48 Liu Shao-chi, "The Class
Character
of Man/' written in June, 1941, in- cluded in an undated edition of How to be a Good Communist, Foreign Lan- guages Press, 109-110.
Lifton-Robert-Jay-Thought-Reform-and-the-Psychology-of-Totalism
cit.
, 36.
B L. S. Yang, "The Concept of Pao as a Basis for Social Relations in China," Chinese Thought and Institutions, edited by John K. Fairbank, Chicago, Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1957, 291.
CHAPTER 14 (253-273)
I 1 include under this general heading three kinds of institutions: those set up primarily for intellectuals, those for both intellectuals and nonintellectuals, and those for people of relatively limited educational background. The center described in this chapter is of the first type. These centers were sometimes referred to as simply "universities" or "research institutes," with no "revolu- tionary. " These distinctions were not always followed, however, and since the over-all emotional pattern was the same in all three, I have referred to "revolu- tionary university" and "revolutionary college" interchangeably.
a For an enlightening essay on the Chinese Communist cadre--his impor- tance for the regime, his group mind, and his training--see Walter E. Gourley, "The Chinese Communist Cadre: Key to Political Control," Russian Research Center, Harvard University, February 1952.
8 Such symptoms of general stress were always common, but it is difficult to evaluate the relative occurrence of the more malignant psychological experiences of suicide and psychosis. One must keep in mind that a certain number of
? NOTES 493
these occur among young people at educational institutions of any kind; but it is likely that the reform pressures were of great importance in precipitating the ones described here.
CHAPTER 15 (274^300)
1 In addition to his erudite theoretical statements on thought reform rationale (quoted in the notes to Chapter 2, supra), Ai Ssu-ch'i produced, in his earlier writing, a number of popular statements on Marxism. The most famous of these was a book actually called Popular Philosophy, to which Hu was probably referring. Although originally aimed at the relatively uneducated common man, this book achieved immense popularity among secondary school and university students as well, and went through thirty-two editions during the twelve years after its publication in 1936. Part of its appeal lay in its utter simplicity and in its promise of total salvation through Marxism; see Gourley, op. cit. , Note
2, Chapter 14, 45-50.
fl Erikson, Young Man Luther, especially Chapters III, IV, and VI.
*It is striking to note how many ways Hu's life history corresponds to the universal myth of the hero, as extracted from mythologies of cultures through- out the world: the hero is a child of distinguished parents (or, in Hu's case, of one distinguished parent); his origin is preceded by difficulties; as a child he is surrendered to the care of others, frequently "suckled by a common woman"; he has a "call to adventure" (Hu's first summons to leadership by fellow students); then faces a series of "difficult tasks" or "road of trials" (for Hu, before and during thought reform); and finally achieves "atonement with the father," a reconciliation which combines revenge, submission, and diminu- tion of early fear. In the myths, the hero's final accomplishment is to right the wrongs done his people, and achieve for them a higher level of accomplishment and wisdom. Hu has already done some of this, but his present fate seems to be that of additional personal trials. See Joseph Campbell, The Hero -with a Thousand Faces, New York, Meridian Books, 1956; Otto Rank, The Myth of the Birth of the Hero, New York, Vintage Books, 1959; and Clyde Kluckhohn, "Recurrent Themes in Myths and Mythmaking," Daedalus, Spring, 1959, 268.
4 Thus Gourley, op. cit. , ii-iii, states, "A cadre is an 'activist', a dynamic element, who serves as the transmission belt between the Party, the State, and the masses. He . . . is at all times connected with the activity of the Party, and expresses the point-of-view of the Party. "
CHAPTER 16 (301-312)
1 1 gave Thematic Apperception Tests to all my Chinese subjects, and found the results useful in helping me to understand interview data. I did not attempt any separate, systematic interpretation of T A T responses, and I mention them only when they illuminate something important which was not brought out by the interviews themselves.
2 For discussions of extreme adaptability to change as a modern character trait, see David Riesman, Nathan Glazer, and Reuel Benny, The Lonely Crowd, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1950; and Allen Wheelis, The Quest for Identity, New York, W. W. Norton & Company, 1958.
? 4 9 4 THOUGHT REFORM
CHAPTER 17 (313-337)
1 For analyses of the techniques through which these "bacteriological warfare" confessions were extracted, see papers by Biderman, W est, and by Hinkle and Wolff contained in the symposia cited for Chapter i.
2 See the work of Rene" Spitz on infantile depression, especially "Anaclitic Depression," The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, Vol. II, International Universities Press, 1946, 313-342.
'Alfred Kazin, "Lady Chatterley in America," The Atlantic Monthly, July, *959> 34-
CHAPTER 18 (338-358)
1Yenching University was established in 1919, and subsequently supported, by American Protestant missionary groups. For some years before the Com- munist takeover it maintained an affiliation with Harvard University.
2 For additional accounts of this widely-publicized event, see Maria Yen, op. cit. 9 Note i, Chapter 13, 260-261, and Current Background, No. 182, 14-15, and No. 213, 3-4; for earlier Communist attitudes toward Yenching University, see Current Background, No. 107, " 'Cultural Aggression' in Ameri- can MissionaryColleges in China. "
'Chinese health authorities apparently took advantage of the germ warfare scare to carry out a general program of inoculations.
CHAPTER 19 (359-387)
1 The historical themes discussed in this chapter will necessarily be selective, chosen because of their important bearing upon the psychological issues with which this book is concerned. Thus I wish to stress that filialism is just one strain of traditional Chinese Confucianism--a- vital strain, and crucial to all patterns of authority, but by no means encompassing the entire social and philosophical world of traditional China. Similarly, in discussing certain basic psychological trends, I do not wish to lose sight of the diversity and conflict always present in traditional China; these are revealed in Wright's and Fair- bank's volumes on Chinese thought already referred to, and by a third volume in the series, Confucianism in Action, edited by David S. Nivison, Stanford, Calit. , Stanford University Press, 1959.
3 Fung Yu-lan, "The Philosophy at the Basis of Traditional Chinese Society," Ideological Differences and World Order, edited by F. S. C. Northrop, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1949, 18.
3 Rev. Justus Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese, New York, Harper & Bros. , 1865, Vol. I, 456-457, As told routinely within the culture these stories might not have had the emotional impact which they convey to us as outsiders, but there can be little doubt of their symbolic significance.
*Hsiao Ching (Book of Filial Piety), translated by Ivan Chen, London, J. P. Murray, 1908, quoted in Fung, op. cit. , 27. Subsequent quotations in this paragraph are also from Fung's article, and represent his interpretation of filial patterns in traditional China as prescribed by classical ethics.
? NOTES 495
8 Conflicts could arise, however, between the two commitments--between the filial son and the loyal official. This happened to Chao Pao, the governor of a frontier province during the second century A. D. Enemy forces captured Chao's mother and threatened to put her to death unless he surrendered his armies. Faced by this moral dilemma, he fought and defeated the enemy, thus sacrificing his mother's life. After the war, he was said to have died of grief at his mother's grave. But in subsequent commentaries (this incident was a frequent subject for ethical discussion for more than a thousand years) Chao was criticized--for being an "extremist" who took only one aspect of the situa- tion into account, and for failing to make some attempt, even if unsuccessful, to save his mother's life. The prevailing principle (strongly reinforced in the writings of Mencius) was that if such a conflict should arise, the duty of the son as a son should receive first consideration. (Fung, in Northrop, ed,, op. cit. , 29-30).
