wrote
little poetry, and entered upon a career as publicist on social,
religious and political subjects which led him somewhat far afield
from the high road of literature. He soon became a controversialist
whom the newspapers and magazines of the hour found it profitable
to notice and to attack; his fame spread across the Atlantic, and,
in 1883, led to the inevitable American lecturing tour which has
been the not always happy lot of many popular English authors.
Arnold's American experiences seem, on the whole, to have been
fairly fortunate, and he himself set such store by his lectures in the
United States as to tell one of his friends that Discourses in
America was the book by which, of all his prose writings, he
most desired to be remembered. ' In 1886, he resigned his school
1 G. W. E. Russell; see his Matthew Arnold, p. 12.
a


## p. 89 (#105) #############################################

89
a
IV]
Arnold's Early Poems
inspectorship, and was awarded a state pension. He died suddenly
at Liverpool on 15 April 1888. His life, in spite of uncongenial
tasks and some sore domestic trials, was a peculiarly happy one,
and the secret of its happiness was his serene temper and an
inexhaustible interest in mundane things, evident throughout
his letters to his friends and his family.
Arnold's first volume of poems was printed in 1849 under the
title The Strayed Reveller, and other Poems, by A. This modest
budget of verse, though it contained a few short poems not inferior
in quality to the best of his subsequent work, attracted little public
attention, and was withdrawn from circulation after only a few
copies had been sold. The same fate befell his second published
volume, Empedocles on Etna, and other poems, by A. , which
appeared in October 1852. Dissatisfaction with the title-poem
was the reason given by Arnold himself for the withdrawal of this
second volume; but, fifteen years afterwards, at the instance of
Robert Browning, he republished the poem. The sacrifice of
Empedocles, however, seems to have been a kind of strategic
retreat which enabled the poet, in the following year, to publish
boldly, under his own name, a new volume, with a preface defining
his views upon some of the prime objects and functions of poetry.
This volume (1853) included many of the poems already printed in
its two predecessors, together with others which are shining
examples of his more elaborate and considered work, such as
Sohrab and Rustum and The Scholar-Gipsy. In 1855 appeared
Poems by Matthew Arnold, Second Series, a volume with only
two new poems, Balder Dead and Separation, but containing a
further instalment of republications, including some fragments of
Empedocles, from the earlier volumes. In 1858, Merope, a Tragedy,
composed as a sort of 'poetical diploma-piece' on his election to
the Oxford professorship, was published. After an interval of nine
years, his next, and his last, separate volume of poems—as dis-
tinguished from editions of his collected works—appeared under
the title New Poems. In this volume, Empedocles made its re-
appearance in the company of such notable poems as Thyrsis,
Rugby Chapel, Heine's Grave, A Southern Night, Dover Beach
and Obermann Once More. During the last twenty years of his
life, with the exception of a few occasional pieces of the quality
of Westminster Abbey and Geist's Grave, Arnold produced nothing
which added materially to his poetical reputation.
A survey of Arnold's poems in their chronological order brings
into prominence two outstanding facts-the early maturity of


## p. 90 (#106) #############################################

90
[CH.
Matthew Arnold
his genius, and his steadfast adherence throughout to certain
very definite ideals of poetic art and to a singularly melancholy
philosophy of life. We note, at once, in the first small volume of
1849, the predominantly Greek inspiration of its contents, both in
matter and in style. As the poet himself avows in a famous sonnet,
the three Greek masters who, most of all, 'propped, in those bad
days, his mind' were Homer, Epictetus and, especially, Sophocles
—the latter a poet fulfilling Arnold's ideal as one whom
Business could not make dull, nor passion wild;
Who saw life steadily, and saw it whole.
The title-poem, The Strayed Reveller, is itself Greek in both
subject and form, its rimeless and irregular metre being an
attempt to reproduce the effect of the choric odes of Attic tragedy.
The Fragment of an 'Antigone'—another experiment in unrimed
lyric-Mycerinus, The New Sirens, The Sick King in Bokhara
are all Greek either in subject, or in source, or in manner of treat-
ment. Writing in 1867 of the Greek strain in Arnold's poetry
generally, Swinburne said,
Even after his master, this disciple of Sophocles holds his high place; he
has matched against the Attic of the gods this Hyperborean dialect of ours,
and has not earned the doom of Marsyas.
6
In his endeavours to attune our ‘Hyperborean dialect' to Attic
music, Arnold was plainly influenced by the example of Goethe
-another of his life-long masters, alike in art and in his 'wide and
luminous view of life, who, for him, was 'the greatest modern
poet, the greatest critic of all time? ' Goethe's presence is felt in
The Strayed Reveller volume, as, also, is that of the English
master who
laid us as we lay at birth
On the cool flowery lap of earth.
The Greeks, Goethe, Wordsworth-these are the prime literary
sources of Matthew Arnold's poetical inspiration ; and we are in
as close touch with them all in the poems of 1849 as we are in
those of 1867. The Wordsworthian ‘note,' as the poet himself
might say, is clearly heard in Resignation, To a Gipsy Child and
Mycerinus. Distinct echoes of Laodamia are caught in Mycerinus,
while the grave movement of To a Gipsy Child is quite after
Wordsworth's manner. But the influence of Wordsworth is most
.
apparent in Resignation—at once a poem of nature and a cry
i Preface to the 1853 volume of poems.


## p. 91 (#107) #############################################

Iv]
Arnold's “Theory of Poetry'
91
6
from the depth of the poet's own soul. No poem, however,
illustrates better than this last the essential difference between
Arnold's feeling for nature and that of Wordsworth. There is a
wide distance between the poet to whom, if he might lend their
life a voice,' hills, streams, rocks, the sky, ‘seemed to bear rather
than rejoice,' and the seer who felt it was nature’s ‘privilege to lead
from joy to joy and who held the faith that “every flower enjoys
the air it breathes. ' Perhaps the most original poem in the 1849
volume is The Forsaken Merman, which is remarkable alike for
its pathos and its metrical skill, and was singled out by Clough in
a review published in 18531. Clough found The Sick King in
Bokhara rather strained. ' Other critics have found it dull,
whereas one whose literary judgment was never far at fault-
R. H. Hutton-held that Arnold 'never achieved anything so truly
dramatic. '
With the volume of poems published under his own name in
1853, Arnold, as already stated, issued a preface expounding some
of the main principles of his 'theory of poetry. ' This preface,
now easily accessible, deserves careful reading, as it is Arnold's
first published 'essay in criticism,' remarkable alike for its ease
and grace of style, which bears little trace of the marked
mannerisms of his later prose, and for its clear exposition of a
poetical creed to which its author, in the main, adhered, both in
precept and practice, throughout his life. We find him de-
finitely ranging himself as the apostle of a classical ideal of poetry,
in opposition to the vagaries and excesses of the romantic school,
of which England seemed to him then to be the stronghold? '
And, more particularly, he denounces views like those of the
critic whom he quotes as maintaining that
the poet who would really fix the public attention must leave the exhausted
past, and draw his subjects from matters of present import, and therefore
both of interest and of novelty.
Here is sounded the first note of that war-cry against the
Philistines which he was destined, in later years, to send ringing
through many grooves of the national life. When we examine the
preface in the light of Arnold's own poetical practice, it may be
urged that he failed in his attempts to exemplify, on any large
scale, one of its main theses. Empedocles and Merope are his
.
two most ambitious efforts to represent situations' after the
1 The North American Review, July 1853. Republished in Prose Remains of Arthur
Hugh Clough, edited by his wife, 1888.
? See preface to Merope, 1858.