9 There are reports of protests against government corruption and inefficiency by students of the Imperial College during the Han Period (25-220 A. D. ) and Southern Sung Period (1127-1279 A. D. ); and of scholars leading political criticism for some time during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 A. D. ). But these were essentially demands for adherence to the ideals of traditional ethics-- examples of scholars serving as guardians of principles--rather than youth rebellions in the modern sense. See Wen-han Kiang, The Chinese Student Movement, New York, King's Crown Press, 1948, 8.
7 See Marion J. Levy, Jr. , The Family Revolution in Modern China, Cam- bridge, Harvard University Press, 1949, 63-208.
8 Olga Lang, Chinese Family and Society, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1946, 10.
9 Book of Rites, in Sacred Books of the East, edited by F. M. Muller, Oxford, Vol. XXVIII, 428, quoted in Fung op. cit, 33.
10 The Dream of the Red Chamber, New York, Pantheon Books (Kuhn translation), 1958, 579.
11C. P. Fitzgerald, China, A Short Cultural History, London, The Crescent Press, 1935, 88.
"Fung, in Northrop, ed. , op, cit. , 20.
13 Hu Shih, The Chinese Renaissance, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1934, no.
"Doolittle, op. cit. , Vol. I, 140.
TMBook of Rites, quoted by Fung, op. cit. , 22. W. M. Theodore De Bary similarly stresses the "fundamentalism" and "restorationism" characteristic of Confucianism; see his "Common Tendencies in Neo-Confucianism," in Nivison, ed. , op. cit. , 34-37.
16 Ch'en Tu-shiu, The New Youth, Vol. I, No. 5, quoted in Lang, op. cit. , no.
"See R. Bunzel and J. H. Weakland, An Anthropological Approach to Chi- nese Communism, Columbia University, Research in Contemporary Cultures, mimeographed.
"T si C. Wang, The Youth Movement in China, New York, New Republic, Inc. , 1928, 6-7.
"Levenson, " 'History' and 'Value' . . . ," in Wright, ed. , op. cit, 156.
? 496 THOUGHT REFORM
*K'ang Yu-wei, Ta-tung Shu (The Book of Great Unity), quoted in Lang, op. cit. ,111.
21 Lang, op. cit, no.
22 Benjamin I. Schwartz, Chinese Communism and the Rise of Mao,Cam- bridge, Harvard University Press, 1951, 9.
28 Hu Shih, op. cit. , 44,
34 Pa Chin, The Family, quoted in Lang, op. cit. , 297-298. 25 Levy, op. cit. , 294-502.
38 Conrad Brandt, Stalin s Failure in China, Cambridge, Mass. , Harvard Uni- versity Press, 1958, 48.
37 "The Diary of A Madman/' Ah Q and Others, Selected Stones of Lu Shun, translated by Wang Chi-shen, Columbia University Press, 1941, 205-219. The character of Ah Q, who appears in the title story of this volume became a symbolic rallying point for protest. He was a caricature of all that Lu Shun condemned in Chinese culture: the tendencies, in the face of personal oppres- sion, to remain passive, to rationalize philosophically, or to take out resentment on those lower in the social hierarchy. "Ah Q-ism" became a term of rebuke, usually referring to these influences from the past, in contrast to the ideals of the "modem student"--active self-assertion, a feeling of personal dignity, and commitment to social change,
^Schwartz, op. cit. , 9.
28 Lu Shun, in W ang, ed. , op. cit,, 16.
80 Apart from the case histories in this study, much evidence of intensified intra- and extra-family conflict can be found in the sociological studies of Levy and Lang, cited above.
raThe last two quotations are from Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit. , 19-20.
82 These youthful emotions were frequently in advance of, and more extreme than, the Party's own program. The formation of the Socialist Youth Corps, which later became the Chinese Communist Youth Corps, antedated the forma- tion of the Communist Party; and it maintained considerable autonomy even after the Party had been organized (Brandt, op. cit. , 46-49).
M Schwartz, op. cit. , 21.
34 See Current Background, Nos. 315 and 3 2 5 ; and Theodore Hsi-en Chen and Sin Ming Chiu, "Thought Reform in Communist China,'* Far Eastern Survey, 24:177-184.
85 Mao Tse-tung, "Opposing Party Formalism," Brandt, Schwartz, and Fair- bank, op. cit. , 396.
wAiSsu-ch'i,"OnProblemsofIdeologicalReform/'Notez,Chapter2.
"Ibid.
88Mao Tse-tung, "Correcting Unorthodox Tendencies in Learning, The Party, and Literature and Arts,'* Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit. , 386.
wAi, op. cit.
40 Hu Hsien-chin, "The Chinese Concept of 'Face/ " American Anthropolo-
gist (1944) 46:45-65.
41 This injunction from Ai could also apply to those who found Party policy
? NOTES 497
inconsistent with Marxist-Leninist writings, or who had difficulty accepting official attempts to reconcile the two.
43 Ai Ssu-ch'i, "Recognize Clearly. "
"Ibid.
44 Mao Tse-tung, "Correcting Unorthodox Tendencies," Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit. , 382.
48 Mao Tse-tung, "In Opposition to Liberalism/' in Boyd Compton, Mao's China: Party Reform Documents, 1942-44, Seattle, University of Washington Press, 1952, 184-185,
48Ibid. , 187.
47 From Hu Shih-t<<, "Confession/' reprinted by the Hong Kong Standard, September 24, 1950, and also in Edward Hunter, Brainwashing in Red China, 303-307.
48 Liu Shao-chi, "The Class Character of Man/' written in June, 1941, in- cluded in an undated edition of How to be a Good Communist, Foreign Lan- guages Press, 109-110.
49 "The May 4 Movement," Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung, London, Lawrence & Wishart, 1954, Vol. Ill, 11. Mao's description of his personal transformation is recorded in one of his speeches reprinted in Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit. , 410--411.
60 Ai Ssu-ch'i, "Recognize Clearly," supra. CHAPTER 20 (388-398)
1 Raymond A. Bauer, "Brainwashing: Psychology or Demonology? ", Journal of Social Issues (1957) 13:41-47. See also, by the same author, The New Man in Soviet Psychology, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1952.
2 These trials are discussed in Nathan Leites and Elsa Bernaut, Ritual of Liqui- dation, Glencoe, III. , The Free Press, 1954. They were fictionalized, with great psychological accuracy, by Arthur Koestler in the novel, Darkness at Noon, New York, Macmillan, 1941. Both of these books deal with the special ethos of the "old Bolshevik. " F. Beck and W. Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, New York, Viking Press, 1951, conveys vividly the experiences within a Soviet prison of outsiders caught up in the great purge.
8 The Great Learning, in The Four Books, translated by James Legge, Lon- don, Perkins, 310-313. All subsequent references to Confucian writings are to this translation.
4 The Doctrine of the Mean, Legge, 394.
"See David S. Nivison, "Communist Ethics and Chinese Tradition," The Journal of Asian Studies (1956) 16:51-74; and the same author's, "The Prob- lem of 'Knowledge' and 'Action' in Chinese Thought since Wang Yang-ming/' Studies in Chinese Thought, 112--145.
a Lily Abegg, The Mind of East Asia, Thames and Hudson, London, 1952, Chapters 2 and 3.
7 In terms of logic, both follow the 'law of opposition," rather than the tra- ditional Western pattern of the "law of identity"; but their difference lies in the Chinese emphasis upon "adjustment" in relationship to this opposition, in contrast to the Marxist emphasis upon "struggle. " See Chang Tung-sun, "A
? 498 THOUGHT REFORM
Chinese Philosopher's Theory of Knowledge," The Yenching Journal of Social
Studies (Peking, 1939) 1:155-189.
"Robert Van Gulik, The Chinese Bell Murders, New York, Harper Bros. ,
1958, 258.
*Boyd Compton, op. eft. , xv-lii; and Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit
372~375-
10 Compton, op. cit. , xlvi.
u Weston LaBarre, "Some Observations on Character Structure in the Orient: IL The Chinese," Psychiatry (1946) 9:215-237.
" Once during a discussion with one of my Chinese interpreters, I mentioned the interest of American psychiatrists in the subject of interpersonal relations. His immediate reply was, "What else is there? " In this interest in what goes on between people, there is something Sullivanian in every Chinese. See also John H. Weakland, "The Organization of Action in Chinese Culture," Psy- chiatry (1950) 13:361-370.
13 Confucian Analects, Legge, 94.
u The Great Learning, Legge, 326.
v The Texts of Taoism, translated by James Legge, London, 1891, Part I, 70.
"Ronald Knox, Enthusiasm, London, Oxford University Press, 1950. See also William Sargent, Battle for the Mind, New York, Doubleday, 1957, for a different approach to relating thought reform to ecstatic religious practice.
CHAPTER 21 (399-415)
1 In this sense, thought reform had some similarity to a primitive initiation ceremony; it initiated one into the world of Chinese Communism. SeeBranislaw Malinowski, Magic, Science, and Religion, New York, Doubleday, 1955, 37-41-
*Current Background, No. 376, February 7, 1956.
8 See Theodore Hsi-en Chen, "The Thought Reform of Intellectuals," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (1959) 321:82-89, 86. For my discussion of the Hundred Flowers episode, I also drew on the fol- lowing sources: "Contradiction" and "The Storm," pamphlets published by China Viewpoints, Hong Kong, 1958; Benjamin Schwartz, "New Trends in Maoism? ", Problems of Communism (1957) 6:1-8, and "China and the Com- munist Bloc: A Speculative Reconstruction," Current History (1958) 35:321- 326; Michael Walzer, "When the 100 Flowers Withered," Descent, Autumn 1958, 360-374; and Chinese Communist Press reports translated by the American Consulate General in Hong Kong and reproduced in the New Yorfc Times from April, 1957, through the followingyear.
CHAPTER 22 (419-437)
1 Personal "closure" implies abandoning man's inherent strivings toward the outer world as well as much of his receptivity to his own inner impulses, and retreating into what Ernest Schachtel has called "the closed pattern of related- ness to the world institutionalized in . . . [a] particular culture or cultural subgroup (Metamorphosis, New York, Basic Books, 1959, 75).
1 Helen Lynd, On Shame and the Search for Identity, New York, Harcourt, Brace &Co. , 1958, 57.
? NOTES 499
'Alex Inkeles, "The Totalitarian Mystique: Some Impressions of the Dy- namics of Totalitarian Society/' Totalitarianism, edited by Carl Friedrich, Cam- bridge, Mass. , Harvard University Press, 1953, 88 and 91.
*Ifaid, 91.
8 In Camus' novel, The Fall (New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1957, 127), Clamence states: "My great idea is that one must forgive the Pope. To begin with, he needs it more than anyone else. Secondly, that's the only way to set oneself above him. . . . "
a Helen Lynd, op. cit. , 57. 7 Camus, The Fatt, 120.
8 Ibid,, 8 and 138.
"A somewhat similar point of view is expressed by Hannah Arendt in her comprehensive study, The Origins of Totalitarianism, New York, Meridian Books, 1958, 468-474.
10 In this respect, thought reform is clearly a child of its era, for Weaver claims that "progress" is the " 'god term' of the present age," and also lists "progressive/' "science," "fact," and "modern" as other widely-used "god terms" ("Ultimate Terms in Contemporary Rhetoric," Perspectives (1955), n , 1-2, 141). All these words have a similar standing in thought reform. Thought re- form's "devil terms" are more specifically Communist, but also included are such general favorites as "aggressor" and "fascist. "
11 Edward Sapir, "Language/' Culture, Language and Personality, Berkeley, Calif. , University of California Press, 1956, 17.
"John K, Fairbank and Mary C. Wright, "Documentary Collections on Modern Chinese," The Journal of Asian Studies (1957) 17:55-56, intro.
14 Camus, The Rebel, New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1954, 141.
M Benjamin Schwartz, op. cit. , 4--5.
"Erik Erikson, "Wholeness and Totality," in Friedrich, ed. , op. eft. , 165,
"Mao Tse-tung, "On the People's Democratic Dictatorship/' Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit. , 456-457.
-IWi. 457-
" I have borrowed the term "peak experiences" from A. H. Maslow (Presi- dential Address, Division of Personality and Social Psychology, American Psy- chological Association, Chicago, 111. , September i, 1956, mimeographed), al- though my use of it is perhaps somewhat broader than his. In his terminology, he might see the imposed "peak experience" as lacking in genuine "cognition of being. "
19 "Openness to the world," or "world-openness," and "embeddedness" are conceptualized by Schachtel (Metamorphosis, 22-77), a s perpetually antagonistic human emotional tendencies.
CHAPTER 23 (438-461)
1 Bettelheim, "Individual and Mass Behavior/' Note 2, Chapter 6.
1 Anna Freud, The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence, New York, Inter- national Universities Press, 1946.
"Erich Fromm, throughout his writings, frequently uses the term, "self-
? JOO THOUGHT REFORM
realization" to suggest the goal of psychotherapy and of life itself. Kurt Gold- stein speaks similarly of the organism's "trend to actualize itself. "
4 C. M. Bowra, The Greek Experience, New York, World Publishing Co,, 1957, 198-201.
BMichael Polanyi, Personal Knowledge, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1958, 300-303.
fl George Orwell, "Such, Such Were the Joys," A Collection of Essays, Double- day Anchor Books, New York, 1954, 9-55.
7 Lionel Trilling, The Liberal Imagination, Garden City, New York, Double- day Anchor Books, 19^4, 6 and 10.
9 In this section I shall not enter into the long-standing controversy over dis- tinctions between psychoanalysisand psychonanalytic therapy, or between medi- cal and nonmedical psychoanalytic and psychotherapeutic work. I believe that the principles expressed here apply, at least in spirit, to all of these agents of psychological re-education. What I say about psychoanalytic training is most specific to that situation, but may also be applied in lesser degree to other forms of psychological and psychiatric (or, medical psychological) training. Similarly, the ideas expressed about transference, resistance, and reality apply to all forms of psychoanalytically-influenced therapeutic work, while those about milieu therapy relate primarily to hospital settings. Ideas about theory apply to all systematic attempts to understand man.