## p. 92 (#108) #############################################

92
[CH.
Matthew Arnold
6
6
6
>
manner of the ancients—the first, on his own confession, an un-
satisfying achievement, the latter, in the opinion of the majority of
even his admirers, a graceful, but somewhat ineffectual, academic
exercise.
Of the contents of the volume of 1853, the poem which comes
nearest to a practical illustration of the theories of the preface is
Sohrab and Rustum, the most finished and successful of his
narrative poems. The subject appeals, like the themes of classical
tragedy, to the great primary human affections, and is treated
with a clearness and sustained elevation of style as closely
approximating the Greek manner, 'the grand style,' as anything
else to be found in later English poetry. The blank verse is
handled throughout with subtle skill, and, in many passages, is
reminiscent of Milton-particularly in the artistic use of the long
simile and of recurrent parades of sonorous proper names. Arnold's
similes, here, are, like Milton's, all after the Greek epic type, and
the whole poem is thoroughly Homeric in manner and substance.
The human interest of the 'episode '--for so the author describes
his poem-centres in the tragic fate of the brave and gentle
Sohrab, slain by the father who does not know him; and in the
delineation of no other character in his poetry does Matthew
Arnold show a surer and more sympathetic touch. The well-
known description of the Oxus at the close of the poem is no
mere pictorial afterthought, due to Arnold's alleged penchant for
'effective endings, but is as artistically right as it is intrinsically
beautiful.
With Sohrab and Rustum much the most notable new contri-
bution to the 1853 volume is The Scholar-Gipsy, perhaps the most
charming, as it is one of the happiest in conception and execution,
of all Arnold's poems. Its charm lies partly in the subject,
naturally congenial to the poet, and partly in the scene, which
stimulates one of Oxford's poetic children to lavish all his powers
of description upon the landscape which he dearly loved. He was
to return to the same natural scenery in Thyrsis, but, although,
in the later poem, there may be one descriptive passage which
surpasses anything to be found in the earlier, Thyrsis fails to give
the impression of eager freshness and ease which are felt through-
out The Scholar-Gipsy. The two poems are pastoral in form, but
there is much less concession to artificial conventions in The
Scholar-Gipsy than in its more consciously elegiac successor.
What, however, gives their abiding charm to both is the vividness
and the beauty of their pictures of nature, and the magic spell


## p. 93 (#109) #############################################

Iv]
Arnold's Later Poems
93
6
6
cast by their haunting lines over Oxford and its adjacent fields
and hills. In The Scholar-Gipsy, the subtle glamour of all that
Oxford and its neighbourhood suggest to the eye and to the
memory is felt in glimpses of
The line of festal light in Christ-Church hall,
of the Oxford riders blithe'
Crossing the stripling Thames at Bab-lock-hithe,
of 'the warm, green-muffled Cumner hills,' 'the Fyfield elm in
May,' the 'distant Wychwood bowers, Godstow bridge, Bagley
wood and the forest-ground called Thessaly. In the latter part
of the poem, Arnold finds a natural opening for his characteristic
pensive moralisings upon
this strange disease of modern life,
With its sick hurry, its divided aims,
when men are but 'half-believers' in their 'casual creeds'-as con-
trasted with days when 'life ran gaily as the sparkling Thames,'
and when it was still possible for an 'Oxford scholar poor' to
pass through them nursing the unconquerable hope' and 'clutch-
ing the inviolable shade. '
Several poems from the withdrawn volume of 1852 were re-
printed in 1853; but only two or three of the more important ones
can be noticed here. The most elaborate, and the finest, of these
is Tristram and Iseult, a poem which seems to reveal the author
in a peculiar mood of hesitation. He is here exploring the shores
of old romance as if afraid of making a firm landing and of boldly
occupying the fair country that opens out before him. The very
frequency of his changes of metre in the poem produces an im-
pression of uncertainty and of a shrinking from the full challenge
which his subject gave him. Stanzas in Memory of the Author
of 'Obermann' is one of those personal and reflective poems
which are characteristic of Matthew Arnold's work, and which
give us the most intimate revelations of his soul. It is strange to
find a comparatively obscure writer like Sénancour classified with
Goethe and Wordsworth as one of the three puissant spirits who, in
the hopeless tangle of our age,' alone seemed to the poet to
“have attain'd to see their way? ' But it was a somewhat morbid
interest, after all, that the poet felt in Sénancour-
A fever in these pages burns'
Beneath the calm they feign;
A wounded human spirit turns,
Here, on its bed of pain.
i See Arnold's note, appended to the poem.