8 Erik Erikson, "The First Psychoanalyst," Freud and the 2oth Century, edited by Benjamin Nelson, New York, Meridian Books, 1957, 80.
10 See, for instance, Franz Alexander, Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy, New York, Norton, 1956, Chapters IX-XII (including both the author's discussion and those of leading psychoanalysts whose opinions he solicited); Eriksont Young Man Luther, 151-154; Leslie Farber, "The Therapeutic Despair," Psychiatry (1958) 21:7-20; Erich Frornm, Sigmund Freutfs Mission, New York, Harper & Bros. , 1959, Chapters VIII-X; Thomas S. Szasz, "Psychoanalytic Training-A Socio-Psychological Analysis of Its History and Present Status," The International Journal of Psychoanalysis (1958), 39:598-613; Clara Thomp- son, "A Study of the Emotional Climate of Psychoanalytic Institutes," Psy- chiatry (1958) 21:45-51; and Allen Wheelis, op. cit. , Chapters II, V, and VII.
"Erickson, Young Man Luther, 152.
"IKd, 153.
u Somewhat analogous ideas have been expressed by George Winokur,
" 'Brainwashing*--A Social Phenomenon of Our Time," Human Organization (1955) 13:16-18; and by J. C. Moloney, "Psychic Self-Abandon," supra; and
Meerloo, Rape of the Mind, supra.
" In his presidential address of that year to the American Psychoanalytic
Association (Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy, 177-178), Alexander stated: "They [psychoanalysts] should lose the defensive attitude of a minority group, the militant soldiers of a Weltanschaung attacked by and therefore antagonistic to the world. Rather than disseminators of the gospel, they must become self- critical scientists. For psychoanalysis as a whole, this leads to the simple but unavoidable conclusion that the sooner psychoanalysis as a 'movement' disap- pears, the better/'
16 Szasz, op. cit. "Thompson, op. cit.
? NOTES JOl
17 See John P. Spiegel's discussion of the relationship of cultural values to concepts of resistance and reality in "Some Cultural Aspects of Transference and Countertransference," Individual and Familial Dynamics, edited by Jules H. Masserman, Grune and Stratton, 1959, 160-182,
18 See, for instance, Robert Waelder, "The Problem of the Genesis of Psychi- cal Conflict in Earliest Infancy," International Journal of Psychoanalysis (1937) 18:473; Mabel Blake Cohen, "Countertransference and Anxiety/' Psychiatry
(1952) 15:231-243; and Leo Berman, "Countertransference and Attitudes of the Analyst in the Therapeutical Process/' Psychiatry (1949) 12:159-166.
"Janet Mackenzie Rioch, "The Transference Phenomena in Psychoanalytic Therapy/' in An Outline of Psychoanalysis, edited by Thompson, Mazer, and Witenberg, New York, The Modern Library, 1955, 498, 500, 501.
"Merton M. Gill and Margaret Brenman, Hypnosis and Related States, New York, International Universities Press, 1959, have compared hypnosis with "brainwashing," primarily in relationship to the reliance upon induced regres- sion common to both. I would place greater emphasis upon the totalism con- tained in both, along the lines of my discussion in Chapter 21, and would further raise the question of whether such totalism might not be one of the truly fundamental aspects of the hypnotic process.
31 See papers by D. O. Hebb> E, S. Heath, and E. A. Stuart, Canadian Journal of Psychology (1954) 8:152, and by John C. Lilly, Psychiatric Research Re- ports (1956) No. 5, i; for a general review, see P. Solomon, H. Liederman, J. Mendelson, and D. Wexler, American Journal of Psychiatry (October, 1957)
"4:357-
22 See, for instance, Paul Sivadon, "Technics of Sociotherapy," in Symposium
on Preventive and Social Psychiatry, supra, 457-464; Kai T. Erikson, "Patient Role and Social Uncertainty--A Dilemma of the Mentally 111," Psychiatry (1957) 20:263-274; D. McK. Rioch and A. H. Stanton, "Milieu Therapy," Psychiatry (1953) 16:65-72; A. H. Stanton and M. S, Schwartz, The Mental Hospital, New York, Basic Books, 1954; and William Caudill, The Psychiatric Hospital as a Small Society, Cambridge, Mass. , Harvard University Press, 1958.
88 Malleus Maleficarum, translated by Montague Summers, London, The Pushkin Press, 1951. See also Henry Charles Lea, A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages (3 vols. ), New York, S. A. Russell, 1956; and Giorgio Di Santillana, The Crime of Galileo, University of Chicago Press, 1955.
* L . B. Smith, "English Treason Trials and Confessions in the Sixteenth Century," Journal of the History of Ideas (1954) 15:471.
*See Fromm, Escape from Freedom.
98 Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millenium, London, Seeker and Warburg, 1957-
28 See also Hadley Cantril, The Psychology of Social Movements, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1951, Chapter 6.
29 S. Radhakrishnan, East and West, New York, Harper and Bros. , 1956, 41. 80 Erich Fromm, Psychoanalysis and Religion, New Haven, Yale University
Press, 1950, presents a rather similar point of view.
'"Carnus, The Rebel, 269.
88 See Edward A. Shils, The Torment of Secrecy, Glencoe, 111. , The Free Press,
27 Ronald Knox, op. cit, 580,
? 502 THOUGHT REFORM
1956. 1 wish to emphasize that I am referring to just one theme within American populism; I would tend to be more cautious than Shils in relating the general populist movement to McCarthyism.
"Michael Polanyi, " T h e Two Cultures'/' Encounter (1959) 13:61.
**Dr. T. F. Fox, editor of Lancet, quoted in The New Yorfe Times, October 22, 1959.
"This close relationship between godhood and devildom has a long tradition: Margaret Murray demonstrated, in The God of The Witches, New York, Ox- ford University Press, 1952, that the devil himself is no one but the Horned God widely worshipped during the Bronze Age and Iron Age of pre-Christian Europe, and that "the God of the old religion becomes the Devil of the new," This statement has a good deal of significance for thought reform and totalism in general.
88 Albert Einstein, Out of My Later Years, New York, Philosophical Library, 1950, 21-23.
87}. Robert Oppenheimer, The Open Mind, New York, Simon & Schuster,
! 955> 93-94-
M J. Bronowski, Science and Human Values, New York, Julian Messner Inc. ,
1956.
CHAPTER 24 (462-472)
1 J . L. Talmon, "Utopianism and Politics," Commentary (1959) 28:149-154,
W2-1 have in mind the writings of Schachtel, Erikson, Fromm, Riesman, and Wheelis, which I have already cited; and also, recent work by Margaret Mead: New Lives for Old, New York, William Morrow Co. , 1956; "Cultural Dis- continuities and Personality Transformation," The Journal of Social Issues (1954) 8:3-16; and "The Implications of Culture Change for Personality Development," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 17:633-646.