## p. 94 (#110) #############################################

94
[ch.
Matthew Arnold
a
What, however, in this first Obermann poem is of most import are
the brief passages which speak of Goethe and Wordsworth. Its
sequel, Obermann Once More—written many years afterwards—is,
as a whole, a more thought-compelling poem, not so much because
of what is said about Sénancour as of what is revealed of Arnold's
own attitude towards the religious thought of his time. In
Memorial Verses—another poem included in the 1853 volume-
we have the poet's elegiac tribute to his greatest English master,
Wordsworth, and, incidentally, memorable summaries of the gifts
of Byron and Goethe. Whether the critical estimate of Words-
worth embodied in these verses is complete or just at all points
may be a matter of dispute; but no one can refuse to join in their
felicitous parting note,
Keep fresh the grass upon his grave,
O Rotha, with thy living wave!
Sing him thy best! for few or none
Hears thy voice right, now he is gone.
A Summer Night gives us as moving and as artistically perfect
an expression of Arnold's philosophy of life as anything to be
found in his poetry. None of his poems opens in a finer imaginative
strain, and in no other is the transition from the human interest
suggested by the moon-blanch'd street,' and its opposite vision of
the headlands and the sea lit by 'the same bright, calm moon,' to
the central meditative passages more skilfully and yet naturally
contrived. After comparing, in one of these passages, those who
escape from this world's prison with its ‘unmeaning task-work'
to the tempest-tossed helmsman who clings to his ‘spar-strewn
deck,'
Still bent to make some port he knows not where,
Still standing for some false, impossible shore,
he ends up with a magnificent affirmation of the power and stead-
fastness of nature, as
A world above man's head, to let him see
How boundless might his soul's horizons be 1.
The so-called 'second series' of poems, which Arnold published
in 1855, included only one considerable new poem-Balder Dead,
a work which the poet thought would 'consolidate the peculiar
sort of reputation he got by Sohrab and Rustum? ' This poem,
slightly longer than Sohrab, is cast in the same Homeric vein, and
6
1 Cf. with this closing passage the entire poem called Self-Dependence, first
published in 1852.
2 Letters, vol. I, p. 47.


## p. 95 (#111) #############################################

IV] Stanzas from the Grande Chartreuse 95
6
written in equally excellent blank verse. But the subject fails,
somehow, to grip the reader as powerfully as does that of the
earlier poem? To the year 1855 also belongs his next important
poem, Stanzas from the Grande Chartreuse, which was published
in the April number of Fraser's Magazine. These verses, in
which Obermann again appears, are among the most pathetic of
Arnold's personal confessions' in verse. Nowhere else does he
'
give us a clearer, or a more poignant, articulation of his feelings
as a solitary, and all but forlorn, wanderer from all familiar folds
of faith than in the lines where, of the Carthusian 'brotherhood
austere,'
Not as their friend, or child, I speak!
But as, on some far northern strand,
Thinking of his own Gods, a Greek
In pity and mournful awe might stand
Before some fallen Runic stone-
For both were faiths, and both are gone.
Wandering between two worlds, one dead,
The other powerless to be born,
With nowhere yet to rest my head,
Like these, on earth I wait forlorn.
Their faith, my tears, the world deride-
I come to shed them at their side.
In 1858, a year after his election to the Oxford chair of poetry,
Arnold published Merope, a Tragedy—with an elaborate preface,
of which the most permanently interesting part is an exposition,
admirably clear and concise, of some of the cardinal principles
of Greek tragic art. Merope was not reprinted and included
in his own authorised canon of his poetical works until 1885.
As a drama, it lacks life; as poetry, it is certainly inferior
to Empedocles. The rimeless choruses, upon which Arnold
bestowed much pains, may, as he tells us, have produced on
his own feeling a similar impression to that produced on it by
the rhythms of Greek choric poetry’; but they fall flat on an
uninstructed ear and, despite their effort after correctness of
structure, give a much less vivid impression of the general effect
of Greek choric measures than does the relaxed form' which
Arnold wishes Milton had not adopted in Samson Agonistes.
The New Poems of 1867 included several by which Matthew
Arnold is now best remembered, but none which can be said to
excel the best of his previous work. They are, nearly all, of an
elegiac or meditative character, and repeat the old familiar
It is significant that the author, while including Sohrab and Rustum, left this
poem out of his own Golden Treasury selection of his poems published in 1878.
6


## p. 96 (#112) #############################################

96
[CH.
Matthew Arnold
melancholy strain. Like The Scholar-Gipsy, Thyrsis is both an
idyll of the Oxford country and a plaintive protest against the
discordant spectacle
Of men contention-tost, of men who groan.
The landscape is pictured, once more, in lines as exquisite as those
of the earlier poem, while no passage in all Arnold's poetry sur-
passes in beauty the two stanzas which contrast the 'tempestuous
morn in early June,' with the high Midsummer pomps' under
dreaming garden-trees,
And the full moon, and the white evening-star.
Rugby Chapel, again, is another professedly elegiac poem, which
is as much concerned with the cloud of human destiny' as with
the memory of the poet's father. Though Rugby Chapel is
charged with intense feeling, its rimeless verse has about it some-
thing hard and rhetorical, which is felt still more in Heine's
Grave. As a purely elegiac poem, A Southern Night, in which
Arnold laments the death of his brother, surpasses all the others
in tenderness and depth of feeling, and is not inferior to them in
poetical expression. Westminster Abbey-a noble elegy on his
father's biographer and his own life-long friend, dean Stanley—and
three other poems were the only efforts in verse Arnold attempted
after 1867. Of these last three, the poem on his dead dachshund
'Geist' is one of the most beautiful things of its kind in the language.
"The criticism of Dryden,' says Johnson, ‘was the criticism
of a poet'; with even greater justice it may be said that Matthew
Arnold's poetry was the poetry of a critic. Although it is the
fashion to call him the best of our elegiac poets, and although
his verse consists mainly of short poems, we do not instinctively
think of him as primarily, or pre-eminently, a lyric poet. There
is scarcely one poem by him which is felt to be an outburst of
unpremeditated, careless lyric rapture. There is, doubtless, an
"emotion of the intellect,' which finds as glowing utterance in
lyric poetry as the emotion of the heart; but it does not touch
us in quite the same way. And it is just because of our con-
sciousness of the predominance of the intellect over the heart,
even in his simpler and more moving poems, that we miss the
thrill which all really passionate lyric poetry forces us to feel.
Requiescat, the Switzerland poems, Dover Beach—to name a few
of his best known shorter pieces—are all either too 'lucidly sad'
or too palpably meditative to be classed as pure lyrics. His
second thoughts, running always on the riddle of this painful
earth, cloud his vision and stay his utterance. When he turned to
6
<


## p. 97 (#113) #############################################

IV]
The Qualities of Arnold's Poetry
97
6
poetry, Arnold-capable though he was of being gay and light-
hearted enough in his prose—seemed to surrender himself to a
melancholy apparently so bred in the bone as only to be explained
as something constitutional. This it was that, most of all, froze the
genial current of his poetic soul. His limitations, however, to
whatever cause they may have been due, have not been altogether
to his disadvantage, for few poets, at any time, have produced
so much which is so uniformly excellent in style. Lucidity was
what he aimed at, above all things—classical beauty and truth
of phrase and image, suggesting always, in his own words, “the
pure lines of an Ionian horizon, the liquid clearness of an Ionian
sky. ' This studied effort after perfection of form accounts largely,
though not altogether, for 'the quality of adhesiveness' which
Sir Leslie Stephen found in Arnold's poetry. It is poetry which,
as the same critic adds, 'learns itself by heart' in many places.
But it could not do this, had it not, over and above this formal
excellence, qualities that touch the heart and stir the feelings.
Lovers of poetry less reticent and restrained than Arnold's
in the expression of emotion, less concerned with spiritual doubts
and discords, and more abandoned in its indulgence in the more
facile forms of sentiment, may find his poems cold, unsym-
pathetic, even repellent. But those who look for the more abiding
elements of poetical charm and power can never remain insensible
to the intensity of feeling, 'the sense of tears in mortal things,'
the heroically austere temper and, above all, the feeling for nature
and her chastening influences, which they will discover in all his
best poems. In his view of nature, Matthew Arnold is not, as we
have seen, quite Wordsworth’s disciple. For Arnold, nature's
'secret was not joy, but peace. ' He loved her in her quieter and
more subdued moods; he preferred her silences to her many voices,
moonlight to sunlight, the sea retreating from the 'moon-blanch'd
land' with its melancholy, long, withdrawing roar,' to the sea in
tumult and storm. The sea—the unplumb'd, salt, estranging
sea'—was, for him, the one element in which he discovered the
deepest reflection of his own melancholy and sense of isolation.
But, above everything, what he worshipped in nature was her
steadfastness and calm, ever teaching the lesson of Self-Dependence.
And with joy the stars perform their shining,
And the sea its long moon-silver'd roll;
For self-poised they live, nor pine with noting
All the fever of some differing soul.
By a strange irony, it was the lot of a poet who found these
7
E. L. XIII.
CH, Y.


## p. 98 (#114) #############################################

98
[CH.
Matthew Arnold
mighty consolations in the life of nature to 'pine with noting' the
fever of his own soul to such an extent as to mark him out among
the poets of the Victorian age as the one who articulates more
distinctly than any other the cry of the maladie de siècle—the
'doubts, disputes, distractions, fears of an 'iron time. He has no
certain spiritual anodynes to prescribe for those who suffer from
this sickness beyond a stoical recognition of the paramount claims
of duty, and an effort to live ‘self-poised,' like the powers of nature,
until we feel our souls becoming vast like them. But, in spite
of these counsels of fortitude, we find the poet himself often
possessed by a wistful yearning to 'make for some impossible
shore'—agitated,' as he says of Marcus Aurelius, and ‘stretching
out his hands for something beyond—tendentemque manus ripae
ulterioris amore. '
Matthew Arnold's prose writings, mainly, were the work of his
middle and later years! They deal with, practically, the entire
fabric of English civilisation and culture in his day; and they are
all directed by one clear and consistent critical purpose. That
purpose was to 'cure the great vice of our intellect, manifesting
itself in our incredible vagaries in literature, in art, in religion, in
morals; namely, that it is fantastic, and wants sanity? '
The main body of his purely literary criticism, with the excep-
tion of a few scattered essays, is to be found in the lectures
On Translating Homer (1861), and The Study of Celtic Literature
(1867), and in the two volumes entitled Essays in Criticism (1865,
1889). The most notable of these books, as illustrating Arnold's
literary ideals and preferences--his critical method may be equally
well studied in the others—is, undoubtedly, the first series of
Essays in Criticism. Its appearance, in 1865, was something of
a literary sensation, by reason of its style, the novelty and con-
fidence of its opinions and the wide and curious range of its
subjects. No volume of critical essays had before appeared, in
England at least, on a collection of subjects and authors so diverse
as the literary influence of academies, pagan and medieval religious
sentiment, a Persian passion-play, the Du Guérins, Joubert, Heine,
Spinoza, Marcus Aurelius. And the first two essays, in particular,
1 It is a pity that no complete edition of Arnold's prose works has yet been
published. In a selection of his essays issued by the Oxford university press in
1914, “five essays hitherto uncollected' were included, the most interesting of which
are, perhaps, a review, reprinted from Macmillan's Magazine for February 1863, of
Stanley's Lectures on the Jewish Church and a short article entitled Obermann, written
in 1869.
? Preface to second edition of Poems, 1854.


## p. 99 (#115) #############################################

6
>
IV]
Essays in Criticism
99
struck a note of challenge to all the popular critics of the day.
They proclaimed the appearance of a paladin bent, above everything,
upon piercing the armour of self-sufficiency and ‘provinciality,' in
which the average English "authority in matters of taste' had been
accustomed to strut with much confidence. Here, for the first time,
we come across verbal weapons to be repeatedly used with devas-
tating effect in a lifelong campaign against the hosts of Philistia.
The famous nickname ‘Philistine,' borrowed from Heine, makes its
first appearance in this book-to denote the strong, dogged, un-
enlightened opponent of the chosen people, of the children of light. '
We now first hear, also, of the provincial spirit,' the best that is
known and thought in the world, the free play of the mind,'
'flexibility of intelligence'-afterwards to be identified with Plato's
EvTpaTrelía – prose of the centre,' the modern spirit,''criticism
?
of life’ and other phrases destined, by reiterated use, to become
familiar. Although the author's weapons were mainly of his own
making, his way of using them, his adroit and dexterous methods
of attack, had been learnt from France. French prose, for
Matthew Arnold, was the 'prose of the centre,' the nearest modern
equivalent to 'Attic prose,' and the two contemporary critics he
admired most were Sainte-Beuve and Renan.
In purely literary
criticism, Sainte-Beuve is his chief model; but his methods in
other critical fields were largely the results of his reading of
Renan. As early as 1859, he speaks of Renan as one 'between
whose line of endeavour and my own I imagine there is con-
siderable resemblance? The two resembled each other not least
in the adoption of a style, lenis, minimeque pertinax—ʻsinuous,
easy, unpolemical’-very unlike the 'highly-charged, heavy-shotted
articles' of English newspaper critics'.
Arnold's knowledge and appreciation of French prose were
wide and peculiarly sensitive, and stand in curious contrast to his
lack of enthusiasm for, if not indifference to, French poetry.
France, 'famed in all great arts, in none supreme,' appeared to him
to have achieved her most signal triumphs in prose, but his
partiality to French prose led him to some strange vagaries of
judgment in his estimates of individual writers. Sainte-Beuve and
Renan, no doubt, deserved the flattery he paid both by imitating
them, but he has given an exaggerated importance to such writers
as the Du Guérins, Joubert and Amiel.
1 In “A speech at Eton,' Mixed Essays.
? Letters, vol. 1, p. 111.
3 See his essay . Numbers' in Discourses in America.
909684A
7-2