8 Camus, The Rebel, 19.
4 William James, Varieties of Religious Experience, 163-185.
B L. S. Yang, "The Concept of Pao as a Basis for Social Relations in China," Chinese Thought and Institutions, edited by John K. Fairbank, Chicago, Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1957, 291.
CHAPTER 14 (253-273)
I 1 include under this general heading three kinds of institutions: those set up primarily for intellectuals, those for both intellectuals and nonintellectuals, and those for people of relatively limited educational background. The center described in this chapter is of the first type. These centers were sometimes referred to as simply "universities" or "research institutes," with no "revolu- tionary. " These distinctions were not always followed, however, and since the over-all emotional pattern was the same in all three, I have referred to "revolu- tionary university" and "revolutionary college" interchangeably.
a For an enlightening essay on the Chinese Communist cadre--his impor- tance for the regime, his group mind, and his training--see Walter E. Gourley, "The Chinese Communist Cadre: Key to Political Control," Russian Research Center, Harvard University, February 1952.
8 Such symptoms of general stress were always common, but it is difficult to evaluate the relative occurrence of the more malignant psychological experiences of suicide and psychosis. One must keep in mind that a certain number of
? NOTES 493
these occur among young people at educational institutions of any kind; but it is likely that the reform pressures were of great importance in precipitating the ones described here.
CHAPTER 15 (274^300)
1 In addition to his erudite theoretical statements on thought reform rationale (quoted in the notes to Chapter 2, supra), Ai Ssu-ch'i produced, in his earlier writing, a number of popular statements on Marxism. The most famous of these was a book actually called Popular Philosophy, to which Hu was probably referring. Although originally aimed at the relatively uneducated common man, this book achieved immense popularity among secondary school and university students as well, and went through thirty-two editions during the twelve years after its publication in 1936. Part of its appeal lay in its utter simplicity and in its promise of total salvation through Marxism; see Gourley, op. cit. , Note
2, Chapter 14, 45-50.
fl Erikson, Young Man Luther, especially Chapters III, IV, and VI.
*It is striking to note how many ways Hu's life history corresponds to the universal myth of the hero, as extracted from mythologies of cultures through- out the world: the hero is a child of distinguished parents (or, in Hu's case, of one distinguished parent); his origin is preceded by difficulties; as a child he is surrendered to the care of others, frequently "suckled by a common woman"; he has a "call to adventure" (Hu's first summons to leadership by fellow students); then faces a series of "difficult tasks" or "road of trials" (for Hu, before and during thought reform); and finally achieves "atonement with the father," a reconciliation which combines revenge, submission, and diminu- tion of early fear. In the myths, the hero's final accomplishment is to right the wrongs done his people, and achieve for them a higher level of accomplishment and wisdom. Hu has already done some of this, but his present fate seems to be that of additional personal trials. See Joseph Campbell, The Hero -with a Thousand Faces, New York, Meridian Books, 1956; Otto Rank, The Myth of the Birth of the Hero, New York, Vintage Books, 1959; and Clyde Kluckhohn, "Recurrent Themes in Myths and Mythmaking," Daedalus, Spring, 1959, 268.
4 Thus Gourley, op. cit. , ii-iii, states, "A cadre is an 'activist', a dynamic element, who serves as the transmission belt between the Party, the State, and the masses. He . . . is at all times connected with the activity of the Party, and expresses the point-of-view of the Party. "
CHAPTER 16 (301-312)
1 1 gave Thematic Apperception Tests to all my Chinese subjects, and found the results useful in helping me to understand interview data. I did not attempt any separate, systematic interpretation of T A T responses, and I mention them only when they illuminate something important which was not brought out by the interviews themselves.
2 For discussions of extreme adaptability to change as a modern character trait, see David Riesman, Nathan Glazer, and Reuel Benny, The Lonely Crowd, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1950; and Allen Wheelis, The Quest for Identity, New York, W. W. Norton & Company, 1958.
? 4 9 4 THOUGHT REFORM
CHAPTER 17 (313-337)
1 For analyses of the techniques through which these "bacteriological warfare" confessions were extracted, see papers by Biderman, W est, and by Hinkle and Wolff contained in the symposia cited for Chapter i.
2 See the work of Rene" Spitz on infantile depression, especially "Anaclitic Depression," The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, Vol. II, International Universities Press, 1946, 313-342.
'Alfred Kazin, "Lady Chatterley in America," The Atlantic Monthly, July, *959> 34-
CHAPTER 18 (338-358)
1Yenching University was established in 1919, and subsequently supported, by American Protestant missionary groups. For some years before the Com- munist takeover it maintained an affiliation with Harvard University.
2 For additional accounts of this widely-publicized event, see Maria Yen, op. cit. 9 Note i, Chapter 13, 260-261, and Current Background, No. 182, 14-15, and No. 213, 3-4; for earlier Communist attitudes toward Yenching University, see Current Background, No. 107, " 'Cultural Aggression' in Ameri- can MissionaryColleges in China. "
'Chinese health authorities apparently took advantage of the germ warfare scare to carry out a general program of inoculations.
CHAPTER 19 (359-387)
1 The historical themes discussed in this chapter will necessarily be selective, chosen because of their important bearing upon the psychological issues with which this book is concerned. Thus I wish to stress that filialism is just one strain of traditional Chinese Confucianism--a- vital strain, and crucial to all patterns of authority, but by no means encompassing the entire social and philosophical world of traditional China. Similarly, in discussing certain basic psychological trends, I do not wish to lose sight of the diversity and conflict always present in traditional China; these are revealed in Wright's and Fair- bank's volumes on Chinese thought already referred to, and by a third volume in the series, Confucianism in Action, edited by David S. Nivison, Stanford, Calit. , Stanford University Press, 1959.
3 Fung Yu-lan, "The Philosophy at the Basis of Traditional Chinese Society," Ideological Differences and World Order, edited by F. S. C. Northrop, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1949, 18.
3 Rev. Justus Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese, New York, Harper & Bros. , 1865, Vol. I, 456-457, As told routinely within the culture these stories might not have had the emotional impact which they convey to us as outsiders, but there can be little doubt of their symbolic significance.
*Hsiao Ching (Book of Filial Piety), translated by Ivan Chen, London, J. P. Murray, 1908, quoted in Fung, op. cit. , 27. Subsequent quotations in this paragraph are also from Fung's article, and represent his interpretation of filial patterns in traditional China as prescribed by classical ethics.
? NOTES 495
8 Conflicts could arise, however, between the two commitments--between the filial son and the loyal official. This happened to Chao Pao, the governor of a frontier province during the second century A. D. Enemy forces captured Chao's mother and threatened to put her to death unless he surrendered his armies. Faced by this moral dilemma, he fought and defeated the enemy, thus sacrificing his mother's life. After the war, he was said to have died of grief at his mother's grave. But in subsequent commentaries (this incident was a frequent subject for ethical discussion for more than a thousand years) Chao was criticized--for being an "extremist" who took only one aspect of the situa- tion into account, and for failing to make some attempt, even if unsuccessful, to save his mother's life. The prevailing principle (strongly reinforced in the writings of Mencius) was that if such a conflict should arise, the duty of the son as a son should receive first consideration. (Fung, in Northrop, ed,, op. cit. , 29-30).