## p. 100 (#116) ############################################

Іоо
[CH.
Matthew Arnold
a
When we turn from these eccentric preferences to the main
principles of his literary criticism, we find, in his definitions of them,
at any rate, much that is incontrovertible and a little that is open to
question. 'Disinterestedness,' detachment, he tells us, is the first
requisite in a literary critic-'a disinterested endeavour to learn
and propagate the best that is known and thought in the world. '
With this goes ‘knowledge'; and no English critic is adequately
equipped who does not possess one great literature, at least,
besides his own. Criticism in England was altogether too pro-
vincial. Nothing quite like this had been stated in English before,
and no critic, in his practice, made so sedulous an effort as Arnold
to convince his countrymen of their insularity, and to persuade
them to acquire an European outlook in literature and art. When
he becomes a little more particular in his definitions and says
that 'the end and aim of all literature' is 'a criticism of life,
and, again, that 'poetry is, at bottom, a criticism of life, he
provokes a debate which, at one time, was pursued with con-
siderable spirit and some acerbity-especially, as Sir Leslie
Stephen has put it, by critics who were unable to distinguish
between an epigram and a philosophical dogma. '
While little fault can be found with his standards and ideals,
as a critic of poetry, some of his methods lie open to easy and
serious objection. Their defects are inherent in the very qualities
that give charm and individuality to the best of his literary
criticisms. None of his works exhibits so well both the strength and
the weakness of his methods as The Study of Celtic Literature-
one of the most delightful of his books, consisting of a number of
Oxford lectures directly inspired by an essay by Renan? . In his
excursions into the Celtic wonderland, Arnold lacked one of the
chief qualifications which he desiderates in a critic——knowledge.
At least, he had no knowledge of a single Celtic tongue; and,
though he wanders into by-paths of ethnology and philology, be
has to rely upon the learning of others for evidence in support of
his brilliant generalisations. But, even those who do know some-
thing of the Celtic tongues are among the first to recognise these
lectures as a triumph of the intuitional method in their instinctive
seizure of the things that really matter in Celtic literature, and in
their picturesque diagnosis of the Celtic genius. The intuitional'
process, however, has its dangers, and the passages in which
1
6
Essays in Criticism, vol. I, • Joubert. '
See, especially, Introduction to T. H. Ward's English Poets.
3 The Poetry of the Celtic Races. '
6


## p. 101 (#117) ############################################

1v]
Culture and Anarchy
IOI
>
>
1
1
Arnold traces the Celtic 'note' in Shakespeare, Byron, Keats,
Macpherson and the rest are about as adventurous an example of
skating on the thin ice of criticism as anything to be found in
our literature.
The first two of Essays in Criticism, semi-polemical as they
were in their motive, and creating, as they did, a considerable stir
among the Philistines, seem to have opened Arnold's eyes to his
opportunities as a social critic. He became conscious, by degrees,
of having something like a 'mission' to his countrymen, who soon
came to speak of him as, pre-eminently, the 'apostle of culture'
in the England of his day. It was the effect of Essays in
Criticism that led to the composition by instalments, between
1867 and 1869, of the book ultimately called Culture and Anarchy,
which may be termed his central work in criticism other than
literary, containing, as it does, the quintessence of what he had
already written, and of much that he was again to write, upon
English life and character. Memorable phrases which he had
already used are here effectively repeated and expanded; and
new phrases and catch-words, with the same quality of 'adhe-
siveness' as the old, are paraded with the same imperturbable
iteration. Some of these phrases, such as 'sweetness and light
and 'the Dissidence of Dissent,' are borrowed from wellknown
sources, while other things, like the description of English public
life as a 'Thyestean banquet of claptrap,' and the definition of
'the two points of influence' between which our world moves as
'Hebraism and Hellenism,' are the author's own. Culture and
Anarchy is, if not a great, an undoubtedly stimulating, book,
still capable of exerting a strong influence on young minds. In
1871, Arnold published another series of essays in social criticism
under the title Friendship’s Garland, perhaps the most mis-
chievously amusing of his books.
It was, undoubtedly, the impression made in certain quarters
by Culture and Anarchy that led Arnold into the somewhat
perilous field of theological and religious criticism-in which
his chief works are St Paul and Protestantism (1870), Literature
and Dogma (1873), God and the Bible (1875) and Last Essays
on Church and Religion (1877). Little need be said of these
works here, constituting as they do, as a whole, the least valuable
and enduring group of his prose writings. The most popular of
them in its day was Literature and Dogma, a work bearing obvious
marks of the influence of Renan, and an elaborate disquisition
upon a text enunciated in Culture and Anarchy—No man, who


## p. 102 (#118) ############################################

IO2
[CH.
Matthew Arnold
a
knows nothing else, knows even his own Bible. ' The frequent
flippancy, not to say levity, of tone which characterises his treat-
ment of sacred subjects in this and other books, together with his
too exclusively literary and 'intuitional critical methods in dealing
with problems of theological scholarship, aroused a good deal of
resentment. No careful and dispassionate reader of his religious
writings can, however, have any question about the sincerity and
the seriousness of Arnold's motives. Some of his catch-phrases
obtained a wide currency, and are, perhaps, destined to live among
the most famous things of their kind coined by him. The defini-
tion of God as 'a stream of tendency, not ourselves, which makes
for righteousness,' of religion as ‘morality touched by emotion,'
of emriel kela as the sweet reasonableness' of Jesus-these and
other phrases have an epigrammatic quality which will prevent
their being soon forgotten.
Sufficient has been incidentally said about the characteristics
of Matthew Arnold's prose style to make it unnecessary to
attempt here any elaborate estimate of its qualities as a whole.
"The needful qualities of a fit prose,' he himself has said, in a
familiar sentence, ‘are regularity, uniformity, precision, balance. '
All these things, it may be said, Arnold's own prose has as
markedly as that of any other modern English writer. The one
pre-eminent virtue of his prose, as of his verse, style is its lucidity
—we never miss, or doubt, his meaning. But the qualities which
he enumerates-and clearness--may be found in prose styles
which have little or no distinction; and distinction, in the strict
sense of the word, Matthew Arnold's has. It is an unmistakably
individual style, and, in spite of its obvious mannerisms and
occasional affectations, is extremely difficult of imitation. It is
a style which is not free from some caprices that 'prose of the
centre' would avoid, but which, at its best, is about as near
a fulfilment as is humanly possible of his own ideals of order
and lucidity, with the added graces of ease, elegance and a grave
rhythmical movement, the effect of which, like that of the best
music, can be felt but never adequately described.
6
Their common connection with Rugby and Oxford, and the
imperishable commemoration of their Oxford friendship in
Thyrsis, inseparably link with the name of Matthew Arnold
that of Arthur Hugh Clough. Clough was Arnold's senior by
some four years, and their friendship was founded on a deep
mutual respect for each other's character and intellectual powers.


## p. 103 (#119) ############################################

IV]
Arthur Hugh Clough
103
6
>
‘You and Clough,' Arnold writes to his sister Fanny in 18591,'are,
I believe, the two people I in my heart care most to please by
what I write'; and, at the time of Clough's death, he speaks to
his mother of his loss as one 'which I shall feel more and more
as time goes on, for he is one of the few people who ever made
a deep impression upon me? ' The most elaborate tribute paid
to him in Last Words on Translating Homer is well known:
the 'admirable Homeric qualities' of The Bothie are there duly
noted ; 'but that in him of which I think oftenest is the Homeric
simplicity of his literary life. ' The impression which Clough made
on Arnold was largely due to the fact that they were both in the
same 'movement of mind' in the England of their day. In any
comparison, however, between Arnold and Clough, it should be
remembered that, probably, the former has given us all the poetry
that was in him, while Clough died young.
Arthur Hugh Clough was born in Liverpool on 1 January
1819. In 1828, he was put to school at Chester, whence he
shortly afterwards went to Rugby. At Rugby, Clough became
Thomas Arnold's ideal pupil, and he left the school, in 1837, with
a great reputation and a Balliol scholarship. Like Matthew
Arnold after him, he only took a second class in the Oxford
schools, but so much was thought of him that he was soon made
a fellow and tutor of Oriel. He resigned both fellowship and
tutorship in 1848 because of his inability to subscribe any longer
to the faith of the church of England. Few of the remarkable
group of Oxford men who found themselves "contention-tost'
in the welter of the tractarian agitation were so dominated by
a single-minded endeavour after truth as Clough. Most of his
poetry is the record of the spiritual and intellectual struggles into
which he was plunged by the religious unrest of the time. In
1854, he married Blanche Smith, who was a first cousin of Florence
Nightingale; and, in the work of the latter during and after the
Crimean war, Clough took the liveliest interest. His health, never
at any time very strong, began to give way in 1859. After
long and weary wanderings on the continent, he died at Florence
on 13 November 1861.
The record of Clough's literary activity is mainly concerned with
poetry; he wrote but little prose of permanent value and interest,
and that only in the form of scattered articles, which his wife
collected and reprinted long after his death. His first poem to
appear in print was the ‘long-vacation pastoral' in hexameters,
1 Letters, vol. 1, p. 102.
? Letters, vol. I, p. 152.


## p. 104 (#120) ############################################

104
Arthur Hugh Clough [CH.
6
The Bothie of Toper-na-Fuosich? , composed immediately after
he left Oxford—the liberation song of an emancipated soul.
He had already written short poems, and these were, soon after-
wards, published (1849), first in a volume called Ambarvalia, the
joint production of Clough and his friend Thomas Burbridge, and,
subsequently, in a separate form. These poems include several
,
of the best of his shorter lyrics, such as Qua Cursum Ventus
(recording the break of his friendship with W. G. Ward), Qui
Laborat Orat, The New Sinai, The Questioning Spirit, Sic Itur,
Duty, The Higher Courage-all poems which bear the marks of
the spiritual conflict of his Oxford days.
During a visit to Rome in 1849, Clough composed his second
hexameter poem, Amours de Voyage, and, in the following year,
at Venice, he began Dipsychus. This latter poem, like Mari
Magno—a series of modern’tales introduced and told in a manner
reminiscent of Chaucer—'was not published,' as we are told in
the collected edition of the poet's works, 'during the author's
lifetime, and should not be regarded as having received his
finishing touches. ' The works recorded here, together with a
number of other lyrics of which the group entitled Songs in
Absence are the most notable and a few satirical and reflective
pieces, constitute the sum of Clough's poetical productions.
Of few poets can it be said more positively than of Clough
that his appeal is, and always must be, to a select and limited
audience. His poetry can never be popular, not only because
much of it is too introspective, but because the form of two of
his most elaborate poems will remain a stumbling-block to the
average English reader of poetry. 'Carmen Hexametrum,' says
Ascham in The Scholemaster, ‘doth rather trotte and hoble than
runne smoothly in our English tong,' and his words are still true
in spite of nineteenth-century efforts to establish that measure
in our common prosody. Neither Matthew Arnold's advocacy of
it as the fit medium of Homeric translation, nor Bagehot's
description of it, in discussing Clough’s hexameters, as ‘perhaps
the most flexible of English metres, disposes of the hard fact that,
to quote again from Bagehot, no 'consummate poem of great
length and sustained dignity' has ever yet been written in it in
English. To say, as one of his admirers does, that Clough's
hexameters are unlike those of any other writer in any language
and better than those of any other English author,' and that
1 The more familiar title The Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich was given to it after-
wards.