9 There are reports of protests against government corruption and inefficiency by students of the Imperial College during the Han Period (25-220 A. D. ) and Southern Sung Period (1127-1279 A. D. ); and of scholars leading political criticism for some time during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 A. D. ). But these were essentially demands for adherence to the ideals of traditional ethics-- examples of scholars serving as guardians of principles--rather than youth rebellions in the modern sense. See Wen-han Kiang, The Chinese Student Movement, New York, King's Crown Press, 1948, 8.
7 See Marion J. Levy, Jr. , The Family Revolution in Modern China, Cam- bridge, Harvard University Press, 1949, 63-208.
8 Olga Lang, Chinese Family and Society, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1946, 10.
9 Book of Rites, in Sacred Books of the East, edited by F. M. Muller, Oxford, Vol. XXVIII, 428, quoted in Fung op. cit, 33.
10 The Dream of the Red Chamber, New York, Pantheon Books (Kuhn translation), 1958, 579.
11C. P. Fitzgerald, China, A Short Cultural History, London, The Crescent Press, 1935, 88.
"Fung, in Northrop, ed. , op, cit. , 20.
13 Hu Shih, The Chinese Renaissance, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1934, no.
"Doolittle, op. cit. , Vol. I, 140.
TMBook of Rites, quoted by Fung, op. cit. , 22. W. M. Theodore De Bary similarly stresses the "fundamentalism" and "restorationism" characteristic of Confucianism; see his "Common Tendencies in Neo-Confucianism," in Nivison, ed. , op. cit. , 34-37.
16 Ch'en Tu-shiu, The New Youth, Vol. I, No. 5, quoted in Lang, op. cit. , no.
"See R. Bunzel and J. H. Weakland, An Anthropological Approach to Chi- nese Communism, Columbia University, Research in Contemporary Cultures, mimeographed.
"T si C. Wang, The Youth Movement in China, New York, New Republic, Inc. , 1928, 6-7.
"Levenson, " 'History' and 'Value' . . . ," in Wright, ed. , op. cit, 156.
? 496 THOUGHT REFORM
*K'ang Yu-wei, Ta-tung Shu (The Book of Great Unity), quoted in Lang, op. cit. ,111.
21 Lang, op. cit, no.
22 Benjamin I. Schwartz, Chinese Communism and the Rise of Mao,Cam- bridge, Harvard University Press, 1951, 9.
28 Hu Shih, op. cit. , 44,
34 Pa Chin, The Family, quoted in Lang, op. cit. , 297-298. 25 Levy, op. cit. , 294-502.
38 Conrad Brandt, Stalin s Failure in China, Cambridge, Mass. , Harvard Uni- versity Press, 1958, 48.
37 "The Diary of A Madman/' Ah Q and Others, Selected Stones of Lu Shun, translated by Wang Chi-shen, Columbia University Press, 1941, 205-219. The character of Ah Q, who appears in the title story of this volume became a symbolic rallying point for protest. He was a caricature of all that Lu Shun condemned in Chinese culture: the tendencies, in the face of personal oppres- sion, to remain passive, to rationalize philosophically, or to take out resentment on those lower in the social hierarchy. "Ah Q-ism" became a term of rebuke, usually referring to these influences from the past, in contrast to the ideals of the "modem student"--active self-assertion, a feeling of personal dignity, and commitment to social change,
^Schwartz, op. cit. , 9.
28 Lu Shun, in W ang, ed. , op. cit,, 16.
80 Apart from the case histories in this study, much evidence of intensified intra- and extra-family conflict can be found in the sociological studies of Levy and Lang, cited above.
raThe last two quotations are from Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit. , 19-20.
82 These youthful emotions were frequently in advance of, and more extreme than, the Party's own program. The formation of the Socialist Youth Corps, which later became the Chinese Communist Youth Corps, antedated the forma- tion of the Communist Party; and it maintained considerable autonomy even after the Party had been organized (Brandt, op. cit. , 46-49).
M Schwartz, op. cit. , 21.
34 See Current Background, Nos. 315 and 3 2 5 ; and Theodore Hsi-en Chen and Sin Ming Chiu, "Thought Reform in Communist China,'* Far Eastern Survey, 24:177-184.
85 Mao Tse-tung, "Opposing Party Formalism," Brandt, Schwartz, and Fair- bank, op. cit. , 396.
wAiSsu-ch'i,"OnProblemsofIdeologicalReform/'Notez,Chapter2.
"Ibid.
88Mao Tse-tung, "Correcting Unorthodox Tendencies in Learning, The Party, and Literature and Arts,'* Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit. , 386.
wAi, op. cit.
40 Hu Hsien-chin, "The Chinese Concept of 'Face/ " American Anthropolo-
gist (1944) 46:45-65.
41 This injunction from Ai could also apply to those who found Party policy
? NOTES 497
inconsistent with Marxist-Leninist writings, or who had difficulty accepting official attempts to reconcile the two.
43 Ai Ssu-ch'i, "Recognize Clearly. "
"Ibid.
44 Mao Tse-tung, "Correcting Unorthodox Tendencies," Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit. , 382.
48 Mao Tse-tung, "In Opposition to Liberalism/' in Boyd Compton, Mao's China: Party Reform Documents, 1942-44, Seattle, University of Washington Press, 1952, 184-185,
48Ibid. , 187.
47 From Hu Shih-t<<, "Confession/' reprinted by the Hong Kong Standard, September 24, 1950, and also in Edward Hunter, Brainwashing in Red China, 303-307.
48 Liu Shao-chi, "The Class Character of Man/' written in June, 1941, in- cluded in an undated edition of How to be a Good Communist, Foreign Lan- guages Press, 109-110.
49 "The May 4 Movement," Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung, London, Lawrence & Wishart, 1954, Vol. Ill, 11. Mao's description of his personal transformation is recorded in one of his speeches reprinted in Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit. , 410--411.
60 Ai Ssu-ch'i, "Recognize Clearly," supra. CHAPTER 20 (388-398)
1 Raymond A. Bauer, "Brainwashing: Psychology or Demonology? ", Journal of Social Issues (1957) 13:41-47. See also, by the same author, The New Man in Soviet Psychology, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1952.
2 These trials are discussed in Nathan Leites and Elsa Bernaut, Ritual of Liqui- dation, Glencoe, III. , The Free Press, 1954. They were fictionalized, with great psychological accuracy, by Arthur Koestler in the novel, Darkness at Noon, New York, Macmillan, 1941. Both of these books deal with the special ethos of the "old Bolshevik. " F. Beck and W. Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, New York, Viking Press, 1951, conveys vividly the experiences within a Soviet prison of outsiders caught up in the great purge.
8 The Great Learning, in The Four Books, translated by James Legge, Lon- don, Perkins, 310-313. All subsequent references to Confucian writings are to this translation.
4 The Doctrine of the Mean, Legge, 394.
"See David S. Nivison, "Communist Ethics and Chinese Tradition," The Journal of Asian Studies (1956) 16:51-74; and the same author's, "The Prob- lem of 'Knowledge' and 'Action' in Chinese Thought since Wang Yang-ming/' Studies in Chinese Thought, 112--145.
a Lily Abegg, The Mind of East Asia, Thames and Hudson, London, 1952, Chapters 2 and 3.
7 In terms of logic, both follow the 'law of opposition," rather than the tra- ditional Western pattern of the "law of identity"; but their difference lies in the Chinese emphasis upon "adjustment" in relationship to this opposition, in contrast to the Marxist emphasis upon "struggle. " See Chang Tung-sun, "A
? 498 THOUGHT REFORM
Chinese Philosopher's Theory of Knowledge," The Yenching Journal of Social
Studies (Peking, 1939) 1:155-189.
"Robert Van Gulik, The Chinese Bell Murders, New York, Harper Bros. ,
1958, 258.
*Boyd Compton, op. eft. , xv-lii; and Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit
372~375-
10 Compton, op. cit. , xlvi.
u Weston LaBarre, "Some Observations on Character Structure in the Orient: IL The Chinese," Psychiatry (1946) 9:215-237.
" Once during a discussion with one of my Chinese interpreters, I mentioned the interest of American psychiatrists in the subject of interpersonal relations. His immediate reply was, "What else is there? " In this interest in what goes on between people, there is something Sullivanian in every Chinese. See also John H. Weakland, "The Organization of Action in Chinese Culture," Psy- chiatry (1950) 13:361-370.
13 Confucian Analects, Legge, 94.
u The Great Learning, Legge, 326.
v The Texts of Taoism, translated by James Legge, London, 1891, Part I, 70.
"Ronald Knox, Enthusiasm, London, Oxford University Press, 1950. See also William Sargent, Battle for the Mind, New York, Doubleday, 1957, for a different approach to relating thought reform to ecstatic religious practice.
CHAPTER 21 (399-415)
1 In this sense, thought reform had some similarity to a primitive initiation ceremony; it initiated one into the world of Chinese Communism. SeeBranislaw Malinowski, Magic, Science, and Religion, New York, Doubleday, 1955, 37-41-
*Current Background, No. 376, February 7, 1956.
8 See Theodore Hsi-en Chen, "The Thought Reform of Intellectuals," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (1959) 321:82-89, 86. For my discussion of the Hundred Flowers episode, I also drew on the fol- lowing sources: "Contradiction" and "The Storm," pamphlets published by China Viewpoints, Hong Kong, 1958; Benjamin Schwartz, "New Trends in Maoism? ", Problems of Communism (1957) 6:1-8, and "China and the Com- munist Bloc: A Speculative Reconstruction," Current History (1958) 35:321- 326; Michael Walzer, "When the 100 Flowers Withered," Descent, Autumn 1958, 360-374; and Chinese Communist Press reports translated by the American Consulate General in Hong Kong and reproduced in the New Yorfc Times from April, 1957, through the followingyear.
CHAPTER 22 (419-437)
1 Personal "closure" implies abandoning man's inherent strivings toward the outer world as well as much of his receptivity to his own inner impulses, and retreating into what Ernest Schachtel has called "the closed pattern of related- ness to the world institutionalized in . . . [a] particular culture or cultural subgroup (Metamorphosis, New York, Basic Books, 1959, 75).
1 Helen Lynd, On Shame and the Search for Identity, New York, Harcourt, Brace &Co. , 1958, 57.
? NOTES 499
'Alex Inkeles, "The Totalitarian Mystique: Some Impressions of the Dy- namics of Totalitarian Society/' Totalitarianism, edited by Carl Friedrich, Cam- bridge, Mass. , Harvard University Press, 1953, 88 and 91.
*Ifaid, 91.
8 In Camus' novel, The Fall (New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1957, 127), Clamence states: "My great idea is that one must forgive the Pope. To begin with, he needs it more than anyone else. Secondly, that's the only way to set oneself above him. . . . "
a Helen Lynd, op. cit. , 57. 7 Camus, The Fatt, 120.
8 Ibid,, 8 and 138.
"A somewhat similar point of view is expressed by Hannah Arendt in her comprehensive study, The Origins of Totalitarianism, New York, Meridian Books, 1958, 468-474.
10 In this respect, thought reform is clearly a child of its era, for Weaver claims that "progress" is the " 'god term' of the present age," and also lists "progressive/' "science," "fact," and "modern" as other widely-used "god terms" ("Ultimate Terms in Contemporary Rhetoric," Perspectives (1955), n , 1-2, 141). All these words have a similar standing in thought reform. Thought re- form's "devil terms" are more specifically Communist, but also included are such general favorites as "aggressor" and "fascist. "
11 Edward Sapir, "Language/' Culture, Language and Personality, Berkeley, Calif. , University of California Press, 1956, 17.
"John K, Fairbank and Mary C. Wright, "Documentary Collections on Modern Chinese," The Journal of Asian Studies (1957) 17:55-56, intro.
14 Camus, The Rebel, New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1954, 141.
M Benjamin Schwartz, op. cit. , 4--5.
"Erik Erikson, "Wholeness and Totality," in Friedrich, ed. , op. eft. , 165,
"Mao Tse-tung, "On the People's Democratic Dictatorship/' Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit. , 456-457.
-IWi. 457-
" I have borrowed the term "peak experiences" from A. H. Maslow (Presi- dential Address, Division of Personality and Social Psychology, American Psy- chological Association, Chicago, 111. , September i, 1956, mimeographed), al- though my use of it is perhaps somewhat broader than his. In his terminology, he might see the imposed "peak experience" as lacking in genuine "cognition of being. "
19 "Openness to the world," or "world-openness," and "embeddedness" are conceptualized by Schachtel (Metamorphosis, 22-77), a s perpetually antagonistic human emotional tendencies.
CHAPTER 23 (438-461)
1 Bettelheim, "Individual and Mass Behavior/' Note 2, Chapter 6.
1 Anna Freud, The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence, New York, Inter- national Universities Press, 1946.
"Erich Fromm, throughout his writings, frequently uses the term, "self-
? JOO THOUGHT REFORM
realization" to suggest the goal of psychotherapy and of life itself. Kurt Gold- stein speaks similarly of the organism's "trend to actualize itself. "
4 C. M. Bowra, The Greek Experience, New York, World Publishing Co,, 1957, 198-201.
BMichael Polanyi, Personal Knowledge, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1958, 300-303.
fl George Orwell, "Such, Such Were the Joys," A Collection of Essays, Double- day Anchor Books, New York, 1954, 9-55.
7 Lionel Trilling, The Liberal Imagination, Garden City, New York, Double- day Anchor Books, 19^4, 6 and 10.
9 In this section I shall not enter into the long-standing controversy over dis- tinctions between psychoanalysisand psychonanalytic therapy, or between medi- cal and nonmedical psychoanalytic and psychotherapeutic work. I believe that the principles expressed here apply, at least in spirit, to all of these agents of psychological re-education. What I say about psychoanalytic training is most specific to that situation, but may also be applied in lesser degree to other forms of psychological and psychiatric (or, medical psychological) training. Similarly, the ideas expressed about transference, resistance, and reality apply to all forms of psychoanalytically-influenced therapeutic work, while those about milieu therapy relate primarily to hospital settings. Ideas about theory apply to all systematic attempts to understand man.