## p. 105 (#121) ############################################

Iv]
Clough's Later Poems
105
he had in his mind a very subtle and consistent conception of
the harmonies of the measure, is but to emphasise the charge
that the poet was remote and required a specially instructed class
of readers to appreciate him. But it will not do to dismiss him,
as Swinburne, markedly appreciative of Arnold's Attic grace,
did, as being no poet at all. In actual achievement, he is, indeed,
but one of the inheritors of unfulfilled renown. ' Time conquered
him before he attained to full clearness of poetic utterance.
When we have proved, each on his course alone,
The wider world, and learnt what's now unknown,
Have made life clear, and worked out each a way,
We'll meet again,-we shall have much to say,
he sings in one of his most touching lyrics. But the future day,'
. '
on which he was to fulfil this covenant with readers of his poetry,
never dawned for him. His later poems, however-particularly
.
Mari Magno-show that he was gradually feeling after a mel-
lower and a richer note. His brief married life was beginning to
.
enlarge and to deepen his experience, and, had he lived to write
more, his poetry would have embodied a more profound criticism
of life. ' It would certainly have become less self-centred and less
preoccupied with the questionings and doubts of the solitary
spirit.
These doubts and questionings form the substance of what was
probably his most ambitious work, Dipsychus—a poem consisting
of a series of dialogues between the poet himself and an attendant
spirit, who is an obvious, though distant, relative of Goethe's
Mephistopheles. Clough, like Arnold, was largely a disciple of
Goethe; and the influence of Hermann und Dorothea is to be
clearly seen both in the form and in the thought of The Bothie. But,
both The Bothie and Dipsychus reflect far more of the intellectual
atmosphere of Oxford and of the free open-air life of England than
they do of either the art or the philosophy of Goethe. The best
expression of Clough's own character and genius is, undoubtedly,
to be found in the 'long-vacation pastoral. ' The poet's humour
tempers the hexameter with mercy, and gives it, in places, a semi-
burlesque effect which is not without suggestion of the best uses to
which the measure may be turned in English. The poem, however,
is thoroughly serious in its main drift and purpose, dealing, as it
does, with social problems which were then being eagerly discussed
by the more thoughtful minds of the time, and, particularly, with
the ideal of true womanhood. That ideal Clough himself finds in
Meanest utilities seized as occasions to grace and embellish;


## p. 106 (#122) ############################################

106
Arthur Hugh Clough [CH.
and the whole poem is a protest against the conception of
feminine grace and embellishment as consisting of vulgar decora-
tion and intellectual insipidity. But the most charming features
of The Bothie are its delightful pictures of nature, which show
how fresh was Clough's enjoyment of natural scenery, and how
deep and intimate was his communion with the very soul of
the Highlands. Many discerning readers express a preference
for some of Clough's shorter lyrics to everything else he wrote,
and they are probably right. He wrote nothing so likely to
keep his name and memory alive as the best of Songs in Absence.
A host of readers, who know little else of his work, know him
by Say not the struggle nought availeth; and, during the period
of the greatest national stress ever endured by his countrymen,
few lines have been more frequently quoted for consolation and
hope than
For, while the tired waves, vainly breaking,
Seem here no painful inch to gain,
Far back, through creeks and inlets making,
Comes silent, flooding in, the main.
Although James Thomson, second poet of the name, belongs to
no school, and defies classification with any poetic fraternity, his
place in literary history is, perhaps, most appropriately fixed in
proximity to the poets of doubt and of the sceptical reaction. '
But he stands quite apart from his companions both in personal
character and temperament and in the life-long struggle which he
was condemned to wage with what might well seem to him a
malign fate. In the poetry of the others, even the depths of their
despair are not without gleams of something divine. But all that
is most authentic and arresting in the poetry of James Thomson is
absolutely without hope, and without God in the world. It is the
poetry of sheer, overmastering, inexorable despair--a passionate,
and almost fierce, declaration of faith in pessimism as the only true
philosophy of life. Here we have one who unequivocally affirms
that every struggle brings defeat
Because Fate holds no prize to crown success;
That all the oracles are dumb or cheat
Because they have no secret to express;
That none can pierce the vast black veil uncertain
Because there is no light behind the curtain;
That all is vanity and nothingness.
The City of Dreadful Night, from which these lines are taken, is
far from being all that is of account in the poetry of Thomson; he
could strike other, and more cheerful, cbords. But this poem is so


## p. 107 (#123) ############################################

Iv]
James Thomson
107
distinctively individual and sincere an utterance springing from
the depths of the poet's own feelings and experience, and is so
powerful and original a thing in itself, as to make it the one
supreme achievement in verse by which Thomson is, and probably
will be remembered.
James Thomson was the son of a sailor and was born at Port
Glasgow in November 1834. While he was quite a small boy, a
sudden breakdown in his father's health brought the family into
very low circumstances, and forced them to seek better fortune in
London. At the age of nine, he was admitted to the Royal Cale-
donian Asylum, where he spent probably the happiest eight years of
his life. In 1850, he entered the military training school at Chelsea,
with a view to qualifying as an army schoolmaster. In 1851, he
was appointed teacher in a garrison station at Ballincollig, a village
near Cork, and here he met two persons who had no small influence
upon his subsequent career. One was a young girl, Matilda Weller
by name, for whom the poet formed a passionate attachment, and
whose early death appears to have left him wandering, on his own
testimony, in
a waste of arid woe
Never refreshed by tears.
At Ballincollig, he also met Charles Bradlaugh, then a trooper in a
regiment of dragoons, and it was mainly under his tuition that
Thomson became an atheist, and, subsequently, cast in his lot with
a small but intrepid London band of free-thinking journalists.
For several years during his chequered career as a journalist in
London, Thomson found in Bradlaugh a steadfast friend and bene-
factor. He was for some length of time an inmate of Bradlaugh's
household, and a constant contributor of prose and verse to The
National Reformer, in the columns of which The City of Dreadful
Night made its first appearance in 1874. Thomson's career in the
army ceased in 1862, when he was dismissed because of a somewhat
trivial act of insubordination. He afterwards became a solicitor's
clerk, then secretary to a mining company in America, a war corre-
spondent in Spain, and, finally, a journalistic free-lance in London.
His later years, darkened by poverty and ill-health, largely due to
insomnia and intemperate habits, were spent in London, and he
died at University college hospital, under distressing circum-
stances, in June 1882.
Thomson was a man of genius who, in the blunt common phrase,
'went wrong. Weakness of will, and some insidious inherited
malady, accounted much more for his misfortunes than any vicious


## p. 108 (#124) ############################################

108
[ch.
James Thomson
propensity or deliberately perverse conduct. All his friends bear
testimony to the genial and sunny side of his character; kind,
courteous and chivalrous in his ways, he won the love and the
esteem of those who came into closest contact with him. 'A man,'
writes his editor and biographer, Bertram Dobell, “could hardly wish
for a better companion than he was; while as regards women there
was a charm about him which invariably made them his friends and
admirers. ' But ‘Melancholy, of. . . blackest midnight born,' marked
him for her own, and, under her baleful influence, he fell a helpless
victim to intemperance and disease. This is the first consideration
to be taken into account in any judgment of Thomson's poetry.
The City of Dreadful Night, he wrote to George Eliot, ‘was the
outcome of much sleepless hypochondria. ' It is not the utterance
of a sane mind; but, whatever one may think about the sanity of
the poem, nobody can fail to recognise, and feel, its sincerity.
Human life, on Thomson's experience and interpretation of it,
was one long ‘all-disastrous fight against a blind destiny. The
infinite pathos and the pain of the self-sacrificing souls who,
throughout the ages, had 'striven to alleviate our lot, did not
seem to him to have ‘availed much against the primal curse of our
existence. '
It is strange to find that, of all English poets, the one who in-
fluenced this latter-day prophet of despair most was he who sang of
the indomitable hope that
creates
From its own wreck the thing it contemplates.
Next to him, among his literary favourites, came, perhaps,
Heine, many of whose lyrics he has finely translated, and
the arch-optimist Browning. Thomson's admiration for Shelley
is indicated by the pseudonym ‘Bysshe Vanolis '--the latter part
being an anagram of Novalis, another of his chosen authors-under
which, using generally only the initials B. V. , he wrote many of his
contributions to The National Reformer and other periodicals.
Of both Browning and Shelley he wrote some admirable prose
critiques, which, with other things of the kind, attest not only
Thomson's catholicity of literary taste and sympathy but his acute
insight and sound judgment as a critic. His studies of Ben Jonson,
Blake, John Wilson, James Hogg, Walt Whitman, Heine and others
-many of them originally written for The Secularist, and for
that most intellectual of tobacconists' advertising journals, Cope's
Tobacco Plant-constitute a budget of prose criticism which even
the leading lights of the greater reviews might have been proud


## p. 109 (#125) ############################################

IV] The City of Dreadful Night 109
to own. Nor is it fair to judge the range and variety of his poetical
powers by The City of Dreadful Night alone. His collected
poems form, in mere substance and extent, a very considerable
literary legacy, and prove that he could sing in many a key. The
two separate volumes of poetry published just before his death-The
City of Dreadful Night and other Poems (1880) and Vane's Story
and other Poems (1881 [1880])—contain nearly all his best work.
In these volumes, poems like To Our Ladies of Death, a finely
conceived little phantasy “suggested,' in the author's words, ' by
the sublime sisterhood of Our Ladies of Sorrow' in the Suspiria de
Profundis of De Quincey; an oriental tale called Weddah and
Om-el-Bonain; Vane's Story, a personal confession, well exhibit
his range of interests and his skill as a versifier. Among poems
otherwise published should be noted his tribute to Shelley (1861),
and Insomnia (1882)—a fitting pendant, in its terror and gloom,
to The City of Dreadful Night. As a lyric poet, Thomson ranks
high, and every thoughtful reader of his lighter verse will have
little patience with those who assert that the most depress-
ing of his poems is his only title to literary distinction. Two
poems, in particular, have often, and deservedly, been singled out
as delightful examples of his lighter vein-Sunday up the River
and Sunday at Hampstead, both 'genuine idyls of the people,' as
his friend, Philip Bourke Marston called them, ‘charged with
brightness and healthy joy in living. ' The weakness of most of
Thomson's verse, with all his metrical skill and his astonishing
command of rime, lies in its carelessness, not to say slovenliness,
of execution, and in a constant tendency to fall into a hard and
glittering rhetoric, reminiscent of Byron at his worst. When all
is told, however, The City of Dreadful Night, with its 'inspissated
gloom,' inevitably remains his most haunting and powerful pro-
duction-a poetical monument well nigh unique in its sombre and
awe-inspiring splendour. It is a poem that takes no account of
such pleasant theories as Matthew Arnold's, that the right art
is that alone which creates the highest enjoyment. But he
would be a bold man who denied the right of utterance, even in
poetry, to feelings so intense and real as those which tore and
tortured the heart of James Thomson.
6


## p. 110 (#126) ############################################

CHAPTER V
THE ROSSETTIS, WILLIAM MORRIS, SWINBURNE
AND OTHERS
I
In 1848, a number of young artists and men of letters, united
in opposition to conventional systems of artistic teaching, formed
themselves into a circle to which they gave the name 'the pre-
Raphaelite brotherhood. The painters William Holman Hunt and
John Everett Millais, who were originally responsible for the idea,
were joined by five others. Of these, Dante Gabriel, originally
called Gabriel Charles Dante, Rossetti, then in his twentieth year,
was best fitted to express the aims of the coterie by his posses-
sion of the double gift of poetry and painting and by the power
of a singularly masterful personality. Thomas Woolner, sculptor
and poet, William Michael Rossetti, the younger brother of
Gabriel, Frederick George Stephens and James Collinson were the
remaining four. To these might be added the names of several
sympathisers who, though in close communion with the brother-
hood, were not of it. Among elder men, Ford Madox Brown
became one of the most thorough exponents of its aims in painting.
William Bell Scott and Coventry Patmore gave it their help, and
it found an ardent champion in Ruskin, who used his persuasive
eloquence to define pre-Raphaelism and vindicate it against the
charges of mere imitation and relapse into medievalism.
The term “pre-Raphaelite’ implied merely a kinship of method
with artists whose direct influence upon the work of the brother-
hood was relatively small. Rossetti, though of Italian parentage
and closely acquainted with Italian literature, was a Londoner
born and bred, who had no first-hand knowledge of Italian
art in its native country. Of him and his friends, Ruskin
said that they ‘imitate no pictures : they paint from nature
only. Their passion for rendering nature as she is, in obedience
to their sense of truth, was instinctive: it was pre-Raphaelite
only in so far as their practice found authority in the
fidelity to nature of the later medieval painters, which was


## p. 111 (#127) ############################################

CH. V]
The Germ
III
abandoned by the followers of Raffaelle. When, on 1 January
1850, the first number of The Germ: Thoughts towards Nature
in Poetry, Literature and Art was published, the brotherhood
formulated its artistic creed, in a manifesto printed on the cover
of the magazine, as' an entire adherence to the simplicity of art. '
The contents illustrated a strict obedience to this principle.
Graphic art was represented only by Holman Hunt's etching in
illustration of Woolner's poems My Beautiful Lady and Of my
Lady in Death ; but Rossetti's poem My Sister's Sleep, afterwards
subjected to much revision and alteration, successfully combined
realistic description with pictorial effect, and his mystical prose
narrative Hand and Soul gave evidence of his understanding of
the spirit of the painters in whose work he found the closest
response to his own ideals.
A creed held so earnestly as that of the pre-Raphaelite brother-
hood easily lends itself to over-serious expression. Sonnets and
lyrics, interspersed with didactic essays and laboured critiques, do
not suffice as the material of a successful periodical ; and the poetry
of The Germ was too novel, its prose too conscientious, to attract
general admiration. In the third number, its title was changed to
Art and Poetry: being Thoughts towards Nature, and it was
announced as conducted principally by artists.