8 Erik Erikson, "The First Psychoanalyst," Freud and the 2oth Century, edited by Benjamin Nelson, New York, Meridian Books, 1957, 80.
10 See, for instance, Franz Alexander, Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy, New York, Norton, 1956, Chapters IX-XII (including both the author's discussion and those of leading psychoanalysts whose opinions he solicited); Eriksont Young Man Luther, 151-154; Leslie Farber, "The Therapeutic Despair," Psychiatry (1958) 21:7-20; Erich Frornm, Sigmund Freutfs Mission, New York, Harper & Bros. , 1959, Chapters VIII-X; Thomas S. Szasz, "Psychoanalytic Training-A Socio-Psychological Analysis of Its History and Present Status," The International Journal of Psychoanalysis (1958), 39:598-613; Clara Thomp- son, "A Study of the Emotional Climate of Psychoanalytic Institutes," Psy- chiatry (1958) 21:45-51; and Allen Wheelis, op. cit. , Chapters II, V, and VII.
"Erickson, Young Man Luther, 152.
"IKd, 153.
u Somewhat analogous ideas have been expressed by George Winokur,
" 'Brainwashing*--A Social Phenomenon of Our Time," Human Organization (1955) 13:16-18; and by J. C. Moloney, "Psychic Self-Abandon," supra; and
Meerloo, Rape of the Mind, supra.
" In his presidential address of that year to the American Psychoanalytic
Association (Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy, 177-178), Alexander stated: "They [psychoanalysts] should lose the defensive attitude of a minority group, the militant soldiers of a Weltanschaung attacked by and therefore antagonistic to the world. Rather than disseminators of the gospel, they must become self- critical scientists. For psychoanalysis as a whole, this leads to the simple but unavoidable conclusion that the sooner psychoanalysis as a 'movement' disap- pears, the better/'
16 Szasz, op. cit. "Thompson, op. cit.
? NOTES JOl
17 See John P. Spiegel's discussion of the relationship of cultural values to concepts of resistance and reality in "Some Cultural Aspects of Transference and Countertransference," Individual and Familial Dynamics, edited by Jules H. Masserman, Grune and Stratton, 1959, 160-182,
18 See, for instance, Robert Waelder, "The Problem of the Genesis of Psychi- cal Conflict in Earliest Infancy," International Journal of Psychoanalysis (1937) 18:473; Mabel Blake Cohen, "Countertransference and Anxiety/' Psychiatry
(1952) 15:231-243; and Leo Berman, "Countertransference and Attitudes of the Analyst in the Therapeutical Process/' Psychiatry (1949) 12:159-166.
"Janet Mackenzie Rioch, "The Transference Phenomena in Psychoanalytic Therapy/' in An Outline of Psychoanalysis, edited by Thompson, Mazer, and Witenberg, New York, The Modern Library, 1955, 498, 500, 501.
"Merton M. Gill and Margaret Brenman, Hypnosis and Related States, New York, International Universities Press, 1959, have compared hypnosis with "brainwashing," primarily in relationship to the reliance upon induced regres- sion common to both. I would place greater emphasis upon the totalism con- tained in both, along the lines of my discussion in Chapter 21, and would further raise the question of whether such totalism might not be one of the truly fundamental aspects of the hypnotic process.
31 See papers by D. O. Hebb> E, S. Heath, and E. A. Stuart, Canadian Journal of Psychology (1954) 8:152, and by John C. Lilly, Psychiatric Research Re- ports (1956) No. 5, i; for a general review, see P. Solomon, H. Liederman, J. Mendelson, and D. Wexler, American Journal of Psychiatry (October, 1957)
"4:357-
22 See, for instance, Paul Sivadon, "Technics of Sociotherapy," in Symposium
on Preventive and Social Psychiatry, supra, 457-464; Kai T. Erikson, "Patient Role and Social Uncertainty--A Dilemma of the Mentally 111," Psychiatry (1957) 20:263-274; D. McK. Rioch and A. H. Stanton, "Milieu Therapy," Psychiatry (1953) 16:65-72; A. H. Stanton and M. S, Schwartz, The Mental Hospital, New York, Basic Books, 1954; and William Caudill, The Psychiatric Hospital as a Small Society, Cambridge, Mass. , Harvard University Press, 1958.
88 Malleus Maleficarum, translated by Montague Summers, London, The Pushkin Press, 1951. See also Henry Charles Lea, A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages (3 vols. ), New York, S. A. Russell, 1956; and Giorgio Di Santillana, The Crime of Galileo, University of Chicago Press, 1955.
* L . B. Smith, "English Treason Trials and Confessions in the Sixteenth Century," Journal of the History of Ideas (1954) 15:471.
*See Fromm, Escape from Freedom.
98 Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millenium, London, Seeker and Warburg, 1957-
28 See also Hadley Cantril, The Psychology of Social Movements, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1951, Chapter 6.
29 S. Radhakrishnan, East and West, New York, Harper and Bros. , 1956, 41. 80 Erich Fromm, Psychoanalysis and Religion, New Haven, Yale University
Press, 1950, presents a rather similar point of view.
'"Carnus, The Rebel, 269.
88 See Edward A. Shils, The Torment of Secrecy, Glencoe, 111. , The Free Press,
27 Ronald Knox, op. cit, 580,
? 502 THOUGHT REFORM
1956. 1 wish to emphasize that I am referring to just one theme within American populism; I would tend to be more cautious than Shils in relating the general populist movement to McCarthyism.
"Michael Polanyi, " T h e Two Cultures'/' Encounter (1959) 13:61.
**Dr. T. F. Fox, editor of Lancet, quoted in The New Yorfe Times, October 22, 1959.
"This close relationship between godhood and devildom has a long tradition: Margaret Murray demonstrated, in The God of The Witches, New York, Ox- ford University Press, 1952, that the devil himself is no one but the Horned God widely worshipped during the Bronze Age and Iron Age of pre-Christian Europe, and that "the God of the old religion becomes the Devil of the new," This statement has a good deal of significance for thought reform and totalism in general.
88 Albert Einstein, Out of My Later Years, New York, Philosophical Library, 1950, 21-23.
87}. Robert Oppenheimer, The Open Mind, New York, Simon & Schuster,
! 955> 93-94-
M J. Bronowski, Science and Human Values, New York, Julian Messner Inc. ,
1956.
CHAPTER 24 (462-472)
1 J . L. Talmon, "Utopianism and Politics," Commentary (1959) 28:149-154,
W2-1 have in mind the writings of Schachtel, Erikson, Fromm, Riesman, and Wheelis, which I have already cited; and also, recent work by Margaret Mead: New Lives for Old, New York, William Morrow Co. , 1956; "Cultural Dis- continuities and Personality Transformation," The Journal of Social Issues (1954) 8:3-16; and "The Implications of Culture Change for Personality Development," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 17:633-646.
8 Camus, The Rebel, 19.
4 William James, Varieties of Religious Experience, 163-185.
